Architecture of India

4/11/23, 9:17 PM Architecture of India - Wikipedia
Architecture of India
Indian architecture is rooted in the history, culture, and religion of India. Among several
architectural styles and traditions, the best-known include the many varieties of Hindu temple
architecture and Indo-Islamic architecture, especially Rajput architecture, Mughal architecture, South
Indian architecture and Indo-Saracenic architecture. Early Indian architecture was made from wood,
which did not survive due to rotting and instability in the structures. Instead, the earliest existing
architectures are made with Indian rock-cut architecture, including many Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain
temples.
Hindu temple architecture is divided into the Dravidian style of southern India and the Nagara style
of northern India, with other regional styles. Housing styles also vary between regions, depending on
climate.
The first major Islamic kingdom in India was the Delhi sultanate, which led to the development of
Indo-Islamic architecture, combining Indian and Islamic features. The rule of the Mughal Empire,
when Mughal architecture evolved, is regarded as the zenith of Indo-Islamic architecture, with the Taj
Mahal being the high point of their contribution. Indo-Islamic architecture influenced the Rajput and
Sikh styles as well.
During the British colonial period, European styles including Neoclassical, Gothic Revival, and
Baroque became prevalent across India. The amalgamation of Indo-Islamic and European styles led
to a new style, known as the Indo-Saracenic style. After India's independence, modernist ideas spread
among Indian architects as a way of progressing from the colonial culture. Le Corbusier - who
designed the city of Chandigarh - influenced a generation of architects towards modernism in the
20th century. The economic reforms of 1991 further bolstered the urban architecture of India as the
country became more integrated with the world's economy. Traditional Vastu Shastra remains
influential in India's architecture in the contemporary era.[1]
Neolithic period
In south India, the Neolithic began by 6500 BCE and lasted until around 1400 BCE when the
Megalithic transition period began. The south Indian neolithic period is characterized by ash mounds
from 2500 BCE in the region of Karnataka, which later expanded into Tamil Nadu.
Neolithic settlements have been found in the northwest (Kashmir for example), south (Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh), the northeastern frontier (Meghalaya), and the east (Bihar and
Odisha) of India.
The earliest clear evidence of the presence of the megalithic urn burials are those dating back to 1000
BCE, which have been discovered at various places in Tamil Nadu. The most notable megalithic urn
was discovered in Adichanallur, 24 kilometers from Tirunelveli, where archaeologists from the
Archaeological Survey of India unearthed 12 urns containing human skulls, skeletons and bones,
husks, grains of charred rice and Neolithic celts, confirming the presence of the Neolithic period 2800
years ago.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_India 1/60
The unearthed
Neolithic Structures
antiquities (of
art,
architecture,
customs, and
rituals)
Megalithic Dolmens in Stone circle at Junapani, indicate that
Mallachandram, Tamil Nagpur the prehistoric
Nadu people of the
Burzahom Kailash Temple, Ellora Caves is an
established example of Indian rock-cut
contact with architecture.
Central Asia
and South
West Asia, and
Stone Umbrellas shaped Megalithic monument in
had links to the
Megalithic burials of Karkabhat megalithic
Gangetic plains
Stone Age are situated in burial site near Balod,
and peninsular
Ariyannur, Kerala Chhattisgarh
India.
The interaction of local and foreign influences is demonstrated

by the art, architecture, customs, rituals and language depicted
by engravings on pottery and other artifacts.
Tamil architecture of Meenakshi
Megalithic burials sites have been found scattered all over the Temple
subcontinent. The Neolithic period lasted up until 3300 BCE,
blending into the Early Harappan (Chalcolithic to Early Bronze
Age) period. One of the earliest Neolithic sites in India is
Lahuradewa in the Middle Ganges region, and Jhusi near the
confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, both dating to
around the 7th millennium BCE.
Indus Valley Civilization (2600 BCE

– 1900 BCE) Patwon ki Haveli, Jaisalmer. Rows of
sandstone haveli in Rajasthan.
The Indus Valley civilization covered a large area around the
Indus River basin and beyond in late Bronze Age India. In its
mature phase, from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, it produced several
cities marked by great uniformity within and between sites,
including Harappa, Lothal, and the UNESCO World Heritage
Site Mohenjo-daro.
The civic and town planning and engineering aspects of these are
remarkable, but the design of the buildings is "of a startling The Taj Mahal, Agra is the epitome of
utilitarian character". There are granaries, drains, lombadthing, Mughal architecture.
water-courses and tanks, but neither palaces nor temples have
been identified, though cities have a central raised and fortified
"citadel".[2] Mohenjo-daro has wells which may be the
predecessors of the stepwell.[3] As many as 700 wells have been
discovered in just one section of the city, leading scholars to

believe that 'cylindrical brick lined wells' were invented by the
Indus Valley Civilization.[3]
Architectural decoration is extremely minimal, though there are

"narrow pointed niches" inside some buildings. Most of the art
found is in miniature forms like seals, and mainly in terracotta,
but there are very few larger sculptures of figures. In most sites
Dalhousie Square, built during British
fired mud-brick (not sun-baked as in Mesopotamia) is used
Raj period, is an example of the
exclusively as the building material, but a few such as Dholavira
fusion of Indian and Renaissance
are in stone. Most houses have two storeys, and very uniform
architecture.
sizes and plans. The large cities declined relatively quickly, for
unknown reasons, leaving a less sophisticated village culture
behind.[4]
After collapse of mature harappan urban period, some cities still

remained urban and inhabited. sites like Bet Dwarka in Gujarat,
Kudwala(38.1 ha) in Cholistan and Daimabad (20 Ha) in
Maharashtra are considered urban. Daimabad (2000–1000 BC)
developed a fortification wall with bastions in its Jorwe culture
period (1400–1000 BC) and had public buildings such as an Padmanabhaswamy Temple in
elliptical temple, an apsidal temple and shows evidence of Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
planning in the layout of rectangular houses and streets or lanes
and planned streets. The area had risen to 50 hectares in
with a population of 10,000 people. A 580 meter long Planning of Indus valley civilization cities
protection wall dated 1500 BCE was found at Bet
Dwarka which was believed to be damaged and
submerged following sea storm.[5][6]
600 BCE—250 CE
Layout of Dholavira Layout of
After the Indus Valley Civilization, there are few traces Kalibangan
of Indian architecture, which probably mostly used
wood, or brick which has been recycled, until around the
time of the Maurya Empire, from 322 to 185 BCE. From
this period for several centuries onwards, much the best
remains are of Indian rock-cut architecture, mostly
Buddhist, and there are also a number of Buddhist
images that give very useful information. The drainage system Kalibangan pre-
at Lothal Harappan structures
Buddhist construction of monastic buildings apparently
begins before the death of Buddha, probably around
400 BCE.[7] This first generation only survives in floor-plans, notably at the Jivakarama vihara in
Bihar.
Walled and moated cities with large gates and multi-storied buildings which consistently used chaitya
arches, no doubt in wood, for roofs and upper structures above more solid storeys are important
features of the architecture during this period. The reliefs of Sanchi, dated to the 1st centuries BCE-
CE, show cities such as Kushinagar or

Rajagriha as splendid walled cities, as in
the Royal cortege leaving Rajagriha or
War over the Buddha's relics. These views
of ancient Indian cities have been relied
on for the understanding of ancient
Indian urban architecture.[8]
Conjectural reconstruction of City of Kushinagar in the 5th
In the case of the Mauryan capital the main gate of Kushinagar century BCE according to a 1st
Pataliputra (near Patna), we have Greek circa 500 BCE adapted from century BCE frieze in Sanchi
accounts, and that of Faxian; a relief at Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gate
Megasthenes (a visitor around 300 BCE)
mentions 564 towers and 64 gates in the
city walls. Modern excavations have uncovered a "massive palisade of teak beams held together with
iron dowels".[9] A huge apadana-like hall with eighty sandstone columns shows clear influence from
contemporary Achaemenid Persia.[10] The single massive sandstone Pataliputra capital shows clear
Hellenistic features, reaching India via Persia.[11] The famous Ashoka columns show great
sophistication, and a variety of influences in their details. In both these cases a now-vanished Indian
predecessor tradition in wood is likely.[12]
Such a tradition is extremely clear in the Post-Maha-Janapadas Architecture

case of the earliest-known examples of
rock-cut architecture, the state-sponsored
Barabar caves in Bihar, personally
dedicated by Ashoka circa 250 BCE. The
entrance of the Lomas Rishi Cave there
has a sculpted doorway that clearly copies
a wooden style in stone, which is a
recurrent feature of rock-cut caves for
some time. These artificial caves exhibit
an amazing level of technical proficiency, The Great Stupa at Sanchi (4th–1st The Mahabodhi
the extremely hard granite rock being cut century BCE). The dome-shaped stupa Temple built by Asoka
in geometrical fashion and given the was used in India as a commemorative at Bodh Gaya. Relief
Mauryan polish, also found on monument associated with storing from Sanchi, 1st
sculpture. [13][14] Later rock-cut viharas, sacred relics. century CE
occupied by monastic communities,
survive, mostly in Western India, and in
Bengal the floor-plans of brick-built equivalents survive. The elaborately decorated facades and
"chaitya halls" of many rock-cut sites are believed to reflect vanished free-standing buildings
elsewhere.
The Buddhist stupa, a dome shaped monument, was used in India as a commemorative monument
associated with storing sacred relics.[15] The stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East
Asia, where it became prominent as a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics.[15]
Guard rails—consisting of posts, crossbars, and a coping—became a feature of safety surrounding a
stupa.[16] Temples—build on elliptical, circular, quadrilateral, or apsidal plans—were constructed
using brick and timber.[16] The Indian gateway arches, the torana, reached East Asia with the spread
of Buddhism.[17] Some scholars hold that torii derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic
site of Sanchi (3rd century BCE – 11th century CE).[18]
Rock-cut stepwells in India date from 200 to 400 CE.[19] Subsequently, the construction of wells at
Dhank (550–625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850–950 CE) took place.[19] Cave temples
became prominent throughout western India, incorporating various unique features to give rise to
cave architecture in places such as the caves at Ajanta and Ellora.[16]
A very important development, the emergence of the shikara or temple tower, is today best evidenced
by the Buddhist Mahabodhi Temple. This was already several centuries old when the first very vertical
structure replaced an Ashokan original, apparently around 150–200 CE. The current brick-built
tower, probably a good deal larger, dates to the Gupta period, in the 5th or 6th centuries.[20]
Gupta architecture
For reasons that are not entirely clear, for the most part the Gupta
period represented a hiatus in Indian rock-cut architecture, with
the first wave of construction finishing before the empire was
assembled, and the second wave beginning in the late 5th century,
after it ended. This is the case, for example, at the Ajanta Caves,
with an early group made by 220 CE at the latest, and a later one
probably all after about 460.[21] Instead, the period has left almost
the first surviving free-standing structures in India, in particular,
the beginnings of Hindu temple architecture. As Milo Beach puts
Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh is a
it: "Under the Guptas, India was quick to join the rest of the
Vishnu Hindu temple built during the
medieval world in a passion for housing precious objects in
early 6th century, near the end of
stylized architectural frameworks",[22] the "precious objects"
the Gupta period.
being primarily the icons of gods.
The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style,

the caves at Ajanta, Elephanta, and Ellora (respectively Buddhist, Hindu, and mixed including Jain)
were in fact produced under other dynasties in Central India, and in the case of Ellora after the Gupta
period, but primarily reflect the monumentality and balance of Guptan style. Ajanta contains by far
the most significant survivals of painting from this and the surrounding periods, showing a mature
form which had probably had a long development, mainly in painting palaces.[23] The Hindu
Udayagiri Caves actually record connections with the dynasty and its ministers,[24] and the
Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh is a major temple, one of the earliest to survive, with important
sculpture.[25]
Examples of early North Indian Hindu temples that have survived after the Udayagiri Caves in
Madhya Pradesh include those at Tigawa (early 5th century),[26] Sanchi Temple 17 (similar, but
respectively Hindu and Buddhist), Deogarh, Parvati Temple, Nachna (465),[27] Bhitargaon, the largest
Gupta brick temple to survive,[28] and Lakshman Brick Temple, Sirpur (600–625). Gop Temple in
Gujarat (c. 550 or later) is an oddity, with no surviving close comparator.[29]
There are a number of different broad models, which would continue to be the case for more than a
century after the Gupta period, but temples such as Tigawa and Sanchi Temple 17, which are small but
massively built stone prostyle buildings with a sanctuary and a columned porch, show the most
common basic plan that continues today. Both of these have flat roofs over the sanctuary, which
would become uncommon by about the 8th century. The Mahabodhi Temple, Bhitargaon, Deogarh
and Gop already all show high superstructures of different shapes.[30] The Chejarla Kapoteswara
temple demonstrates that free-standing chaitya-hall temples with barrel roofs continued to be built,
probably with many smaller examples in wood.[31]
A tetrastyle prostyle Gupta The Hindu Tigawa Temple, The current structure of the
period temple at Sanchi early 5th century Mahabodhi Temple dates to
besides the Apsidal hall with the Gupta era, 5th century.
Maurya foundation, an Marking the location where
example of Buddhist the Buddha is said to have
architecture. 5th century attained enlightenment.
Vishnu temple in Eran, 5th- Pataini temple is a Jain Relief of Jain tirthankara
6th century temple built during the Gupta Parshvanatha on the
period, 5th century.[32] Kahaum pillar erected by
Skandagupta in 461
The Buddhagupta pillar at

Eran (c.476–495)
Temple architecture
The basic elements of the Hindu temple remain the same across
all periods and styles. The most essential feature is the inner
sanctuary, the garbha griha or womb-chamber, where the
primary murti or cult image of a deity is housed in a simple bare
cell. Around this chamber there are often other structures and
buildings, in the largest cases covering several acres. On the
exterior, the garbhagriha is crowned by a tower-like shikhara, also
called the vimana in the south.[33] The shrine building may
include an ambulatory for parikrama (circumambulation), one or
The rock-cut Shore Temple of the more mandapas or congregation halls, and sometimes an antarala
temples in Mahabalipuram, Tamil antechamber and porch between garbhagriha and mandapa.
Nadu, 700–728 showing the typical
dravida form of tower. Temple architectural styles
There may be further shrines or other buildings,

connected or detached, in large temples, together with
other small temples in the compound.[34] The whole
temple compound is usually enclosed by a wall, and the
temple itself, or sometimes the whole compound, is Kandariya Mahadeva Brihadisvara Temple,
often raised on a plinth (adhiṣṭhāna). Large areas of the Temple, Nagara Style Dravida Style
structure are often decorated with carving, including
figurative images of deities and other religious figures.
Beyond these basic but crucial similarities, the visible
stylistic forms of the temple vary greatly and have a very
complicated development.[35]
By about the 7th century CE most main features of the Lingaraja Temple, Nageshswara Temple,
Hindu temple were established along with theoretical Kalinga Style Vesara Style
texts on temple architecture and building methods. [36]
Already three styles of temple were identified in these:
nagara, dravida and vesara, though these were not yet associated with regions of India, and the
original meanings may not fully align with modern uses of the terms.[35] In Karnataka, the group of
7th and 8th-century temples at Pattadakal famously mixes forms later associated with both north and
south,[37] as does that at Aihole, which still includes apsidal chaitya hall-type plans.[38]
For most modern writers, nagara refers to north Indian styles,

most easily recognised by a high and curving shikhara over the
sanctuary, dravida or Dravidian architecture is the broad South
Indian style, where the superstructure over the sanctuary is not
usually extremely high, and has a straight profile, rising in series
of terraces to form a sort of decorated pyramid (today often
dwarfed in larger temples by the far larger gopuram outer
gateways, a much later development).[39] The ancient term vesara
Hindu Temple basic floor design is also used by some modern writers, to describe a temple style
with characteristics of both the northern and southern traditions.
These come from the Deccan and other fairly central parts of
India. There is some disagreement among those who use the term, as to the exact period and styles it
represents, and other writers prefer to avoid it; temples some describe as vesara are mostly assigned
to the northern tradition by those, but are regarded as a kind of northern dravida by others.[40]
Nagara architecture
Early
There are hardly any remains of Hindu temples before the Gupta dynasty in the 4th century CE; no
doubt there were earlier structures in timber-based architecture. The rock-cut Udayagiri Caves are
among the most important early sites.[41] The earliest preserved Hindu temples are simple cell-like
stone temples, some rock-cut and others structural, as at Sanchi.[42] By the 6th or 7th century, these
evolved into high shikhara stone superstructures. However, there is inscriptional evidence such as the
ancient Gangadhara inscription from about 424, states Meister, that towering temples existed before
this time and these were possibly made from more perishable material. These temples have not
survived.[42][27]
Examples of early major North Indian temples that have survived

after the Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh include Deogarh,
Parvati Temple, Nachna (465 CE),[27] Lalitpur District (c. 525),
Lakshman Brick Temple, Sirpur (600–625 CE); Rajiv Lochan
temple, Rajim (7th-century CE).[43]
No pre-7th century CE South Indian style stone temples have

survived. Examples of early major South Indian temples that have
survived, some in ruins, include the diverse styles at
Mahabalipuram, from the 7th and 8th centuries. However,
according to Meister, the Mahabalipuram temples are "monolithic The ninth century temple in Barakar
models of a variety of formal structures all of which already can be shows a tall curving shikhara
crowned by a large amalaka and is
said to typify a developed "Tamil Architecture" (South Indian)
an example of the early Pala style. It
order". They suggest a tradition and a knowledge base existed in
is similar to contemporaneous
South India by the time of the early Chalukya and Pallava era
temples of Odisha.
when these were built. Other examples are found in Aihole and
Pattadakal.[43][44]
From between about the 7th and 13th centuries a large number of temples and their ruins have
survived (though far fewer than once existed). Many regional styles developed, very often following
political divisions, as large temples were typically built with royal patronage. In the north, Muslim
invasions from the 11th century onwards reduced the building of temples, and saw the loss of many
existing ones.[36] The south also witnessed Hindu-Muslim conflict that affected the temples, but the
region was relatively less affected than the north.[45] In the late 14th century, the Hindu Vijayanagara
Empire came to power and controlled much of South India. During this period, the distinctive very
tall gopuram gatehouse actually a late development, from the 12th century or later, typically added to
older large temples.[36]
Later
North Indian temples showed increased elevation of the wall and elaborate spire by the 10th
century.[46] On the shikara, the oldest form, called latina, with wide shallow projections running up
the sides, developed alternative forms with many smaller "spirelets" (urushringa). Two varieties of
these are called sekhari, where the sub-spires extend vertically, and bhumija, where individual sub-
spires are arrayed in rows and columns.
Richly decorated temples—including the complex at Khajuraho—

were constructed in Central India.[46] Examples include the
Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneshwar in Odisha, Sun Temple at
Konark in Odisha, Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur in Tamil
Nadu. Indian traders brought Indian architecture to South East
Asia through various trade routes.[47]
Styles called vesara include the early Badami Chalukya

Architecture, Western Chalukya architecture, and finally Hoysala
architecture. Other regional styles include those of Bengal, Drawing of a pancharatha (5 ratha)
Kashmir and other Himalayan areas, Karnataka, Kalinga plan of subsidiary shrines of
architecture, and Māru-Gurjara architecture. Brahmeswara Temple
Hoysala architecture is the distinctive building style developed

under the rule of the Hoysala Empire in the region historically known as Karnata, today's Karnataka,
India, between the 11th and the 14th centuries.[48] Large and small temples built during this era
remain as examples of the Hoysala architectural style, including the Chennakesava Temple at Belur,
the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. Other examples of
fine Hoysala craftmanship are the temples at Belavadi, Amrithapura, and Nuggehalli. Study of the
Hoysala architectural style has revealed a negligible Indo-Aryan influence while the impact of
Southern Indian style is more distinct.[49] A feature of Hoysala temple architecture is its attention to
detail and skilled craftsmanship. The temples of Belur and Halebidu are proposed UNESCO World
Heritage Sites.[50] Approximately 100 Hoysala temples survive today.[51]
Temples of Khajuraho
The Khajuraho Temples are a group of Hindu and Jain temples located in the town of Khajuraho, in
the Chhatarpur District of Madhya Pradesh, India. The temples were built between 950 and 1050 by
the Chandela dynasty.[52]
Khajuraho is home to 25 sandstone temples in total, although only

20 remain mostly intact. The beautiful carvings on these temples,
which show themes from Hindu mythology as well as other facets
of everyday life in ancient India, are well-known.[53] Both Hindu
and Jain architectural influences may be seen in their design. The
temples are split into three groups: the Western group, the
Eastern group, and the Southern group. The Western group has
the greatest popularity and draws the most tourists.[52]
The Khajuraho Temples were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Vishvanatha Temple, part of the
Site in 1986, and they continue to be a popular tourist attraction Khajuraho group of monuments
in India. According to UNESCO, the Khajuraho Temples "are a
masterpiece of Indian art, with their unique architecture and
stunning sculptures.[54]
Dravidian style
Dravidian style or the South Indian temple style is an architectural idiom in Hindu temple
architecture that emerged in the southern part of the Indian subcontinent or South India and in Sri
Lanka, reaching its final form by the sixteenth century. It is seen in Hindu temples, and the most
distinctive difference from north Indian styles is the use of a shorter and more pyramidal tower over
the garbhagriha or sanctuary called a vimana, where the north has taller towers, usually bending
inwards as they rise, called shikharas. However, for modern visitors to larger temples the dominating
feature is the high gopura or gatehouse at the edge of the compound; large temples have several,
dwarfing the vimana; these are a much more recent development. There are numerous other distinct
features such as the dwarapalakas – twin guardians at the main entrance and the inner sanctum of
the temple and goshtams – deities carved in niches on the outer side walls of the garbhagriha.
Mayamata and Manasara shilpa texts estimated to be in circulation by 5th to 7th century, is a
guidebook on Dravidian style of Vastu Shastra design, construction, sculpture and joinery
technique.[55][56] Isanasivagurudeva paddhati is another text from the 9th century describing the art
of building in India in south and central India.[55][57]
From 300 BCE – 300 CE, the greatest accomplishments of the kingdoms of the early Chola, Chera
and the Pandyan kingdoms included brick shrines to deities Kartikeya, Shiva, Amman and Vishnu.
Several of these have been unearthed near Adichanallur, Kaveripoompuharpattinam and
Mahabalipuram, and the construction plans of these sites of worship were shared to some detail in
various poems of Sangam literature.
The architecture of the rock-cut temples, particularly the rathas, became a model for south Indian
temples.[58] Architectural features, particularly the sculptures, were widely adopted in South
India.[59] Descendants of the sculptors of the shrines are artisans in contemporary
Mahabalipuram.[60]
The Badami Chalukyas also called the Early Chalukyas, ruled from Badami, Karnataka in the period
543–753 and spawned the Vesara style called Badami Chalukya Architecture. The finest examples of
their art are seen in Pattadakal, Aihole and Badami in northern Karnataka. Over 150 temples remain
in the Malaprabha basin.
South Indian Temples

The Rashtrakuta Dravidian architectural elements
contributions to
art and
architecture are
reflected in the
splendid rock-cut
shrines at Ellora
Vijaynagara Empire Badami Chalukya
and Elephanta,
situated in Single storey Two storey
present-day gopura gopura
Maharashtra. It is (Dravidian (Dravidian
said that they architecture) architecture)
altogether
constructed 34
rock-cut shrines,
Chola thalassocracy Pandya
but most extensive
Dynasty and sumptuous of
them all is the
Kailasanatha
temple at Ellora. The temple is a splendid achievement of Dravidian
art. The walls of the temple have marvellous sculptures from Hindu Pillar Athisthana
mythology including Ravana, Shiva and Parvathi while the ceilings elements architectural
have paintings. These projects spread into South India from the (shared by elements of a
Deccan. The architectural style used was partly Dravidian. They do Nagara and Hindu temple
not contain any of the shikharas common to the Nagara style and Dravidian)
were built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal
in Karnataka.[61]
Vijayanagara architecture of the period (1336–1565) was a notable

building style evolved by the Vijayanagar empire that ruled most of
South India from their capital at Vijayanagara on the banks of the
Tungabhadra River in present-day Karnataka.[62] The architecture
of the temples built during the reign of the Vijayanagara empire had Entablature A vimana with
elements of political authority. [63] This resulted in the creation of a elements mandapam
distinctive imperial style of architecture which featured prominently elements
not only in temples but also in administrative structures across the (Dravidian
architecture)
deccan.[64] The Vijayanagara style is a combination of the Chalukya,
Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles which evolved earlier in the
centuries when these empires ruled and is characterised by a return
to the simplistic and serene art of the past.[65] The South Indian temple consists essentially of a
square-chambered sanctuary topped by a superstructure, tower, or spire and an attached pillared
porch or hall (maṇḍapa or maṇṭapam), enclosed by a peristyle of cells within a rectangular court. The
external walls of the temple are segmented by pilasters and carry niches housing sculpture. The
superstructure or tower above the sanctuary is of the kūṭina type and consists of an arrangement of
gradually receding stories in a pyramidal shape. Each story is delineated by a parapet of miniature
shrines, square at the corners and rectangular with barrel-vault roofs at the centre.
The Warangal Fort, Thousand Pillar Temple, and Ramappa Temple are examples of Kakatiya
architecture.[66]
Vesara Architecture
The style adopted in the region that today lies in the modern states of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
(Deccan) which served in its geographical position as buffer between north and south, that
architectural style has mix of both the Nagara and Dravidian temple styles.[67] While some scholars
consider the buildings in this region as being distinctly either nagara or dravida, a hybridised style
that seems to have become popular after the mid-seventh century, is known in some ancient texts as
vesara. In the southern part of the Deccan, i.e., in the region of Karnataka is where some of the most
experimental hybrid styles of vesara architecture are to be found.
An important temple is Papnath temple, dedicated Vesara style

to Lord Shiva. The temple is one of the best early
examples of the South Indian tradition. By contrast
other eastern Chalukyan Temples, like the
Mahakuta, five kilometres from Badami, and the
Swarga Brahma temple at Alampur show a greater
assimilation of northern styles from Odisha and
Rajasthan. At the same time the Durga temple at Durga temple at Aihole Kailasa Temple, Ellora
Aihole is unique having an even earlier style of an showing Chaitya style
apsidal shrine which is reminiscent of Buddhist
chaitya halls and is surrounded by a veranda of a
later kind, with a shikhara that is stylistically like a
nagara one. The Lad Khan temple at Aihole in
Karnataka seems to be inspired by the wooden-
roofed temples of the hills, except that it is
constructed out of stone.[68]
Pattadakkal Lad Khan temple is one of the
Historians agree that the vesara style originated in Temple, oldest Hindu temples.
what is today Karnataka. According to some, the Karnataka
style was started by the Chalukyas of Badami (500-
753AD) whose Early Chalukya or Badami Chalukya
architecture built temples in a style that mixed some features of the nagara and the dravida styles,
for example using both the northern shikhara and southern vimana type of superstructure over the
sanctum in different temples of similar date, as at Pattadakal. However, Adam Hardy and others
regard this style as essentially a form of Dravida. This style was further refined by the Rashtrakutas of
Manyakheta (750-983AD) in sites such as Ellora.
Though there is clearly a good deal of continuity with the Badami or Early Chalukya style,[69] other
writers only date the start of Vesara to the later Western Chalukyas of Kalyani (983–1195 AD),[70] in
sites such as Lakkundi, Dambal, Itagi, and Gadag,[71] and continued by the Hoysala empire (1000–
1330 AD).
The Hoysala temples at Belur, Halebidu and Somnathpura are leading examples of the Vesara
style.[72] These temples are now proposed as a UNESCO world heritage site.
Jain architecture
Jain temple architecture is generally close to Hindu temple
architecture, and in ancient times Buddhist religious architecture.
Normally the same builders and carvers worked for all religions,
and regional and period styles are generally similar. The basic
layout of a Hindu and most Jain temples has consisted of a small
garbhagriha or sanctuary for the main murti or cult images, over
which the high superstructure rises, then one or more larger
mandapa halls.
The earliest survivals of Jain architecture are part of the Indian

rock-cut architecture tradition, initially shared with Buddhism,
and by the end of the classical period with Hinduism. Very often
numbers of rock-cut Jain temples and monasteries share a site
with those of the other religions, as at Udayagiri, Bava Pyara,
Ellora, Aihole, Badami, and Kalugumalai. The Ellora Caves are a
Palitana Jain Temples
late site, which contains temples of all three religions, as the
earlier Buddhist ones give way to later Hindu excavations.
There is considerable similarity between the styles of the different

religions, but often the Jains placed large figures of one or more of
the 24 tirthankaras in the open air rather than inside the shrine.
These statues later began to be very large, normally standing nude
figures in the kayotsarga meditation position (which is similar to
standing at attention). Examples include the Gopachal rock cut
Jain monuments and the Siddhachal Caves, with groups of
statues, and a number of single figures including the 12th-century
Gommateshwara statue, and the modern Statue of Vasupujya and, Jain Temple complex, Deogarh,
largest of all at 108 feet (33 meters) tall, the Statue of Ahimsa. Uttar Pradesh, before 862
The main buildings of the largest Dilwara temples are surrounded

by "cloister" screens of devakulikā shrines, and are fairly plain on the outer walls of these; in the case
of the Vimal Vasahi this screen was a later addition, around the time of the second temple.[73]
Surrounding the main temple with a curtain of shrines was to become a distinctive feature of the Jain
temples of West India, still employed in some modern temples.[74]
Mostly funded by private individuals or groups, and catering to a smaller population, Jain temples
tend to be at the small or middle end of the range of sizes, but at pilgrimage sites they may cluster in
large groups – there are altogether several hundred at Palitana, tightly packed within several high-
walled compounds called "tuks" or "tonks".[75] Temple charitable trusts, such as the very large
Anandji Kalyanji Trust, founded in the 17th century and now maintaining 1,200 temples, play a very
important role in funding temple building and maintenance.
Māru-Gurjara architecture
Regional differences in Hindu temples are largely reflected in Jain

ones, except that Māru-Gurjara architecture or the "Solanki style"
has become to some extent a pan-Indian, indeed pan-global Jain
style. This is a particular temple style from Gujarat and Rajasthan
(both regions with a strong Jain presence) that originated in both
Hindu and Jain temples around 1000, but became enduringly
popular with Jain patrons, spreading to other parts of India and
the global Jain diaspora of the last century. It has remained in use,
in somewhat modified form, to the present day, indeed also Temple ceiling of Ranakpur Jain
becoming popular again for some Hindu temples in the last Temple, Rajasthan
century. The style is seen in the groups of pilgrimage temples at
Dilwara on Mount Abu, Taranga, Girnar and Palitana.[76]
Interiors are more lavishly decorated, with elaborate carving on most surfaces. In particular, Jain
temples often have small low domes carved on the inside with a highly intricate rosette design.
Another distinctive feature is "flying" arch-like elements between pillars, touching the horizontal
beam above in the centre, and elaborately carved. These have no structural function, and are purely
decorative. The style developed large pillared halls, many open at the sides, with Jain temples often
having one closed and two pillared halls in sequence on the main axis leading to the shrine.
The Māru-Gurjara style did not represent a radical break with earlier styles. The previous styles in
north-west India, and the group of Jain temples of Khajuraho, forming part of the famous Khajuraho
Group of Monuments are very largely in the same style as their Hindu companions, which were
mostly built between 950 and 1050. They share many features with the Māru-Gurjara style: high
plinths with many decorated bands on the walls, lavish figurative and decorative carving, balconies
looking out on multiple sides, ceiling rosettes, and others, but at Khajuraho the great height of the
shikharas is given more emphasis. There are similarities with the contemporary Hoysala architecture
from much further south. In both of these styles architecture is treated sculpturally.
Detailed carving of elephant, Rani Ki Vav, Gujrat Somanath Temple

Ranakpur Jain Temple
Adalaj stepwell Taranga Jain Temple, Gujrat
Indo-Islamic architecture
The Indo-Islamic architecture began under influence of Islam in Indian subcontinent around the 7th
century AD. Monuments and buildings reflecting native/regional Indic, Persian, central Asian, Arabic
and Ottoman Turkish architecture style were extensively built by patrons of art and architecture in
Medieval Period. Many of these styles are also influence by regional Indian architecture. It also
Replace Indian Trabeate style with Arcuate style. Turks and Persians, who inherited wealth of various
design from Sassanian and Byzantine empire, shaped and influenced the architecture.
Islamic buildings initially adapted the skills of a workforce trained in earlier Indian traditions to their
own designs. Unlike most of the Islamic world, where brick tended to predominate, India had highly
skilled builders well used to producing stone masonry of extremely high quality. Alongside the
architecture developed in Delhi and prominent centres of Mughal culture such as Agra, Lahore and
Allahabad, a variety of regional styles developed in regional kingdoms like the Bengal, Gujarat,
Deccan, Jaunpur and Kashmir Sultanates. By the Mughal period, generally agreed to represent the
peak of the style, aspects of Islamic style began to influence architecture made for Hindus, with even
temples using scalloped arches, and later domes. This was especially the case in palace architecture.
Following the collapse of the Mughal Empire, regional nawabs

such as in Lucknow, Hyderabad and Mysore continued to
commission and patronize the construction of Mughal-style
architecture in the princely states.
Sultanate
Significant regional styles developed in the independent

sultanates formed when the Tughlaq empire weakened in the mid-
14th century, and lasted until most were absorbed into the Mughal
Empire in the 16th century. Apart from the sultanates of the
Deccan Plateau, Gujarat, Bengal, and Kashmir, the architecture of
the Malwa and Jaunpur sultanates also left some significant
buildings.[77]
The Charminar, built in the 16th
century by the Golconda Sultanate
Delhi Sultanate
The start of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 under Qutb al-Din Aibak
introduced a large Islamic state to India, using Central Asian
styles.[78] The important Qutb Complex in Delhi was begun under
Muhammad of Ghor, by 1199, and continued under Qutb al-Din
Aibak and later sultans. The Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, now a
ruin, was the first structure. Like other early Islamic buildings it
re-used elements such as columns from destroyed Hindu and Jain
temples, including one on the same site whose platform was
reused. The style was Iranian, but the arches were still corbelled in Tomb of Muhammad Shah, Lodi
the traditional Indian way.[79] Alai Minar, a minaret twice the size Gardens
of Qutb Minar was commissioned by Alauddin Khilji but never
completed. Other examples include the Tughlaqabad Fort and
Hauz Khas Complex.
Another very early mosque, begun in the 1190s, is the Adhai Din
Ka Jhonpra in Ajmer, Rajasthan, built for the same Delhi rulers,
again with corbelled arches and domes. Here Hindu temple
columns (and possibly some new ones) are piled up in threes to
achieve extra height. Both mosques had large detached screens
with pointed corbelled arches added in front of them, probably
under Iltutmish a couple of decades later. In these the central arch
is taller, in imitation of an iwan.
Qutb complex
At Ajmer the smaller screen arches are tentatively cusped, for the
first time in India.[80] By around 1300 true domes and arches with
voussoirs were being built; the ruined Tomb of Balban (d. 1287) in
Delhi may be the earliest survival. [81] The Alai Darwaza gatehouse at the Qutb complex, from 1311,
still shows a cautious approach to the new technology, with very thick walls and a shallow dome, only
visible from a certain distance or height. Bold contrasting colours of masonry, with red sandstone and
white marble, introduce what was to become a common feature of Indo-Islamic architecture,
substituting for the polychrome tiles used in Persia and Central Asia. The pointed arches come
together slightly at their base, giving a mild horseshoe arch effect, and their internal edges are not
cusped but lined with conventionalized "spearhead" projections, possibly representing lotus buds.
Jali, stone openwork screens, are introduced here; they already had been long used in temples.[82]
By the time of Tughlaqs Islamic architecture in India had adopted some features of earlier Indian
architecture, such as the use of a high plinth,[83] and often mouldings around its edges, as well as
columns and brackets and hypostyle halls.[84] After the death of Firoz the Tughlaqs declined, and the
following Delhi dynasties were weak. Most of the monumental buildings constructed were tombs,
although the impressive Lodi Gardens in Delhi (adorned with fountains, charbagh gardens, ponds,
tombs and mosques) were constructed by the late Lodi dynasty. The architecture of other regional
Muslim states was often more impressive.[85]
Deccan Sultanates
Dawood Shah of Bahamani Sultanate ruled for very short amount of time in 1378 but invented a new
style of tomb, comprising two similar, domed structures on a single basement, a style not seen
anywhere outside Kalaburagi. Firuz Shah who died in 1422 copied the double-chambered style but
made his tomb much simpler. The black basalt door jambs reminiscent of temple pillars, the recessed
arches bearing stucco floral work, arches bearing stucco floral work, and the chajjas borne on brackets
that resemble those found in temples all become common features in later Bahmani architecture.
Rangin Mahal in Bidar Fort, built by Ali Barid Shah in the 1500s. While the beautiful tile mosaics on
some of its walls and the luminescent mother-of-pearl inlays on black basalt are Persian in style, its
carved wooden pillars and brackets are clearly derived from local residential architecture.[86]
The main architectural activities for the Barid Shahi rulers were
building garden tombs. The tomb of Ali Barid Shah (1577) is the
most notable monument in Bidar.[87] The tomb consists of a lofty
domed chamber, open on four sides, located in the middle of a
Persian four-square garden. The Rangin Mahal in Bidar, built
during the reign of Ali Barid Shah, is a complete and exquisitely
decorated courtly structure. Other important monuments in Bidar
from this period are the tomb of Qasim II and the Kali Masjid.[88]
Burial place of Ibrahim Adil Shah II
Amongst the major
architectural works in the
Bijapur Sultanate, one of the earliest is the unfinished Jami
Masjid, which was begun by Ali Adil Shah I in 1576. It has an
arcaded prayer hall, with fine aisles, and has an impressive dome
supported by massive piers. One of the most impressive
monuments built during the reign of Ibrahim II was the Ibrahim
Rouza which was originally planned as a tomb for queen Taj
Sultana, but was later converted into the tomb for Ibrahim Adil Tombs beside Tomb of Fatima
Shah II and his family. This complex, completed in 1626, consists Khanam
of a paired tomb and mosque.
Notable buildings of the Bahmani and Deccan sultanates in the Deccan include the Charminar, Mecca
Masjid, Qutb Shahi tombs, Madrasa Mahmud Gawan and Gol Gumbaz.[88][89]The greatest
monument in Bijapur is the Gol Gumbaz, the mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah, which was
completed in 1656, and whose hemispherical dome measures 44 metres (144 ft) across.
One of the earliest architectural achievements of the Qutb Shahi dynasty is the fortified city of
Golconda, which is now in ruins.In the 16th century, Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah decided to shift the
capital to Hyderabad, 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) east of Golconda. Here, he constructed the most original
monument in the Deccan, the Charminar, in the heart of the new city.[90] This monument, completed
in 1591, has four minarets, each 56 metres (184 ft).
Bengal Sultanate
The style of the Bengal Sultanate mostly used brick, with characteristic features being indigenous
Bengali elements, such as curved roofs, corner towers and complex terracotta ornamentation.[91]
which were with blended. One feature in the sultanate was the relative absence of minarets.[92] Many
small and medium-sized medieval mosques, with multiple domes and artistic niche mihrabs, were
constructed throughout the region.[92]
These features are also seen in the Choto Sona Mosque (around
1500), which is in stone, unusually for Bengal, but shares the style
and mixes domes and a curving "paddy" roof based on village
house roofs made of vegetable thatch. Such roofs feature even
more strongly in later Bengal Hindu temple architecture, with
types such as the do-chala, jor-bangla, and char-chala.[93] For
larger mosques, Bengali architects multiplied the numbers of
domes, with a nine-domed formula (three rows of three) being one
Firoze Minar at Gaur option, surviving in four examples, all 15th or 16th century and
now in Bangladesh,[94] although there were others with larger
numbers of domes.[95]
The largest mosque in the Indian subcontinent was the 14th

century Adina Mosque. Built of stone demolished from temples, it
featured a monumental ribbed barrel vault over the central nave,
the first such giant vault used anywhere in the subcontinent. The
mosque was modelled on the imperial Sassanian style of
Persia.[96] The Sultanate style flourished between the 14th and
16th centuries. A provincial style influenced by North India
evolved in Mughal Bengal during the 17th and 18th centuries. The
Mughals also copied the Bengali do-chala roof tradition for Interior of the hypostyle hall of the
mausoleums in North India.[97] Adina Mosque
Although the description in Pandua, the ancient capital, shows

mainly Persian culture in courts, we find one of the first attempts at fusing together the Islamic and
Bengali style of architecture under Ilyas Shahi dynasty who ruled then. Under Jalaludin emerged the
'Bengal' style of mosques. With Jalaludin's reign we see the beginnings of a trend of Muslim ruling
dynasty that grounded itself in local culture rather than seeking legitimacy from Delhi or Mecca. Upon
his return to Delhi from his first Bengal expedition, Firoz Shah Tughlaq built Kotla Mosque, which
bear a striking resemblance to the Bengal style.
Kashmir
By 1339, Shams-ud-din Shah Mir of the Shah Mir dynasty

established a sultanate encompassing the region of Kashmir
(consisting of modern-day Gilgit-Baltistan, Azad Kashmir, Jammu
and Kashmir, Ladakh, and Aksai Chin), allowing for the gradual
Islamization of the region and the hybridization of Persianate
culture and architecture with the indigenous Buddhist styles of
Kashmir. In the capital at Srinagar in modern Indian-
administered Kashmir, Sikandar Shah Mir constructed the Jamia
Jamia Masjid, Srinagar
Masjid, a large wooden congregational mosque that incorporates
elements two cultures, that is, it has been erected in Persian style
but its minar is topped with umbrella-shaped finial, which is in
similitude with Buddhist pagoda structure, as well as the wooden Khanqah-e-Moulah mosque. Also in
Srinagar are the Aali Masjid and the Tomb of Zain-ul-Abidin. Two 14th-century wooden mosques in
Gilgit-Baltistan are the Chaqchan Mosque in Khaplu (1370) and the Amburiq Mosque in Shigar. Both
have stone-built cores with elaborately carved wooden exterior galleries, at Amburiq on two levels, in
an adaptation of traditional local styles.
Gujarat sultanate
Gujarat Sultanate
Under the Gujarat Sultanate, independent between
1407 and 1543, Gujarat was a prosperous regional
sultanate under the rule of the Muzaffarid dynasty,
who built lavishly, particularly in the capital,
Ahmedabad, in its distinctive style of Indo-Islamic
architecture. The sultanate commissioned mosques
such as the Jami Masjid of Ahmedabad, Jama Jami Masjid, Jaali work at Sarkhej Roza
Masjid at Champaner, Jami Masjid at Khambhat, Champaner
Qutbuddin Mosque, Rani Rupamati Mosque,
Sarkhej Roza, Sidi Bashir Mosque, Kevada Mosque,
Sidi Sayyed Mosque, Nagina Mosque and
Pattharwali Masjid, as well as structures such as
Teen Darwaza, Bhadra Fort and the Dada Harir
Stepwell in Ahmedabad.
The distinctive Indo-Islamic architecture style of

Gujarat drew micro-architectural elements from Jama Masjid, Saher ki Masjid
earlier Maru-Gurjara architecture and employed Ahmedabad
them in mihrab, roofs, doors, minarets and facades.
In the 15th century, the Indo-Islamic style of
Gujarat is especially notable for its inventive and elegant use of minarets. They are often in pairs
flanking the main entrance, mostly rather thin and with elaborate carving at least at the lower levels.
Some designs push out balconies at intervals up the shaft; the most extreme version of this was in the
lost upper parts of the so-called "shaking minarets" at the Jama Mosque, Ahmedabad, which fell
down in an earthquake in 1819. This carving draws on the traditional skills of local stone-carvers,
previously exercised on Hindu temples in the Māru-Gurjara and other local styles.
Indo-Islamic architecture style of Gujarat presages many of the architectural elements later found in
Mughal architecture, including ornate mihrabs and minarets, jali (perforated screens carved in
stone), and chattris (pavilions topped with cupolas).
The Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park, the 16th century capital of Gujarat Sultanate,
documents the early Islamic and pre-Mughal city that has remained without any change.
Mughal Empire
The most famous Indo-Islamic style is Mughal architecture. Mughal art and architecture, a
characteristic Indo-Islamic-Persian style flourished on the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal
empire (1526–1857). This new style combined elements of Islamic art and architecture, which had
been introduced to India during the Delhi Sultanate (1192–1398) and had produced great monuments
such as the Qutb Minar, with features of Persian art and architecture. Its most prominent examples
are the series of imperial mausolea, which started with the pivotal Tomb of Humayun, but is best
known for the Taj Mahal.
It is known for features including monumental Mughal elements

buildings with large, bulbous onion domes,
surrounded by gardens on all four sides, and
delicate ornamentation work, including pachin
kari decorative work and jali-latticed screens.
Pietra dura or ‘Parchinkari’ rose to prominence
under patronage of Emperors specially under
Shah Jahan. Originating from Italy, it found its The Tomb of Salim Chishti Darwaza-I-Rauza, Taj
way to Mughal courts via trade route. It adapted and jali latticed screens is Mahal Complex, showing
to its present distinct feature of floral art by the famed as one of the finest large vaulted gateways
hands of local artisans and Persian influence. examples of Mughal with delicate ornamentation
architecture in India. and minarets with cupolas
Mughals brought in Persian style into Indian
Architecture. The character and structure of
Mughal buildings displayed a uniform character
and structure. Some of the main features of the
Mughal architecture are mentioned below.
1. Large halls
2. Very large vaulted gateways Pachin Kari or Pietra Dura Bulbous domes on Tomb
on Tomb of I'timād-ud- of Nisar Begum at Khusro
3. Delicate ornamentation
Daulah Bagh
4. Bulbous domes
5. Slender Minarets with cupolas at the 4
corners
The Red Fort at Agra (1565–74) and the walled city of Fatehpur Sikri (1569–74)[98] are among the
architectural achievements of this time—as is the Taj Mahal, built as a tomb for Queen Mumtaz Mahal
by Shah Jahan (1628–58).[99] Employing the double dome, the recessed archway, the depiction of any
animal or human—an essential part of the Indian tradition—was forbidden in places of worship under
Islam.
Mughal architecture reached its zenith during the reign of the emperor Shah Jahan (1628–58), its
crowning achievement being the magnificent Taj Mahal. This period is marked by a fresh emergence
in India of Persian features that had been seen earlier in the tomb of Humayun. The use of the double
dome, a recessed archway inside a rectangular fronton, and parklike surroundings are all typical of
this period. Symmetry and balance between the parts of a building were always stressed, while the
delicacy of detail in Shah Jahan decorative work has seldom been surpassed.
The Taj Mahal does contain tilework of plant ornaments.[1] The architecture during the Mughal
Period, with its rulers being of Turco-Mongol origin, has shown a notable blend of Indian style
combined with the Islamic. Taj Mahal in Agra, India is one of the wonders of the world.[100]
Mughal gardens are gardens built by the Mughals in the Islamic style. This style was influenced by
Persian gardens. They are built in the char bagh structure, which is a quadrilateral garden layout
based on the four gardens of Paradise mentioned in the Qur'an. This style is intended to create a
representation of an earthly utopia in which humans co-exist in perfect harmony with all elements of
nature.
The quadrilateral garden is divided by walkways or flowing water into four smaller parts. Significant
use of rectilinear layouts are made within the walled enclosures. Some of the typical features include
pools, fountains and canals inside the gardens.
Safdarjung's Tomb is built in Tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah Shalimar Bagh is a Mughal

the late Mughal style for is a Mughal mausoleum in garden in Srinagar, linked
Nawab Safdarjung. The Agra. It is noticeable for the through a channel to the
tomb is described as the first use of pietra dura northeast of Dal Lake. The
"last flicker in the lamp of technique. The tomb is often Bagh is considered the high
Mughal architecture". regarded as a draft of the Taj point of Mughal horticulture.
Mahal.
Akbar's Tomb, Agra was built Humayun's Tomb, Delhi, the

with red sandstone by his first fully developed Mughal
son and grandson in 1605 to imperial tomb, 1569–70
1618. CE [101]
Regional styles
Rajput Architecture
Rajput Architecture represents different types of buildings, which may broadly be classed either as
secular or religious. The secular buildings are of various scales. These include temples, forts,
stepwells, gardens, and palaces. The forts were specially built for defense and military purposes due to
the Islamic invasions.
The Mughal architecture and painting influenced indigenous Rajput styles of art and architecture.[102]
The Hill Forts of Rajasthan (Amer, Chittor, Gagron, Jaisalmer, Kumbhalgarh, Ranthambore), a group
of six forts built by various Rajput kingdoms and principalities during the medieval period are among
the best examples of Rajput Architecture. The ensemble is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Other
forts include the Mehrangarh Fort and Jaigarh Fort.
Most of the population of Rajasthan is Hindu, and Rajput elements

there has historically been a considerable Jain
minority; this mixture is reflected in the many
temples of the region. Māru-Gurjara architecture, or
"Solaṅkī style" is a distinctive style that began in
Rajasthan and neighbouring Gujarat around the
11th century, and has been revived and taken to
other parts of India and the world by both Hindus
and Jains. This represents the main contribution of
the region to Hindu temple architecture. The Jharokha windows of Hawa Mahal Profusely
Dilwara Jain Temples of Mount Abu built between painted interiors
Jal Mahal
the 11th and 13th centuries CE are the best-known
examples of the style. The Mughal architecture
greatly influenced indigenous Rajput styles of art
and architecture.[103]
Some architectural style innovated and influenced

by Rajasthani architectural styles are:-
1. Ornated buildings or Havelis Pietra Dura and Jaali works on Chandra Mahal
Amer Fort Entrance showcasing fusion
2. Chhatris
of Rajput and
3. Delicate ornamentation Mughal styles
4. Jharokha
5. Stepwell or Bawdi
In Hindi, the "Chhatri" refers to a canopy or

umbrella. Chhatris are the elevated pavilions with
dome shaped porches. The Chhatris are used as a
symbol to portray the fundamentals of admiration Salim Singh ki Haveli Chhatris in Udaipur
and pride in its style of architecture.
Rajput Forts A Jharokha is a kind of suspended enclosed

gallery. A significant purposes it served was to
allow women to witness the events and society
outside the palace life without being noticed.
This eventually lead to Jharokha Darshan,
adapted by Mughals, which allowed essential and
direct communication between the emperors or
Jodhpur Fort Neemrana Fort kings and the general public.
The walled city of Jaipur was formed in 1727 by

Kacchwaha Rajput ruler Jai Singh II, and is "a
unique example of traditional Hindu town
planning",[104] following the precepts set out in
much Hindu texts. Subsequently, the City Palace,
Hawa Mahal, Rambagh Palace, Jal Mahal and
Amer Fort Chittorgarh Fort
Albert Hall Museum were also built. Udaipur
also has several palaces, including the Bagore-ki-
Haveli, now a museum, built in the 18th century.
Rajput Architecture continued well into the 20th and 21st centuries, as the rulers of the princely states
of British India commissioned vast palaces and other buildings, such as the Albert Hall Museum,
Lalgarh Palace, and Umaid Bhawan Palace. These usually incorporated European styles as well, a
practice which eventually led to the Indo-Saracenic style
Sikh Architecture
Sikh architecture is heavily influenced by Mughal and Islamic

styles. The onion dome, frescoes, in-lay work, and multi-foil
arches, are Mughal influences, more specially from Shah Jahan's
period, whereas chattris, oriel windows, bracket supported eaves
at the string-course, and ornamented friezes are derived from
elements of Rajput architecture. Apart from religious buildings,
Sikh architecture includes secular forts, bungas (residential
places), palaces, and colleges.
The Golden Temple in Amritsar
Gurudwara
The religious structure is called gurdwara (a place where the Guru dwells). The word gurdwara is a
compound of guru (guide or master) and dwara (gateway or seat). The Golden Temple in Amritsar
and Hazur Sahib are examples.
Gurdwara buildings do not have to conform to any set

architectural design. The only established requirements are: the
installation of the Granth Sahib under a canopy or in a canopied
seat, usually on a platform higher than the specific floor on which
the devotees sit, and a tall Sikh pennant flag atop the building.
In the 21st century, more and more gurdwaras (especially within

India) have been following the Harimandir Sahib pattern, a
synthesis of Indo-Islamic and Sikh architecture. Most of them
have square halls, stand on a higher plinth, have entrances on all
four sides, and have square or octagonal domed sanctums usually
in the middle. During recent decades, to meet the requirements of
larger gatherings, bigger and better ventilated assembly halls, with
the sanctum at one end, have become accepted style. The location
of the sanctum, more often than not, is such as to allow space for
circumambulation. Sometimes, to augment the space, verandahs
Gurdwara Baba Atal is a 17th-
are built to skirt the hall. A popular model for the dome is the
century nine-storeyed Gurudwara in
ribbed lotus, topped by an ornamental pinnacle. Arched copings,
Amritsar.
kiosks and solid domelets are used for exterior decorations.
Maratha Architecture
The Maratha Rule from 17th to 19th Centuries, emerged after the Maratha's victory over the Mughal
Empire in the Maratha-Mughal Wars, Prominent buildings such as the Shaniwar Wada and Lal Mahal
in Pune are examples.The decorative features of the mansions were “pointed arches, heavy carved
stone brackets, narrow balconies projecting on rows of such brackets, domical shallow ceilings resting
on a variety of squinches, the chief being the interwoven type”.
Many jyotirlinga temples were rebuilt by the Marathas after being

destroyed by invading Islamic forces. Some examples are the
Kashi Vishwanath, Mahakaleshwar, Trimbakeshwar,
Grishneshwar temples. The ghats of Varanasi were also rebuilt
under Maratha patronage, including the Dashashwamedh Ghat
and Scindia Ghat.
The Maratha structures used both the local architectural style and
the Maratha's own distinct corinthian columns style. Because of
Shaniwarwada palace fort in Pune
the constant turmoil and protracted wars with Mughals, Nawabs,
Afghans, and other forces, very little documentation of these
efforts remain. Nevertheless, studies of these structures show that the main architectural elements
were made from brick, wood, mortar and stone. Wood was most used element as it is easily and
cheaply available in Maharashtra and Karnataka. The Historian Khafi Khan wrote about enchanting
beauty of 16th Century wooden Palaces, temples and Forts However very few of these survived due to
wars with Mughal Empire and comparatively short life of wooden structures than stone and marble
structures. Forts were the main focus of Maratha architecture, decorated with Deccan-style pointed
arches and elaborate woodwork.
Herman Goetz writes about their architectural style in his work ‘Five Thousand Years of Indian Art’:
“The Maratha temples generally provided with a huge lampstand (deepmala),The wood work they
used to decorate their palaces and other civil buildings was intricate and minute. Maratha art could
have developed and attained a distinctive character but it was not possible because of the turbulent
times of Medieval India.[105]
Dzong Architecture
Dzong architecture is used for dzongs, a distinctive type of fortified monastery architecture found
mainly in Tibet, Bhutan and North and Northeastern part of India. The architecture is massive in style
with towering exterior walls surrounding a complex of courtyards, temples, administrative offices,
and monks' accommodation.
Distinctive features include:
High inward sloping walls of brick and stone painted white with
few or no windows in the lower sections of the wall
Use of a surrounding red ochre stripe near the top of the walls,
sometimes punctuated by large gold circles
Use of unique style flared roofs atop interior temples
Massive entry doors made of wood and iron
Kee monastery, Spiti Interior courtyards and temples brightly colored in Buddhist-
themed art motifs such as the ashtamangala or swastika
By tradition, dzongs are constructed without the use of architectural plans. Instead construction
proceeds under the direction of a high lama who establishes each dimension by means of spiritual
inspiration. Dzongs comprise heavy masonry walls surrounding one or more courtyards. The main
functional spaces are usually arranged in two separate areas: the administrative offices; and the
religious functions – including temples and monks' accommodation. This division between
administrative and religious functions reflects the idealized duality of power between the religious
and administrative branches of government.
This accommodation is arranged along the inside of the outer walls and often as a separate stone
tower located centrally within the courtyard, housing the main temple, that can be used as an inner
defensible citadel. The roofs are massively constructed in hardwood and bamboo, highly decorated at
the eaves, and are constructed traditionally without the use of nails. They are open at the eaves to
provide a ventilated storage area. They were traditionally finished with timber shingles weighted
down with stones
Stupas in Thikse Monastery Ralang Monastery, Sikkim Tawang Monastery,

Arunachal Pradesh
Tawang Monastery assembly Prayer hall at the Golden

hall Temple in Bylakuppe, a
Tibetan settlement in
Karnataka
Bengal Architecture
The architecture of Bengal, which comprises the modern

country of Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal,
Tripura, and Barak Valley in Assam, has a long and rich history,
blending indigenous elements from the Indian subcontinent, with
influences from different parts of the world. Bengali architecture
includes ancient urban architecture, religious architecture, rural
Cluster of temples in Bishnupur vernacular architecture, colonial townhouses and country houses,
and modern urban styles.[106]
Ancient Bengali architecture reached its pinnacle during the Pala Empire (750–1120); this was
Bengali-based and the last Buddhist imperial power in the Indian subcontinent. Most patronage was
of Buddhist viharas, temples and stupas. Pala architecture influenced Tibetan and Southeast Asian
architecture. The most famous monument built by the Pala emperors was the Grand Vihara of
Somapura, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Historians believe Somapura was a model for the
architects of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
Distinctive architectural elements are:-
Deul Temple - Originally influenced by Kalinga style, they were main temple style during 6th-10th
century. It was the style of Jain and Hindu temple architecture of Bengal, where the temple lacks
the usual mandapa beside the main shrine, and the main unit consists only of the shrine and a
deul (shikhara) above it. It was revived in the 16th to 19th century. The later representatives of this
style were generally smaller and included features influenced by Islamic architecture.
Chala Temple - Chala style or Hut style temples were influenced by the vernacular architecture or
rural Bengal. Thatched rooftops of the houses were either in form of do-chala type which has only
two hanging roof tips on each side of a roof divided in the middle by a ridge or char-chala type, the
two roof halves are fused into one unit and have a dome-like shape. The char-chala temples
started coming up around the 17th century and profoundly adopted by Mughal and later the
Rajput in their architectural styles.
Ratna Temple - The curved roof of the temple is surmounted by one or more towers or pinnacles
called ratna (jewel). The ratna style came up in the 15th-16th century. It was basically a mix of
chala and deul architecture where small deul, or in some case domes, were used on the center or
corners of the chala (char chala) roof.
Dalan Temple - With the comings of European colonists, a new form of temple style took place.
Generally used by Zamindars or elite Bengalis, Dalan style became prominent in the 19th century.
The flat-roofed (dalan) temples was easier to build and had incorporated many European
elements, specially the arches. In the long run, this style lost its special identity as religious
architecture and got mixed up with domestic architecture.
Deuls are located in the numerous rivers crisscrossed by stone-free alluvial and bush landscape of the
southern Sundarbans settlements in the Indian state of West Bengal.
Most temples surviving in reasonable condition date from about the 17th century onwards, after
temple building revived; it had stopped after the Muslim conquest in the 13th century. The roofing
style of Bengali Hindu temple architecture is unique and closely related to the paddy roofed
traditional building style of rural Bengal. The "extensive improvisation within a local architectural
idiom" which the temples exhibit is often ascribed to a local shortage of expert Brahmin priests to
provide the rather rigid guidance as to correct forms that governed temple architecture elsewhere. In
the same way the terracotta reliefs often depict secular subjects in a very lively fashion.
In larger, and later, temples, small towers rise up from the centre or corners of the curving roof. These
are straight-sided, often with conical roofs. They have little resemblance to a typical north Indian
shikara temple tower. The pancharatna ("five towers") and navaratna ("nine towers") styles are
varieties of this type.
The bungalow style is a notable architectural export of Bengal. The corner towers of Bengali religious
buildings were replicated in medieval Southeast Asia. Bengali curved roofs, suitable for the very heavy
rains, were adopted into a distinct local style of Indo-Islamic architecture, and used decoratively
elsewhere in north India in Mughal architecture.[107]
Structures
Distinct Bengali Temple Style
like
Rasmancha,
built by King
Bir Hambir,
has an
unusual
elongated
Thakur Dalan of Itachuna Rajbari at Pyramidal shaped structure Terracota work at a
pyramidical
Khanyan over Rasmancha temple of Jor Bangla
tower,
surrounded
by hut-
shaped turrets, which were very typical of
Bengali roof structures of the time. Madan
Mohan Temple was built in the ekaratna style,
surmounted by a pinnacle along with carvings on
the walls depicting scenes from the Ramayana,
Pakbirra Jain Shrine, Jorbangla (Douchala style)
Mahabharata and the Puranas. Temples like
Deul Temple Temple
Dakshineswar Kali Temple, features the
Navratna style of roof.
Bengal is not rich in good stone for building, and

traditional Bengali architecture mostly uses brick
and wood, often reflecting the styles of the wood,
bamboo and thatch styles of local vernacular
architecture for houses. Decorative carved or Flat roofed dalan with Hangseshwari Temple,
moulded plaques of terracotta (the same material dome, Madan Mohan Ratna Temple
as the brick) are a special feature. The brick is Temple
extremely durable and disused ancient buildings
were often used as a convenient source of
materials by local people, often being stripped to their foundations over the centuries.
European colonial architecture

As with the Mughals, under European colonial rule, architecture became an emblem of power,
designed to endorse the occupying power. Numerous European countries invaded India and created
architectural styles reflective of their ancestral and adopted homes. The European colonizers created
architecture that symbolized their mission of conquest, dedicated to the state or religion.[108]
The British, French, Dutch and the Portuguese were the main European powers that established
colonies in India.[109][110]
British Colonial Era: 1757–1947
Indo-Saracenic
Britain's legacy and heritage in the Indian subcontinent remains among others in buildings and
infrastructure. The major cities during the period of British rule were Madras (Chennai), Calcutta,
Bombay (Mumbai), New Delhi, Agra, Bangalore, Bankipore, Karachi, Nagpur, Bhopal&
Hyderabad,[111][110] Lutyens' Delhi

which saw the rise of
Indo-Saracenic
Revival architecture.
The Viceroy's House The War Memorial

(now Rashtrapati Arch (now India Gate)
Bhavan) was built for is a memorial to
the Viceroy of India. It 70,000 soldiers of the
now serves as the British Indian Army
official residence of who died in the First
the President of World War.
India.
The Secretariat The Council House, built

Building is located for the Imperial
in the North Block. Legislative Council, is
now Sansad Bhawan,
and houses the
Parliament of India.
Lutyens' Delhi, designed by Edwin Lutyens, houses all key government buildings of India.
Black Town described in 1855 as "the minor streets, occupied by the natives are numerous, irregular
and of various dimensions. Many of them are extremely narrow and ill-ventilated ... a hallow square,
the rooms opening into a courtyard in the centre."[112] Garden houses were originally used as weekend
houses for recreational use by the upper class British. Nonetheless, the garden house became ideal a
full-time dwelling, deserting the fort in the 19th Century.[113]
Mumbai (Bombay) has some of the most prominent examples of British colonial architecture. This
included the gothic revival (Victoria terminus, University of Bombay, Rajabai Clock Tower, Bombay
High Court, BMC Building), Indo-Saracenic (Prince of Wales Museum, Gateway of India, Taj Mahal
Palace Hotel) and Art Deco (Eros Cinema, New India Assurance Building).[90]
Madras and Calcutta were similarly bordered by water and division of Indian in the north and British
in the south. An Englishwoman noted in 1750 "the banks of the river are as one may say absolutely
studded with elegant mansions called here as at Madras, garden houses." Esplanade-row is fronts the
fort with lined palaces.[114][115] Indian villages in these areas consisted of clay and straw houses which
later transformed into the metropolis of brick and stone.[116]The Chepauk Palace in the city, designed
by Paul Benfield, is said to be the first Indo-Saracenic building in India. Since then, many of the
colonial-era buildings in the city were designed in this style of architecture, which is most apparent
around the Fort St George built in 1640. Most of these were designed by English architects Robert
Fellowes Chisholm and Henry Irwin. The best examples of this

Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture
style include the Madras High Court (built in 1892), Southern
Railway headquarters, Ripon Building, Government Museum,
Senate House of the University of Madras, Amir Mahal, Bharat
Insurance Building, Victoria Public Hall and the College of
Engineering. The Triumph of Labour, also known as the Labour
statue, at the Marina Beach is an important landmark of Madras.
Madras High Court buildings Indo-Saracenic architecture

are a prime example of Indo- evolved by combining Indian
Saracenic architecture, architectural features with
designed by JW Brassington European styles. Vincent Esch
under guidance of British and George Wittet were
architect Henry Irwin. pioneers in this style. The
Victoria Memorial in Calcutta
is the most effective
symbolism of British Empire, Gaine Castle at Dhanyakuria, West
built as a monument in Bengal
tribute to Queen Victoria's
reign. The plan of the building
consists of one large central part covered with a larger dome.
The Viceregal Lodge, now Colonnades separate the two chambers. Each corner holds a
Rashtrapati Niwas, in Shimla smaller dome and is floored with marble plinth. The memorial
designed by Henry Irwin in the stands on 26 hectares of garden surrounded by reflective
Jacobethan style and built in pools.[117]
the late 19th century.
The period of British rule saw wealthy Bengali families (especially
zamindar estates) employing European firms to design houses
and palaces. The Indo-Saracenic movement was strongly
prevalent in the region. While most rural estates featured an
elegant country house, the cities of Calcutta had widespread 19th
and early 20th century urban architecture, comparable to
The Chhatrapati Shivaji London, Sydney or Auckland. Art deco influences began in
Maharaj Terminus (previously Calcutta in the 1930s.
Victoria Terminus) in Mumbai,
1878–88, is a mixture of
Romanesque, Gothic and Romanesque-Italianate
Indian elements.
The Italianate architectural style was popularised in early
Victorian Britain and subsequently became an attractive form
adopted in India in the later parts of the 19th century. The main
characteristics of this style include imposing cornice structures,
prominent cornice and corbels, Roman arches, arch headed or
pedimented windows, flat or ‘hip’ roof, and windows with
distinctive moulded caps. The one outstanding building in this
The Victoria Memorial in class was the East Indian Railway Head Offices at Calcutta built
Calcutta is the most effective in 1884.[118]
symbolism of British Empire.
Neoclassical
Neoclassical buildings are characterized by their magnificence of scale, the prominent use of columns,
the use of geometric forms and symmetry, predominantly blank walls and the triangular pediment.
Some large private houses were built in and around Kolkata by wealthy merchants. Examples of
Neoclassical architecture in Indian public buildings include the British Residency, Hyderabad (1798)
and Falaknuma Palace (1893) in Hyderabad, St Andrews Church in Madras (1821),[119] Raj Bhawan
(1803) and Metcalfe Hall (1844) in Kolkata, and Bangalore Town Hall (1935) in Bangalore.
Neoclassicism
Art Deco
The Art Deco movement of the early 20th century

quickly spread to large parts of the world. The Indian
Institute of Architects, founded in Bombay in 1929,
played a prominent role in propagating the Samriddhi Bhavan, National library of India,
movement. Guided by their desire to emulate the High Court(right), Kolkata
west, the Indian architects were fascinated by the
Secretariat(left) on
industrial modernity that Art Deco offered. The River Hooghly
western elites were the first to experiment with the
technologically advanced facets of Art Deco, and
architects began the process of transformation by the
early 1930s.
Mumbai has the world's second-largest collection of

Art Deco structures, after Miami.[120] The New India
Falaknuma Palace, Hyderabad Mumbai
Assurance Building, Eros Cinema and buildings along
University
the Marine Drive in Mumbai are prime examples.[90]
In Kolkata, the sole example of the Art Nouveau style,

Art Deco
which preceded Art Deco, is the Esplanade Mansions
opposite the Raj Bhavan, built in 1910.
Assam-type
Assam-type architecture is found in Assam and

Sylhet region. The houses constructed using this style Esplanade Mansions, Kolkata Eros Cinema,
are generally termed as Assam-type houses, Mumbai
consisting usually one or more storeys. The houses
are built to be earthquake proof, and are made from
materials ranging from wood and bamboo to steel
and concrete.
Assam Type houses are a type of designs developed

by the colonial British administration in Assam after
the massive earthquake of 1897. British engineers Art Deco style Parrys Corner, Chennai
modified the traditional Assamese houses made from apartments in Marine
mud-plastered bamboo walls and thatched roofs to Drive, Mumbai
make Assam Type houses with wood, reed, mud
plaster and hay after studying the climate and
topography of the entire region.
Buildings are constructed on both flat and sloped terrains. On flat grounds, the buildings are typically
rectangular or L or C layout. On other surfaces, such as highlands, they are usually rectangular in
shape, accessed via the hillside. The roof is typically erected by high gables to overcome heavy rainfall
in the region, where walls are usually timber-framed, plastered with cement. With high ceilings and
well-ventilated rooms, the floorings are either wooden or concrete with tiled, mosaic or stone
surfacing with stilts.
Other Colonial Powers
Among the other European colonies were Portuguese Goa and Damaon and Portuguese Bombay and
Bassein. The Madh Fort, St. John the Baptist Church & Castella de Aguada in Bombay are remnants of
Portuguese colonial rule. The Churches and convents of Goa, an ensemble of seven churches built by
the Portuguese in Goa are a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[121]
The Portuguese were among the first European traders to discover the sea route to India as early as
1498. The first Portuguese encounter with the subcontinent was on 20 May 1498 AD, when Vasco da
Gama reached Calicut on the coast of the Malabar region.
The settlements along the Hooghly river — a branch of the Ganges — attracted maritime traders from
as many European nations, turning that part of Bengal into a little Europe. The Portuguese set up post
at Bandel, the Danish at Serampore, the Dutch at Chinsurah and the French at Chandernagore. A
British military base came up in Barrackpore. Thus influencing neighbouring regions' architecture to
create a distinct indo-colonial architecture.[122]
The history of Pondicherry is recorded only after the arrival of Dutch, Portuguese, British and French
traders. In 1674 the French East India Company set up a trading centre at Pondicherry and this
outpost eventually became the administrative centre of French settlements in India. The city has
many colonial buildings, churches, temples and statues which, combined with the town planning and
French style avenues in the old part of town, still preserve much of the colonial ambiance.
The Chandannagar Strand Fort Dansborg, built by the Tomb of Susanna Anna
Ghat, reminiscences of a 17th century Danish admiral Maria, reminisces of Dutch
French colony, Ove Gjedde, reminiscences India, Chinsurah, West
Chandannagar, West Bengal of Danish India, Bengal
Tharangambadi, Tamil Nadu
Church Of St Francis Of French Quarter, Pondicherry.

Assisi, reminisce of The city became the chief
Portuguese India, Goa French settlement in India.
India after independence (1947 onwards)

In recent times there has been a movement of population from rural areas to urban centres of
industry, leading to price rise in property in various cities of India.[123] Urban housing in India
balances space constrictions and is aimed to serve the working class.[124] Growing awareness of
ecology has influenced architecture in India during modern times.[125]
Climate responsive architecture has long been a feature of India's architecture but has been losing its
significance as of late.[126] Indian architecture reflects its various socio-cultural sensibilities which
vary from region to region.[126] Certain areas are traditionally held to be belonging to women.[126]
Villages in India have features such as courtyards, loggias, terraces and balconies.[124] Calico, chintz,
and palampore—of Indian origin—highlight the assimilation of Indian textiles in global interior
design.[127] Roshandans, which are skylights-cum-ventilators, are a common feature in Indian homes,
especially in North India.[128][129]
Brutalism
At the time of independence in
1947, India had only about 300
trained architects in a population
of what was then 330 million, and
only one training institution, the
Indian Institute of Architects. Thus
the first generation of Indian
architects were educated abroad.
Secretariat Building,
Lotus Temple, Delhi Fariborz Sahba
Chandigarh, Le Corbusier Some early architects were
traditionalists, such as Ganesh
Deolalikar, whose design for the Supreme Court imitated the Lutyens-
Baker buildings down to the last detail, and B.R. Manickam, who
designed the Vidhana Soudha in Bangalore revived the Dravidian
architecture.
In 1950, French architect Le Corbusier, a pioneer of modernist

architecture, was commissioned by Jawaharlal Nehru to design the
IIT Delhi, J. K. Choudhury city of Chandigarh. His plan called for residential, commercial and
industrial areas, along with parks and transportation infrastructure. In
the middle was the capitol, a complex of three government buildings –
the Palace of Assembly, the High Court, and the Secretariat.[130] He
also designed the Sanskar Kendra at Ahmedabad. Corbusier inspired
the next generation of architects in India to work with modern, rather
than revivalist styles.[131]
Economic liberalisation and consequent prosperity enabled more

radical new styles to be tried along with a sense to compete with
Stateman House, New Delhi,
modern and western architectural standards.
Sir Edwin Lutyens and Sir
Herbert Baker
Other prominent examples of modernist architecture in India include
IIM Ahmedabad by Louis Kahn (1961), IIT Delhi by Jugal Kishore
Chodhury (1961), IIT Kanpur by Achyut Kanvinde (1963), IIM
Bangalore by B. V. Doshi (1973), Lotus Temple by Fariborz Sahba
(1986), and Jawahar Kala Kendra (1992) and Vidhan Bhawan Bhopal
(1996) by Charles Correa.[131]
Skyscrapers built in the international style are becoming increasingly

Reserve Bank of India (RBI) common in cities. This includes The 42 (2019) and The Imperial
building Kolkata, Sir Rajen (2010) by Hafeez Contractor. Other projects of the 21st century
Mookherjee
include IIT Hyderabad by Christopher Benninger (2015).
Notable ongoing projects in India include the city of Amaravati,

Kolkata Museum of Modern Art, Sardar Patel Stadium, World One, and Navi Mumbai Airport.
Landscape Architecture
There is less archaeological evidence of early gardens elsewhere in India but the ancient Hindu sacred
books give a remarkably detailed account of gardens in Ancient India.
During Mauryan Era, palaces

took a central role and with it
came the gardens. The Hindu
scriptures (shastras) set down
a code for the orientation and
organization of buildings in
relation to compass points,
hills, water and plants. No
physical form survived but
rock carvings like in Ajanta
Caves or in Stupas shows an
existence of airy structures
with timber columns. Those
Bimbisara visiting a bamboo garden
illustrations show vegetation
in Rajagriha alongside the platform and
columns. Emperor Ashoka's
inscriptions mention the
Taj Mahal Gardens plan
establishment of botanical gardens for planting medicinal herbs,
plants, and trees. They contained pools of water, were laid in grid
patterns, and normally had chattri pavilions with them.
Hindu and Buddhist temple sites, from ancient times, have emphasized on 'Sacred Grooves' or
medical gardens. Hindu and Buddhist Temples like in Mahabodhi and Chinese Buddhist pilgrim
Xuanzang mentions accounts of Nalanda where "azure pool winds around the monasteries, adorned
with the full-blown cups of the blue lotus; the dazzling red flowers of the lovely kanaka hang here and
there, and outside groves of mango trees offer the inhabitants their dense and protective shade."
Manasollasa, a twelfth century text giving details on garden design, asserts that it should include
rocks and raised mounds of summits, manicured with plants and trees of diverse varieties, artificial
ponds, and flowing brooks. It describes the arrangement, the soils, the seeds, the distance between
types of plants and trees, the methods of preparing manure, proper fertilizing and maintaining the
garden, which plants and trees are best planted first, when to plant others, watering, signs of
overwatering and underwatering, weeds, means of protecting the garden, and other details.
Early Islamic dynasties, like of Delhi Sultanates, never showed

interests on gardens with an exception of Lodhi Dynasty. Mughals
along with the Hindu Rajputs ushered a new era of Garden
architecture. Concepts like Charbagh (four gardens) came from
Persia. In the Charbagh at the Taj Mahal, each of the four parts
contains sixteen flower beds.
Fountain and running water was a key feature of Mughal garden

design. Water-lifting devices like geared Persian wheels (saqiya) Pari Mahal
were used for irrigation and to feed the water-courses at
Humayun's Tomb in Delhi, Akbar's Gardens in Sikandra and
Fatehpur Sikhri, the Lotus Garden of Babur at Dholpur and the Shalimar Bagh in Srinagar.
Royal canals were built from rivers to channel water to Delhi and Fatehpur Sikhri. The fountains and
water-chutes of Mughal gardens represented the resurrection and regrowth of life, as well as to
represent the cool, mountainous streams of Central Asia and Afghanistan that Babur was famously
fond of.
Nishat Bagh, Srinagar Lal Bagh , Bengaluru View of the Mughal

Garden [Now Amrit
udhyaan] of
Rashtrapati Bhavan
Waterfall at Rock Char Bagh Garden, The Athpula (eight

Garden, Chandigarh Rajasthan piers) bridge in Lodi
gardens
Arches
Indian architecture has utilized both false and true arches in its architecture, but structural arches
have been essentially absent from Hindu temple architecture at all periods.
Corbel arches
Corbel arches in India date from Indus Valley civilisation which used corbel arch to construct drains
and have been evidenced at Mohenjo daro, Harappa, and Dholavira.[132]
The oldest arches surviving in Indian architecture are the gavaksha or "chaitya arches" found in
ancient rock-cut architecture, and agreed to be copied from versions in wood which have all perished.
These often terminate a whole ceiling with a semi-circular top; wooden roofs made in this way can be
seen in carved depictions of cities and palaces. A number of small early constructed temples have such
roofs, using corbelled construction, as well as an

Arch styles in Indian Architecture
apsidal plan; the Trivikrama Temple at Ter,
Maharashtra is an example. The arch shape
survived into constructed Indian architecture, not
as an opening in a wall but as a blind niche
projection from a wall, that bears only its own
weight. In this form it became a very common and
important decorative motif on Hindu temples.[133] Dropped keystone, King Corbel arches in Qutb
Edward VII Arch, Victoria Minar complex, Delhi
The "fundamental architectural principle of the Memorial
constructed Hindu temple is always formulated in
the trabeate order", that is to say using post and
lintel systems with vertical and horizontal
members.[134] According to George Michell: "Never
was the principle of the arch with radiating
components, such as voussoirs and keystones,
employed in Hindu structures, either in India or in
Post and lintel construction Victorian Gothic
other parts of Asia. It was not so much that Hindu
(Trabeate style) of arches in Chhatrapati
architects were ignorant of these techniques, but
Airavatesvara Temple, India Shivaji Terminus,
rather that conformance to tradition and adherence
Mumbai
to precedents were firm cultural attitudes".[135]
Harle describes the true arch as "not unknown, but
almost never employed by Hindu builders",[136] and its use as "rare, but widely dispersed".[137]
True Arch
The 19th century archaeologist Alexander Cunningham, head of

the Archaeological Survey of India, at first believed that due to the
total absence of arches in Hindu temples, they were alien to
Indian architecture, but several pre-Islamic examples bear
testimony to their existence, as explained by him in the following
manner:[138]
Formerly it was the settled belief of all European

enquirers that the ancient Hindus were ignorant of the
Arch. This belief no doubt arose from the total absence
of arches in any of the Hindu Temples. Thirty years
ago I shared this belief with Mr. Fergusson, when I
Pointed arch, Mahabodhi temple, argued that the presence of arches in the great
6th–7th century CE, Late-Gupta Buddhist Temple at Buddha Gaya proved that the
period. Photo 1897. building could not have been erected before the
Muhammadan conquest. But during my late
employment in the Archeological Survey of India
several buildings of undoubted antiquity were
discovered in which both vaults and arches formed
part of the original construction.
— Alexander Cunningham, Mahâbodhi, or the great

Buddhist temple under the Bodhi tree at Buddha-
Gaya, 1892
Archaeological evidences indicate that wedge shaped bricks and construction of wells in the Indus
valley civilization and although no true arches have been discovered as of yet, these bricks would have
been suitable in the construction of true arches.[139] True arch in India dates from pre Mauryan
Nanda period from the 5th century BC. Arch fragment discovered by archaeologist K. P. Jayaswal
from an arch with Brahmi inscribed on it,[140][141] or 1st - 2nd century CE when it first appeared in
Kausambi palace architecture from Kushana period.[142] Arches present at Vishnu temples at Deo
Baranark, Amb and Kafir Kot temples from Hindu Shahi period and Hindu temple of Bhitargaon bear
testimony to the use arches in the Hindu temple architecture.[143][144][145]
Although Alexander Cunningham has persisted in the notion that

the Buddhist Mahabodhi Temple's pointed arch was added later
during a Burmese restoration, given its predominant use in
Islamic architecture, scholars such as Huu Phuoc Le have
contested this assumption based on analysis that relieving arches
could not have been added without destroying the entire temple
structure, which is dated to 6th–7th century CE. Hence the
pointed and relieving arches much have formed part of the
original building dating from the pre-Islamic periods in
proper.[146][147] Moreover, pointed arches vaulted entrances have
been noted in Bhitargaon temple and Kausambi Palace
architecture as well.[148][149]
Trabeate style
Arches of Diwan-i-Khas, Red Fort,
Trabeate style is one of the main style of architecture of that time
Delhi
Lintel use in this style.

shikar also prevail in this.
No use of minar.
Material sand stone.
Arcuate style
Arcuate style is also one of the main style for architecture.
In this lintel is replaced by arch.

There is also use of dome.
Concept of minar is also there.
Material, brick, lime and mortar used for making of dome (Wood was primarily not used because
of the geography).[150]
Torana
Torana, also referred to as vandanamalikas,[151] is a free-

standing ornamental or arched gateway for ceremonial purposes
seen in the Hindu, Buddhist and Jain architecture of the Indian
subcontinent, Southeast Asia and parts of East Asia.[152] Chinese
paifang gateways, Japanese torii gateways,[153][154][155] Korean
Hongsalmun gateways, and Thai Sao Ching Cha[156] were derived
from the Indian torana.
Torana is considered sacred and honorific gateway in Hindu and Nav Toran Temple, Neemuch,
Buddhist religious sites.[157] It is built with a projecting cross- Madhya Pradesh
piece resting on two uprights or posts. Mostly made of wood or
stone, and the cross-piece is generally of three bars placed one on
the top of the other; both cross-piece and posts are usually sculpted.
Toranas are associated with Buddhist stupas like the Great Stupa in Sanchi, as well as with Jain and
Hindu structures, and also with several secular structures. Symbolic toranas can also be made of
flowers and even leaves and hung over the doors and at entrances, particularly in Western and
Southern India. They are believed to bring good fortune and signify auspicious and festive occasions.
They can also serve didactic and narrative purposes or be erected to mark the victory of a king.[158]
During Vesak festival of Sri Lanka it is a tradition to erect electrically illuminated colorful Vesak
toranas in public places. These decorations are temporary installations which remain in public display
for couple of weeks starting from the day of Vesak.
Hindu, Buddhist and Jain toranas
Rear side of North Torana of A photo of Torana taken in Torana of the 10th century
Stupa-1 at Sanchi Hill, 3rd 1890 of 10th century Muktesvara deula, India.
century BCE to 1st century Jagannath Temple, Puri,
BCE, India India
Torana from the 12th century Torana in Sas-Bahu Temple, 12th century Torana at
Kakatiya dynasty, at Udaipur Parshvanatha temple,
Warangal Fort, India Jaisalmer Fort
Gavaksha
A Gavaksha or chandrashala are often used to describe the motif centred on an ogee, circular or
horseshoe arch that decorates many examples of Indian rock-cut architecture and later Indian
structural temples and other buildings. It is called a chaitya arch when used on the facade of a chaitya
hall, around the single large window. In later forms it develops well beyond this type, and becomes a
very flexible unit.[159] Gavāksha is a Sanskrit word which means "bulls or cows eye". In Hindu
temples, their role is envisioned as symbolically radiating the light and splendour of the central icon
in its sanctum.[160] Alternatively, they are described as providing a window for the deity to gaze out
into the world. Like the whole of the classic chaitya, the form originated in the shape of the wooden
thatched roofs of buildings, none of which have survived; the earliest version replicating such roofs in
stone is at the entrance to the non-Buddhist Lomas Rishi Cave, one of the man-made Barabar Caves
in Bihar.
Influence on neighboring Asian countries
To know Indian art in India alone is to know but half its story. To apprehend it to the full,
we must follow it in the wake of Buddhism, to central Asia, China, and Japan; we much
watch it assuming new forms and breaking new forms and breaking into new beauties as it
spreads over Tibet and Burma, and Siam; we must gaze in

Influence on Southeast Asia
awe at the unexampled grandeur of its creations in
Cambodia and Java. In each of these countries, Indian art
encounters a different racial genius, a different local
environment, and under their modifying influence it takes
on a different garb.
— Sir John Marshall, Director-General of the

Archaeological Survey of India
Hòa Lai Towers in Ninh Thuận
province, Vietnam
Influence on Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia was under Indian sphere of cultural influence starting

around 290 BC until around the 15th century, when Hindu-Buddhist
influence was absorbed by local politics. Kingdoms in the southeast
coast of the Indian Subcontinent had established trade, cultural and
political relations with Southeast Asian kingdoms in Burma, Thailand,
Prasat Bayon (Jayagiri
Indonesia, Malay Peninsula, Philippines, Cambodia and Champa. This
Brahma Palace), Cambodia
led to Indianisation and Sanskritisation of Southeast Asia within
Indosphere, Southeast Asian polities were the Indianised Hindu-
Buddhist Mandala.
Vietnam
The profile of the 13th-century Po

Klong Garai Temple near Phan "The serenity of the stone
Rang includes all the buildings faces" occupying many towers,
typical of a Cham temple. From left Bayon, Cambodia
to right one can see the gopura,
the saddle-shaped kosagrha, and
mandapa attached to the kalan
tower.
Po Klong Garai Temple near Phan
Between the 6th and the 16th
Rang
century, the Kingdom of Champa
flourished in present-day central
and southern Vietnam. Unlike the Trimurti Prambanan temple,
Javanese that mostly used volcanic andesite stone for their temples, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
and Khmer of Angkor which mostly employed grey sandstones to
construct their religious buildings, the Cham built their temples from
reddish bricks. The most important remaining sites of Cham bricks temple architecture include Mỹ
Sơn near Da Nang, Po Nagar near Nha Trang, and Po Klong Garai near Phan Rang.
Typically, a Cham temple complex consisted of several different kinds of buildings. They are kalan, a
brick sanctuary, typically in the form of a tower with garbahgriha used to host the murti of deity. A
mandapa is an entry hallway connected with a sanctuary. A kosagrha or "fire-house" is a temple
construction typically with a saddle-shaped roof, used to house the valuables belonging to the deity or
to cook for the deity. The gopura was a gate-tower leading into a walled temple complex. These
building types are typical for Hindu temples in general; the classification is valid not only for the
architecture of Champa, but also for other architectural traditions of Greater India.
Indonesia
Prambanan, an example of Indonesian temple architecture
Prambanan temple (Shivagrha) of Central Java, an example of the 9th century Indonesian Javanese Hindu temple
architecture with mandala layout and prasad tower crowned with stylized ratna-vajra.
Temples are called candi (pronounced [tʃandi]) in Indonesia, whether it is Buddhist or Hindu. A Candi
refers to a structure based on the Indian type of single-celled shrine, with a pyramidal tower above it
(Meru tower in Bali), and a portico for entrance,[161] mostly built between the 7th to 15th
centuries.[161][162] In Hindu Balinese architecture, a candi shrine can be found within a pura
compound. The best example of Indonesian Javanese Hindu temple architecture is the 9th century
Prambanan (Shivagrha) temple compound, located in Central Java, near Yogyakarta. This largest
Hindu temple in Indonesia has three main prasad towers, dedicated to Trimurti gods. Shiva temple,
the largest main temple is towering to 47 metre-high (154 ft). The term "candi" itself is believed was
derived from Candika, one of the manifestations of the goddess Durga as the goddess of death.[163]
Cambodia
Khmer empire's (present day Cambodia) great capital, Angkor

(Khmer: អង្គរ, "Capital City", derived from Sanskrit "nagara"),
contains some of the most important and the most magnificent
example of Khmer temple architecture. The classic style of
Angkorian temple is demonstrated by the 12th century Angkor
Wat.The main superstructure of typical Khmer temple is a
towering prasat called prang which houses the garbhagriha
inner chamber, where the murti of Vishnu or Shiva, or a lingam Angkor Wat
resides. Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric
series of walls, with the central sanctuary in the middle; this
arrangement represented the mountain ranges surrounding Mount Meru, the mythical home of the
gods. Enclosures are the spaces between these walls, and between the innermost wall and the temple
itself. The walls defining the enclosures of Khmer temples are frequently lined by galleries, while
passage through the walls is by way of gopuras located at the cardinal points. The main entrance
usually adorned with elevated causeway with cruciform terrace.[164]
Thailand
Thailand was heavily influenced by the culture and religions of India, starting with the Kingdom of
Funan around the first century until the Khmer Empire. Indianised kingdoms such as the Mon, the
Khmer Empire and Malay states of the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra ruled the region.
Thailand under Khmer rule saw inclusion of Indian Hindu temple

influenced Khmer architectural style. The Khmer prangs
resembled north Indian temples' shikhara and rekha (temple
towers) elements. The early 10th century and the late 12th century
prangs in Thailand were influenced by the Khmer architects of the
great temple complexes of Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom. After
the Khmer Empire collapsed, the Thai building masters of the
Sukhothai Kingdom adapted the Prang form. The Thai temple falls
into one of two broad categories: the stupa-style solid temple and Wat Chaiwatthanaram, an example
the prang-style. The prangs can also be found in various forms in of Thai style prang
Sukhothai, Lopburi, Bangkok (Wat Arun). Sizes may vary, but
usually the prangs measure between 15 and 40 meters in height,
and resemble a towering corn-cob like structure. They extended and developed it. The building
material was no more separate small sandstone blocks, instead the Thais built the Prang in brick or
laterite covered with stucco. And the cella could be reached only by stairs. An example for this is the
Prang of the Wat Mahathat in Phitsanulok. Later developments of the Prang suggested the cella only.
The entrance door became a niche, in which was placed the Buddharupa (Buddha statue), which had
originally taken the central position inside. For reasons of symmetry the niche was repeated on all
four sides. On its pinnacle was a Trishul, the "weapon of Indra".
Malaysia
Indo-Saracenic architecture was a revivalist architectural style mostly used by British architects in
India in the later 19th century, especially in public and government buildings in the British Raj, and
the palaces of rulers of the princely states. It drew stylistic and decorative elements from native Indo-
Islamic architecture, especially Mughal architecture. The basic layout and structure of the buildings
tended to be close to that used in contemporary buildings in other revivalist styles, such as Gothic
revival and Neo-Classical, with specific Indian features and decoration added.
According to Thomas R. Metcalf, a leading scholar of the style, "the Indo-Saracenic, with its imagined
past turned to the purposes of British colonialism, took shape outside India [ie the subcontinent]
most fully only in Malaya".
In Malaysia, due to British colonial influence and the migration of Muslims from India, many Mughal
architectural elements in the design of mosques were incorporated. British Malaya was a
predominantly Muslim society, where there was hardly any recent tradition of building in brick or
stone, with even mosques and the palaces of the local rulers built in the abundant local hardwoods.
Kuala Lumpur was a 19th-century foundation, only a small settlement when the British decided to
make it the capital of their new Federated Malay States in 1895,

and needed a number of large public buildings. The British
decided to use the Islamic style they were used to from India,
despite it having little relationship to existing local architectural
styles.
Myanmar
Much of Myanmar's architecture is tied to ancient Indian culture, Masjid Ubudiah, showcasing
and can be traced to the country's earliest known inhabitants.[165] elements of Indo-Saracenic style
The Mon and Pyu people were the first two influential groups to
migrate to Myanmar, and the first Indo-Chinese adherents of
Theravada Buddhism.[165] Beikthano, one of the first Pyu centers, contains urbanesque foundations
which include a monastery and stupa-like structures. These Pyu stupas, the first Indian foundations
in Myanmar, were built from 200 BC to 100 CE and were sometimes used for burial.
During Pagan period, the Pyu-style stupas were transformed into

monuments reminiscent of alms bowls or gourd-shaped domes,
unbaked brick, tapered and rising roofs, Buddha niches, polylobed
arches and ornamental doorways influenced by Bengali Pala
Empire and its monuments. The Ananda Temple (finished in
1090), one of the first temples erected in Bagan, was influenced by
Indian architecture.[166] Architectural features of the temple
include brick vaulted halls, Buddha statues, tapered roofs and the
Temples in Bagan absence of terraces.
Pala influence and spread of

Buddhism in Myanmar also brought in terracotta tiles from
Bengal. The terracotta plaques at Pagan are made with well
kneaded and fired clay but all the plaques are glazed with green
colour.
Another example of these cultural influences include the Ananda

Temple in Bagan built in the 11th century AD under the ruling of
King Kyansittha. At these times, Buddhist and Vaisnava monks
travelled to Burma from Bengal and discussed commonalities
about the beauty of the temples of their region. Therefore, the king Ananda Temple terracotta plaque
heard the monks and decided to build a temple with these western glazed in green
inspirations. Although, the Ananda Temple display its eastern
origins, the western features remain obvious and demonstrate its
uniqueness.[167]
Influence in East Asia
Torii, Paifang, Hongsalmun, Sao Ching Cha
Ancient Indian torana sacred gateway architecture has influenced gateway architecture across Asia,
specially where Buddhism was transmitted from India; Chinese paifang gateways,[168] Japanese torii
gateways,[169] Korean Hongsalmun gateways,[170] and Sao Ching Cha in Thailand[171] have been
derived from the Indian torana. The functions of Torana Derivatives

all are similar, but they generally differ based on
their respective architectural styles.[172]
The torii, a gateway erected on the approach to

every Shinto shrine, may be derived from the
Indian word torana. While the Indian term
denotes a gateway, the Japanese characters can
Torii path leading to Paifang in Chengdu, China
be translated as "bird perch".[173] The function of
Fushimi Inari-taisha
a torii is to mark the entrance to a sacred space.
For this reason, the road leading to a Shinto
shrine (sandō) is almost always straddled by one
or more torii, which are therefore the easiest way
to distinguish a shrine from a Buddhist temple.
Hongsalmun literally means ‘gate with red

Hongsalmun of Heolleung Giant Swing and Wat Suthat
arrows’, referring to the set of pointed spikes on
Royal Tomb
its top. In the past, spikes in between columns
did not exist. The color is said to be red because
of the belief that the color repels ghosts.[174] The gate is composed of 2 round poles set vertically and 2
transverse bars.[175] These pillars are usually over nine meters in height.[176] There is no roof and
door-gate. In the middle top gate, the symbol of the trisula and the taegeuk image are placed.[175]
A paifang, also known as a pailou, is a traditional style of Chinese architectural arch or gateway
structure derived from the torana temple-gate in ancient India, has taken on traditional Chinese
architectural characteristics such as multi-tiered roofs, various supporting posts, and archway-shapes
of traditional gates and towers.
Foreign Influence on Indian Architecture
Hellenistic influence
The Greek conquests in India under Alexander the Great were limited in time (327–326 BCE) and in
extent, but they had extensive long term effects as Greeks settled for centuries at the doorstep of
India. After these events, the Greeks (described as Yona or Yavana in Indian sources from the Greek
"Ionian") were able to maintain a structured presence at the door of India for about three centuries,
through the Seleucid Empire and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, down to the time of the Indo-Greek
kingdoms, which ended sometimes in the 1st century CE.
During that time, the city of Ai-Khanoum, capital of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and the cities of
Sirkap, were founded in what is now Pakistan on the Greek Hippodamian grid plan, and Sagala, now
located in Pakistan 10 km from the border with India, interacted heavily with the Indian
subcontinent. It is considered that Ai-Khanoum and Sirkap may have been primary actors in
transmitting Western artistic influence to India, for example in the creation of the quasi-Ionic
Pataliputra capital or the floral friezes of the Pillars of Ashoka. Numerous Greek ambassadors, such as
Megasthenes, Deimachus and Dionysius, stayed at the Mauryan court in Pataliputra.
During the Maurya period (c. 321–185 BCE), and Hellenistic influence
especially during the time of Emperor Ashoka
(c.268–232 BCE), Hellenistic influence seems to
have played a role in the establishment of Indian
monumental stone architecture. Excavations in
the ancient palace of Pataliputra have brought to
light Hellenistic sculptural works, and Hellenistic
influence appear in the Pillars of Ashoka at about
the same period.
During that period, several instance of artistic

influence are known, particular in the area of Pataliputra capital Bharhut pillar capital
monumental stone sculpture and statuary, an
area with no known precedents in India. The
main period of stone architectural creation seems
to correspond to the period of Ashoka's reign.
Before that, Indians had a tradition of wooden
architecture, remains of wooden palisades were
discovered at archaeological sites in Pataliputra,
confirmed the Classical accounts.
Drawing of Allahabad pillar capital flame palmette
The first examples of stone architecture were also
found in the palace compound of Pataliputra,
with the distinctly Hellenistic Pataliputra capital and a pillared hall using polished-stone columns.
The other remarkable example of monumental stone architecture is that of the Pillars of Ashoka,
themselves displaying Hellenistic influence. There is also very early stone architecture in the palace at
Kosambi, including true arches used in the underground chambers, from the last phase of the palace
in the 1st or 2nd century CE.[177]
Pataliputra capital
The Pataliputra capital is a monumental rectangular capital with volutes and Classical designs, that
was discovered in the palace ruins of the ancient Mauryan Empire capital city of Pataliputra (modern
Patna, northeastern India). It is dated to the 3rd century BCE. It is, together with the Pillars of Ashoka
one of the first known examples of Indian stone architecture, as no Indian stone monuments or
sculptures are known from before that period. It is also one of the first archaeological clues suggesting
Hellenistic influence on the arts of India, in this case sculptural palatial art.
Pillars of Ashoka
The Pillars of Ashoka were built during the reign of the Maurya Empire Ashoka c. 250 BCE. They were
new attempts at mastering stone architecture, as no Indian stone monuments or sculptures are
known from before that period.
There are altogether seven remaining capitals, five with lions, one with an elephant and one with a
zebu bull. One of them, the four lions of Sarnath, has become the State Emblem of India.
The animal capitals are composed of a lotiform base, with an abacus decorated with floral, symbolic
or animal designs, topped by the realistic depiction of an animal, thought to each represent a
traditional direction in India. Greek columns of the 6th century BCE such as the Sphinx of Naxos, a
12.5m Ionic column crowned by a sitting animal in the

religious center of Delphi, may have been an inspiration for
the pillars of Ashoka.
Flame palmette
The flame palmette, central decorative element of the

Pataliputra pillar is considered as a purely Greek motif.
The first appearance of "flame palmettes" goes back to the
stand-alone floral akroteria of the Parthenon (447–432
BCE), and slightly later at the Temple of Athena Nike.
Flame palmettes were then introduced into friezes of floral

motifs in replacement of the regular palmette. Flame
palmettes are used extensively in India floral friezes,
Ashokan Pillar in Vaishali Sphinx of Naxos starting with the floral friezes on the capitals of the pillar of
at Delphi Ashoka, and they are likely to have originated with Greek
or Near Eastern art. A monumental flame palmette can be
seen on the top of the Sunga gateway at Bharhut.
Persian influence
Achaemenid influence
Lion Capital of Ashoka from Sarnath.The Achaemenid conquered and governed the territories of the
North-western regions of the Indian subcontinent, from the 6th to 4th centuries BCE. The conquest
occurred in two phases. The first invasion was conducted around 535 BCE by Cyrus the Great, who
founded the Achaemenid Empire.[178] Cyrus annexed the regions west of the Indus River, which
formed the eastern border of his empire. Following the death of Cyrus, Darius the Great established
his dynasty and began to reconquer former provinces and further expand the extent of the empire.
Around 518 BCE Darius crossed the Himalayas into India to initiate a second period of conquest by
annexing regions up to the Jhelum River in Punjab.[179] Each invasion brought in new style and soon
started to influence the art and architectural styles in India.
Various Indian artefacts tend to suggest some Perso-Hellenistic artistic influence in India, mainly felt
during the time of the Mauryan Empire.[178]
The Pataliputra palace with its pillared hall shows decorative influences of the Achaemenid palaces
and Persepolis and may have used the help of foreign craftsmen.[180][178] Mauryan rulers may have
even imported craftsmen from abroad to build royal monuments.[181] This may be the result of the
formative influence of craftsmen employed from Persia following the disintegration of the
Achaemenid Empire after the conquests of Alexander the Great.[182][183]
The renowned Mauryan polish, especially used in the Pillars of Ashoka, may also have been a
technique imported from the Achaemenid Empire.[178]
Rock cut architecture
The Achaemenid Derivatives
Achaemenid Highly polished Achaemenid

capital in load-bearing column, Persepolis
Persepolis
Lion capital in Vardhana Lion Capital of Ashoka

from Sarnath
Achaemenid influence like stone polishing and dual-headed capital from conquest by Persians and Greeks
similarity of the 4th century BCE Lycian barrel-vaulted tombs, such as the tomb of Payava, in the
western part of the Achaemenid Empire, with the Indian architectural design of the Chaitya (starting
at least a century later from circa 250 BCE, with the Lomas Rishi caves in the Barabar caves group),
suggests that the designs of the Lycian rock-cut tombs travelled to India along the trade routes across
the Achaemenid Empire.[184][185]
Early on, James Fergusson, in his " Illustrated Handbook of Architecture", while describing the very
progressive evolution from wooden architecture to stone architecture in various ancient civilizations,
has commented that "In India, the form and construction of the older Buddhist temples resemble so
singularly these examples in Lycia".[186] The structural similarities, down to many architectural
details, with the Chaitya-type Indian Buddhist temple designs, such as the "same pointed form of
roof, with a ridge", are further developed in The cave temples of India.[187] The Lycian tombs, dated
to the 4th century BCE, are either free-standing or rock-cut barrel-vaulted sarcophagi, placed on a
high base, with architectural features carved in stone to imitate wooden structures. There are
numerous rock-cut equivalents to the free-standing structures and decorated with reliefs.[188][189][190]
Fergusson went on to suggest an "Indian connection", and some form of cultural transfer across the
Achaemenid Empire.[185] The ancient transfer of Lycian designs for rock-cut monuments to India is
considered as "quite probable".[184]
Masarh Lion
Perso-Hellenistic influence
The sculpture of the Masarh lion, found near the
Maurya capital of Pataliputra, raises the question of
the Achaemenid and Greek influence on the art of
the Maurya Empire, and on the western origins of
stone carving in India. The lion is carved in Chunar
sandstone, like the Pillars of Ashoka, and its finish
is polished, a feature of the Maurya sculpture.[191] Masarh lion Achaemenid lion Lion of
According to S.P. Gupta, the sculptural style is sculpture Menecrates,
unquestionably Achaemenid.[191] This is particularly Greece
the case for the well-ordered tubular representation
of whiskers (vibrissas) and the geometrical
representation of inflated veins flush with the entire face.[191] The mane, on the other hand, with tufts
of hair represented in wavelets, is rather naturalistic.[191] Very similar examples are however known
in Greece and Persepolis.[191] It is possible that this sculpture was made by an Achaemenid or Greek
sculptor in India and either remained without effect, or was the Indian imitation of a Greek or
Achaemenid model, somewhere between the fifth century BCE and the first century BCE, although it
is generally dated from the time of the Maurya Empire, around the 3rd century BCE.[191]
See also
Architecture portal
India portal
Architecture of Karnataka
Architecture of Kerala
Architecture of Tamil Nadu
Badami cave temples
Hemadpanthi
Indian vernacular architecture
Kalinga Architecture
List of Indian architects
Meitei architecture
Rajasthani architecture
Temples of North Karnataka
Other Indian Art and Architecture forms
Indian art
Indo-Greek art
Art of Mathura
Gupta art
Mauryan art
Kushan art
Hoysala architecture
Vijayanagara architecture
Greco-Buddhist art
Chola art and architecture
Pallava art and architecture
Badami Chalukya architecture
Notes
1. See Raj Jadhav, pp. 7–13 in Modern Traditions: Contemporary Architecture in India.
2. Rowland, 31–34, 32 quoted; Harle, 15–18
3. Livingstone & Beach, 19
4. Rowland, 31–34, 33 quoted; Harle, 15–18
5. U. Singh (2008), pp. 181, 223
6. Basant, P. K. (2012). The City and the Country in Early India: A Study of Malwa (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=KOJ8aT3xYPoC&q=daimabad+elliptical+temple&pg=PA94). Primus Books.
ISBN 9789380607153.
7. Though a variety of dates are proposed, some 80 of so years earlier.
8. Rowland, 60
9. Rowland, 60–63 60 quoted
10. Rowland, 63–65
11. Rowland, 72; Harle 22–24
12. Rowland, 65–72; Harle 24
13. Harle, 24; Rowland, 64–65
14. Buddhist Architecture, Le Huu Phuoc, Grafikol 2009, pp. 97–99
15. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), Pagoda.
16. Chandra (2008)
17. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), torii
18. ":: JAANUS :: Terminology of Japanese Architecture & Art History" (http://www.aisf.or.jp/~jaanus/).
Aisf.or.jp. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
19. Livingston & Beach, xxiii
20. Huu, 242
21. Ajanta chronology is still under discussion, but this is the view of Spink, accepted by many.
22. Beach, Milo, Steps to Water: The Ancient Stepwells of India, (Photographs by Morna Livingston),
p. 25, 2002, Princeton Architectural Press, ISBN 1568983247, 9781568983240, google books (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=KoVCliqcmIIC&pg=PA25)
23. Harle 1994, pp. 118–22, 123–26, 129–35.
24. Harle 1994, pp. 92–97.
25. Harle, 113–114; see also site entries in Michell (1990)
26. Michell (1990), 192
27. Michael Meister (1987), Hindu Temple, in The Encyclopedia of Religion, editor: Mircea Eliade,
Volume 14, Macmillan, ISBN 0-02-909850-5, page 370
28. Michell (1990), 157; Michell (1988), 96
29. Harle, 111–113, 136–138; Michell (1988), 90, 96–98; see also site entries in Michell (1990)
30. Harle, 111–113; Michell (1988), 94–98
31. Harle, 175
32. Cunningham, Alexander (1879). Report of a Tour in the Central Provinces in 1873-74 and 1874-75
(https://books.google.com/books?id=X88OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA31). Archaeological Survey of
India. Vol. 9. Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing. p. 31.
33. Michell, Chapter 4; confusingly, in South India shikhara means only the top section of the vimana.
34. These are the usual terms, but there are many variants or different ones in the many Indian
languages, ancient and modern.
35. Rowland, 275–276
36. Michell (1988), 18, 50–54, 89, 149–155; Harle (1994), 335
37. Rowland, 277–280
38. Rowland, 220–223
39. Rowland, 276
40. Adam Hardy for example uses "Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa" for styles others call "vesara". See his Indian
Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation: the Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa Tradition, 7th to 13th
Centuries, 1995, Abhinav Publications, New Delhi, ISBN 8170173124, 9788170173120, google
books (https://books.google.com/books?id=aU0hCAS2-08C&pg=PA183)
41. Harle (1994), 87–100; Michell (1988), 18
42. Meister, Michael W. (1988–1989). "Prāsāda as Palace: Kūṭina Origins of the Nāgara Temple".
Artibus Asiae. 49 (3–4): 254–256. doi:10.2307/3250039 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3250039).
JSTOR 3250039 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3250039).
43. Meister, Michael W. (1988–1989). "Prāsāda as Palace: Kūṭina Origins of the Nāgara Temple".
Artibus Asiae. 49 (3–4): 254–280. doi:10.2307/3250039 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3250039).
JSTOR 3250039 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3250039).
44. Michael W. Meister and M.A. Dhaky (1983), South India: Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple
Architecture, Vol. I, Part I, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691784021, pages 30–53
45. Michell 1995, pp. 9–10: "The era under consideration opens with an unprecedented calamity for
Southern India: the invasion of the region at the turn of the fourteenth century by Malik Kafur,
general of Alauddin, Sultan of Delhi. Malik Kafur's forces brought to an abrupt end all of the
indigenous ruling houses of Southern India, not one of which was able to withstand the assault or
outlive the conquest. Virtually every city of importance in the Kannada, Telugu and Tamil zones
succumbed to the raids of Malik Kafur; forts were destroyed, palaces dismantled and temple
sanctuaries wrecked in the search for treasure. In order to consolidate the rapidly won gains of
this pillage, Malik Kafur established himself in 1323 at Madurai (Madura) in the southernmost part
of the Tamil zone, former capital of the Pandyas who were dislodged by the Delhi forces. Madurai
thereupon became the capital of the Ma'bar (Malabar) province of the Delhi empire."
46. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), North Indian temple architecture.
47. Michell (1977), Chapter 8
48. MSN Encarta (2008), Hoysala_Dynasty (https://au.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761588346/Ho
ysala_Dynasty.html). Archived (https://www.webcitation.org/5kwKcQ2xF?url=http://au.encarta.ms
n.com/encyclopedia_761588346/Hoysala_Dynasty.html) 2009-10-31.
49. See Percy Brown in Sūryanātha Kāmat's A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to
the present, p. 134.
50. "The Hindu : Karnataka / Hassan News : Belur to be proposed as World Heritage site" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20041022053319/http://www.hindu.com/2004/07/25/stories/200407250149030
0.htm). 22 October 2004. Archived from the original (http://www.hindu.com/2004/07/25/stories/200
4072501490300.htm) on 22 October 2004. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
51. Foekema, 16
52. Desai, Devangana (2005). Khajuraho: The Art of Love. Mapin Publishing Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 978-
1890206628.
53. Bajpai, K.D (2012). Khajuraho temples: History and significance. Aryan Books International.
54. Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Khajuraho Group of Monuments" (https://whc.unesco.org/en/li
st/240/). UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 26 February 2023.
55. Stella Kramrisch (1976), The Hindu Temple Volume 1 & 2, ISBN 81-208-0223-3
56. Tillotson, G. H. R. (1997). Svastika Mansion: A Silpa-Sastra in the 1930s. South Asian Studies,
13(1), pp 87–97
57. Ganapati Sastri (1920), Īśānaśivagurudeva paddhati, Trivandrum Sanskrit Series,
OCLC 71801033 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/71801033)
58. "The Rathas, monolithic [Mamallapuram]" (http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/
t/019pho0000472s1u00027000.html). Online Gallery of British Library. Retrieved 23 October
2012.
59. "Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram" (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/249/). UNESCO.org.
Retrieved 23 October 2012.
60. Bruyn, Pippa de; Bain, Keith; Allardice, David; Shonar Joshi (18 February 2010). Frommer's India
(https://books.google.com/books?id=qG-9cwHOcCIC&pg=PA333). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 333–.
ISBN 978-0-470-64580-2. Retrieved 7 February 2013.
61. Takeo Kamiya. "Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 20 September 1996" (http://www.indoarc
h.org/). Gerard da Cunha-Architecture Autonomous, Bardez, Goa, India. Retrieved 10 November
2006.
63. See Carla Sinopoli, Echoes of Empire: Vijayanagara and Historical Memory, Vijayanagara as
Historical Memory, p. 26.
64. See Carla Sinopoli, The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, C.
1350–1650, p. 209.
66. Haig 1907, p. 65-87.
67. Khamesra, Manish (19 January 2021). "Ghumakkar Insights: A Gavaksh to the Ancient Indian
Temple Architecture" (https://www.ghumakkar.com/a-gavaksh-to-the-ancient-north-indian-temple-a
rchitecture/). Ghumakkar – Inspiring travel experiences. Retrieved 15 July 2021.
68. "TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE" (https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/kefa106.pdf)
(PDF). ncert.nic.in. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
69. Michell, 149
70. Harle, 254
71. Harle, 256–261
72. Harle, 261–263
73. Michell (1990), 274–276; Harle, 226–227
74. Harle, 228
75. "Temple-cities"; see also Mitchell (1990) by sites

76. Hegewald
77. Harle, 428–432
78. Harle, 423–424
79. Yale, 164–165; Harle, 423–424; Blair & Bloom, 149
80. Blair & Bloom, 149–150; Harle, 425
81. Harle, 425
82. Blair & Bloom, 151
85. Harle, 426; Blair & Bloom, 156
86. "Alluring Bahmani architecture" (https://www.deccanherald.com/spectrum/spectrum-top-stories/all
uring-bahmani-architecture-749973.html). Deccan Herald. 27 July 2019. Retrieved 16 July 2021.
87. Yazdani 1947, p. 152.
88. Michell, George & Mark Zebrowski. Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates (The New
Cambridge History of India Vol. I:7), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999, ISBN 0-521-
56321-6, p. 14 & pp. 77–80.
89. Haig 1907, p. 209-216.
90. "Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai" (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1480/).
UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180828023451/https://
whc.unesco.org/en/list/1480/) from the original on 28 August 2018. Retrieved 2 January 2019.
91. "Architecture" (http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Architecture). Banglapedia. Retrieved
30 December 2017.
92. Hasan, Perween (2007). Sultans and Mosques: The Early Muslim Architecture of Bangladesh.
United Kingdom: I.B. Tauris. p. 23–27. ISBN 1-84511-381-0.
93. Hasan, 23–25
94. Hasan, 41–44
95. Hasan, 44–49
96. "BENGAL – Encyclopaedia Iranica" (http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bengal).
Iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 30 December 2017.
97. Petersen, Andrew (2002). Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. Routledge. pp. 33–35. ISBN 1-134-
61366-0.
98. "Fatehpur Sikri" (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/255/). UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved
12 March 2019.
99. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008), Mughal architecture.
100. "Taj Mahal" (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/252/). UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved
28 February 2019.
101. "Humayun's Tomb, Delhi" (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/232/). UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190228192141/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/232/) from
the original on 28 February 2019. Retrieved 28 February 2019.
102. Kossak, Steven; Watts, Edith Whitney (2001). The Art of South and Southeast Asia: A Resource
for Educators (https://books.google.com/books?id=orBAYzCRJhIC&q=Rajput+architecture+was+i
nfluenced+by+Islamic+architecture&pg=PA7). Metropolitan Museum of Art.
ISBN 9780870999925.
103. Steven, Kossak; Watts, Edith Whitney (2001). The Art of South and Southeast Asia: A Resource
for Educators (https://books.google.com/books?id=orBAYzCRJhIC&q=Rajput+architecture+was+i
nfluenced+by+Islamic+architecture&pg=PA7). Metropolitan Museum of Art.
ISBN 9780870999925.
104. Michell, George (1990), The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India, Volume 1: Buddhist, Jain,
Hindu, 1990, Penguin Books, pg −288-301 ISBN 0140081445
105. "Short notes on Architecture of Marathas" (https://www.preservearticles.com/notes/short-notes-on-
architecture-of-marathas/14139). 29 October 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2023.
106. Amit Guha, Classification of Terracotta Temples (https://web.archive.org/web/20160131235044/htt
p://www.aishee.org/essays/classification.php), archived from the original (http://www.aishee.org/es
says/classification.php) on 31 January 2016, retrieved 30 January 2016
107. Andrew Petersen (2002). Dictionary of Islamic Architecture (https://books.google.com/books?id=9
A-EAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA34). Routledge. p. 34. ISBN 978-1-134-61365-6.
108. Thapar 2004, p. 122.
109. Nilsson 1968, p. 9.
110. "(Brief) History of European – Asian trade" (https://web.archive.org/web/20111017155402/http://w
ww.iro.umontreal.ca/~vaucher/Genealogy/Documents/Asia/EuropeanExploration.html#england).
European Exploration. Archived from the original (http://www.iro.umontreal.ca/~vaucher/Genealog
y/Documents/Asia/EuropeanExploration.html#england) on 17 October 2011. Retrieved 14 October
2011.
111. Tadgell 1990, p. 14.
112. Evenson 1989, p. 2.
113. Evenson 1989, p. 6.
114. Evenson 1989, p. 20.
115. Dutta, Arindam (29 March 2010). "Representing Calcutta: Modernity, Nationalism and the Colonial
Uncanny". Journal of Architectural Education. 63 (2): 167–169. doi:10.1111/j.1531-
314X.2010.01082.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1531-314X.2010.01082.x). S2CID 143881493 (ht
tps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143881493).
116. Nilsson 1968, pp. 66–67.
117. Thapar 2004, p. 129.
118. "Monuments of Modern India: The first half century of railways architecture – Heritage Directorate,
Indian Railways" (https://artsandculture.google.com/exhibit/monuments-of-modern-india-the-first-h
alf-century-of-railways-architecture/QgLCjuErJgqXLw). Google Arts & Culture. Retrieved
31 March 2021.
119. Thapar 2004, p. 125.
120. Chandrashekhar, Vaishnavi (21 October 2019). "Discovering Mumbai's Art Deco Treasures" (http
s://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/21/travel/mumbai-art-deco.html). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-
4331 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331). Retrieved 31 March 2021.
121. "Churches and Convents of Goa" (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/234/). UNESCO World Heritage
Centre. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190104191222/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/23
4) from the original on 4 January 2019. Retrieved 2 January 2019.
122. "Fort Feringhee" (https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/fort-feringhee/cid/1723256). The
Telegraph. Retrieved 31 March 2021.
123. See Raj Jadhav, p. 11 in Modern Traditions: Contemporary Architecture in India.
124. Gast, 77
125. Gast, 119
126. See Raj Jadhav, 13 in Modern Traditions: Contemporary Architecture in India.
127. Savage 2008

128. Thomas George Percival Spear; Margaret Spear (1981), India remembered (https://books.google.
com/books?id=6vEtAAAAMAAJ), Orient Longman, 1981, ISBN 978-0-86131-265-8, "... The
bungalow was a typical north Indian one, with a large central room lit only by skylights
(roshandans) and a number of others opening out from them ..."
129. Pavan K. Varma, Sondeep Shankar (1992), Mansions at dusk: the havelis of old Delhi (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=jCBuAAAAMAAJ), Spantech Publishers, 1992, ISBN 978-81-85215-14-
3, "... Thirdly, while obviating direct sunlight, it had to allow some light and air to enter through
overhead roshandans ..."
130. "The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement"
(https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1321/). UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20190301021805/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1321/) from the original on 1 March
2019. Retrieved 28 February 2019.
131. Mukerji, Arjun; Sanghamitra, Basu (January 2011). "A Search for Post-Modernism in Indian
Architecture" (https://www.academia.edu/8859069). Abacus.
132. Lemoy, Christian (2011). Across the Pacific: From Ancient Asia to Precolombian America (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=hdeSBQAAQBAJ&q=corbel+arch+mohenjo+daro&pg=PA28).
Christian Lemoy. ISBN 9781599425825.
133. Rowland, 44–45, 64–65, 113, 218–219; Harle, 48, 175
134. Michell, 82
135. Michell, 84
136. Harle, 530, note 3 to chapter 30. See also 489, note 10
137. Harle, 493, note 5
138. Cunningham, Alexander (1892). Mahâbodhi, or the great Buddhist temple under the Bodhi tree at
Buddha-Gaya. London: W. H. Allen. p. 85.
139. Robinson, Andrew (15 November 2015). The Indus: Lost Civilizations (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=SzS6CwAAQBAJ&q=indus+valley+civilization+wells+true+arch&pg=PA58). Reaktion
Books. ISBN 9781780235417.
140. Proceedinds And Transactions Of The Second Oriental Conference (1923) (https://archive.org/det
ails/in.ernet.dli.2015.20579/page/n109). 1923. p. 86.
141. The Calcutta Review Vol.10, No.1-3(april-june)1924. 1924. p. 140.
142. Dubey, Lal Mani (1978). "Some Observations on the Vesara School of Hindu Architecture" (https://
www.jstor.org/stable/44139449). Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 39: 1000–1006.
ISSN 2249-1937 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2249-1937). JSTOR 44139449 (https://www.jstor.
org/stable/44139449).
143. Meister, Michael W. (26 July 2010). Temples of the Indus: Studies in the Hindu Architecture of
Ancient Pakistan (https://books.google.com/books?id=1N95DwAAQBAJ&q=amb+temple+true+ar
ch&pg=PA4). BRILL. ISBN 9789004190115.
144. Wright, Colin. "Front view of a ruined temple, with sculptured slabs in foreground, Deo Baranark"
(http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/f/019pho000001003u00466000.html).
Bl.uk. Retrieved 23 April 2019.
145. "General view of ruined temple at Deo Baranark" (https://www.europeana.eu/portal/record/92037/
_http___www_bl_uk_onlinegallery_onlineex_apac_photocoll_g_zoomify58580_html.html).
Europeana Collections. Retrieved 23 April 2019.
146. Le, Huu Phuoc (2010). Buddhist Architecture. USA: Grafikol. pp. 246–247. ISBN 978-
0984404308.
147. Rowland, 163-164
148. "Group of Monuments at Hampi" (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/241/). UNESCO World Heritage

Centre. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190214052910/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/24
1/) from the original on 14 February 2019. Retrieved 27 October 2019.
149. District Gazetteers Of The United Provinces Of Agra And Oudh Cawnpore Vol Xix. p. 190.
150. "Introduction of Medieval Period Architecture" (https://www.focuscivil.online/introduction-of-mediev
al-period-architecture/). focuscivil.online.
151. Parul Pandya Dhar (2010): The Torana in Indian and Southeast Asian Architecture. New Delhi: D
K Printworld. ISBN 978-8124605349.
152. Hardy, Adam (2003). "Toraṇa | Grove Art" (http://www.oxfordartonline.com/view/10.1093/gao/9781
884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000085631).
doi:10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T085631 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgao%2F978188444
6054.article.T085631). ISBN 978-1-884446-05-4. Retrieved 8 August 2018.
153. Albert Henry Longhurst (1992). The Story of the Stūpa (https://books.google.com/books?id=gs1sF
lMGy2AC&pg=PA17). Asian Educational Services. p. 17. ISBN 978-81-206-0160-4.
154. Ronald G. Knapp (2000). China's old dwellings. University of Hawaii Press. p. 85. ISBN 0-8248-
2214-5.
155. Simon Foster; Jen Lin-Liu; Sharon Owyang; Sherisse Pham; Beth Reiber; Lee Wing-sze (2010).
Frommer's China. Frommers. p. 435. ISBN 978-0-470-52658-3.
156. Scheid, Bernhard. "Religion in Japan" (http://www.univie.ac.at/rel_jap/bauten/anm_torii.htm#ausse
rshinto). Torii (in German). University of Vienna. Retrieved 12 February 2010.
157. "torana | Indian temple gateway" (https://www.britannica.com/topic/torana). Britannica.com.
Retrieved 3 December 2021.
158. Parul Pandya Dhar, (2010). The Torana in Indian and Southeast Asian Architecture, (New Delhi: D
K Printworld,).
159. "Glossary of Asian Art" (http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/asianartglossary.html#chandrashala).
Art-and-archaeology.com. Retrieved 15 July 2021.
160. Elgood (2000), 103
161. Philip Rawson: The Art of Southeast Asia
162. Soekmono (1995), p. 1
163. Soekmono, Dr R. (1973). Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia 2. Yogyakarta, Indonesia:
Penerbit Kanisius. p. 81. ISBN 978-979-413-290-6.
164. Glaize, Monuments of the Angkor Group, p.27.
165. "Art". Myanmar. Chicago: World Book Inc. 2016.
166. "Ananda Pahto Temple, Bagan, Myanmar" (http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/sid/513/myanmar/
bagan/ananda-pahto-temple). Orientalarchitecture.com.
167. "Cultural Selection: Bengali Artistic Influences in Southeast Asia | Silk Roads Programme" (https://
en.unesco.org/silkroad/content/cultural-selection-bengali-artistic-influences-southeast-asia).
en.unesco.org. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
168. Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China, Vol 4 part 3, p137-138
169. Albert Henry Longhurst (1992). The Story of the Stūpa (https://books.google.com/books?id=gs1sF
lMGy2AC&pg=PA17). Asian Educational Services. p. 17. ISBN 978-81-206-0160-4.
170. A.H. Longhurst (1995). Story Of The Stupa (https://books.google.com/books?id=gs1sFlMGy2AC&
pg=PA17). Asian Educational Services. pp. 17–. ISBN 978-81-206-0160-4.
171. Scheid, Bernhard. "Religion in Japan" (http://www.univie.ac.at/rel_jap/bauten/anm_torii.htm#ausse
rshinto). Torii (in German). University of Vienna. Retrieved 12 February 2010.
172. Simon Foster; Jen Lin-Liu; Sharon Owyang; Sherisse Pham; Beth Reiber; Lee Wing-sze (2010).
Frommer's China. Frommers. p. 435. ISBN 978-0-470-52658-3.
173. Shôzô Yamaguchi, Frederic De Garis and Atsuharu Sakai, 1964, We Japanese: Miyanushita,
Hakone, Fujiya Hotel, Page 200.
174. Koehler, Ben Jackson and Robert (2015). Korean Architecture: Breathing with Nature. Seoul
Selection. ISBN 978-1-62412-047-3.
175. An Illustrated Guide to Korean Culture - 233 traditional key words (https://archive.org/details/illustr
atedguide0000unse_j0p0/page/186). Seoul: Hakgojae Publishing Co. 2002. pp. 186–87.
ISBN 9788985846981.
176. Choi, Wan Gee (2006). The Traditional Education of Korea. Ewha Womans University Press.
ISBN 978-89-7300-675-5.
177. Gosh, A. (1964). Indian Archaeology: A review 1961-62, New Delhi, Archaeological survey of
India, pp. 50–52, PDF (https://nmma.nic.in/nmma/nmma_doc/Indian%20Archaeology%20Review/
Indian%20Archaeology%201961-62%20A%20Review.pdf); Harle, 43
178. Sen 1999, pp. 116–117.
179. André-Salvini, Béatrice (2005). Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia (https://books.goog
le.com/books?id=kJnaKu9DdNEC). University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24731-4.
180. The Analysis of Indian Muria Empire affected from Achaemenid's architecture art (http://jsr.usb.ac.i
r/article_1659_265.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150402144452/http://jsr.usb.ac.i
r/article_1659_265.html) 2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine. In: Journal of Subcontinent
Researches. Article 8, Volume 6, Issue 19, Summer 2014, Page 149-174.
181. A. S. Bhalla; I.B. Tauris (2015). Monuments, Power and Poverty in India: From Ashoka to the Raj
(https://books.google.com/books?id=emATBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18). p. 18. ISBN 9781784530877.
182. "The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c.6500 BCE-200 CE" Robin
Coningham, Ruth Young Cambridge University Press, 31 aout 2015, p.414 [1] (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=hB5TCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA414)
183. Report on the excavations at Pātaliputra (Patna); the Palibothra of the Greeks by Waddell, L. A.
(Laurence Austine)
184. Ching, Francis D.K; Jarzombek, Mark M.; Prakash, Vikramaditya (2017). A Global History of
Architecture (https://books.google.com/books?id=SPqKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT707). John Wiley &
Sons. p. 707. ISBN 9781118981603.
185. Fergusson, James (1849). An historical inquiry into the true principles of beauty in art, more
especially with reference to architecture (https://archive.org/details/anhistoricalinq00ferggoog).
London, Longmans, Brown, Green, and Longmans. pp. 316 (https://archive.org/details/anhistorica
linq00ferggoog/page/n349)–320.
186. The Illustrated Handbook of Architecture Being a Concise and Popular Account of the Different
Styles of Architecture Prevailing in All Ages and All Countries by James Fergusson (https://archiv
e.org/details/bub_gb_JNbMexY8iWcC). J. Murray. 1859. p. 212 (https://archive.org/details/bub_gb
_JNbMexY8iWcC/page/n274).
187. Fergusson, James; Burgess, James (1880). The cave temples of India (https://archive.org/details/
cavetemplesofind00ferguoft). London : Allen. p. 120 (https://archive.org/details/cavetemplesofind0
0ferguoft/page/120).
188. M. Caygill, The British Museum A-Z companion (London, The British Museum Press, 1999)
189. E. Slatter, Xanthus: travels and discovery (London, Rubicon Press, 1994)
190. Smith, A. H. (Arthur Hamilton) (1892–1904). A catalogue of sculpture in the Department of Greek
and Roman antiquities, British museum (https://archive.org/details/catalogueofsculp02britiala).
London : Printed by order of the Trustees. pp. 46 (https://archive.org/details/catalogueofsculp02bri
tiala/page/46)–64.
191. Page 88: "There is one fragmentary lion head from Masarh, Distt. Bhojpur, Bihar. It is carved out
of Chunar sandstone and it also bears the typical Mauryan polish. But it is undoubtedly based on
the Achaemenian idiom. The tubular or wick-like whiskers and highly decorated neck with long
locks of the mane with one series arranged like sea waves is somewhat non-Indian in approach.
But, to be exact, we have an example of a lion from a sculptural frieze from Persepolis of 5th
century BCE in which it is overpowering a bull which may be compared with the Masarh
lion."... Page 122: "This particular example of a foreign model gets added support from the male
heads of foreigners from Patna city and Sarnath since they also prove beyond doubt that a
section of the elite in the Gangetic Basin was of foreign origin. However, as noted earlier, this is
an example of the late Mauryan period since this is not the type adopted in any Ashoka pillar. We
are, therefore, visualizing a historical situation in India in which the West Asian influence on Indian
art was felt more in the late Mauryan than in the early Mauryan period. The term West Asia in this
context stands for Iran and Afghanistan, where the Sakas and Pahlavas had their basecamps for
eastward movement. The prelude to future inroads of the Indo-Bactrians in India had after all
started in the second century B.C."... in Gupta, Swarajya Prakash (1980). The Roots of Indian Art:
A Detailed Study of the Formative Period of Indian Art and Architecture, Third and Second
Centuries B.C., Mauryan and Late Mauryan (https://books.google.com/books?id=0lDqAAAAMAA
J). B.R. Publishing Corporation. pp. 88, 122. ISBN 978-0-391-02172-3.. Also Kumar, Vinay
(Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi Faculty Member) (2015). "West Asian Influence on Lion
Motifs in Mauryan Art" (https://www.academia.edu/10709971). Heritage and Us (4): 14.
References
Blair, S. S., & Bloom, J. M. (1996), The art and architecture of Islam 1250-1800, Yale University
Press.
Chandra, Pramod (2008), "South Asian arts", Encyclopædia Britannica
Evenson, Norma (1989). The Indian Metropolis. New Haven and London: Yale University press.
ISBN 978-0-300-04333-4.
Foekema, Gerard (1996), A Complete Guide to Hoysaḷa Temples, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 81-
7017-345-0.
Gast, Klaus-Peter (2007), Modern Traditions: Contemporary Architecture in India, Birkhäuser,
ISBN 978-3-7643-7754-0.
Harle, J.C. (1994). The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. Pelican History of Art
(2nd ed.). Yale University Press. ISBN 0300062176.
Haig, Thomas Wolseley (1907). Historic Landmarks of the Deccan (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/
Historic_Landmarks_of_the_Deccan). Allahabad: The Pioneer Press.
Hegewald, Julia A. B. (2011). "The International Jaina Style? Māru-Gurjara Temples Under the
Solaṅkīs, throughout India and in the Diaspora" (https://quod.lib.umich.edu/a/ars/13441566.0045.
005?view=text;rgn=main). Ars Orientalis. 45 (20191029). doi:10.3998/ars.13441566.0045.005 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.3998%2Fars.13441566.0045.005). ISSN 2328-1286 (https://www.worldcat.org/iss
n/2328-1286).
Le Huu Phuoc, Buddhist Architecture, 2009, Grafikol
Livingston, Morna & Beach, Milo (2002), Steps to Water: The Ancient Stepwells of India,
Princeton Architectural Press, ISBN 1-56898-324-7.
Michell, George, (1977) The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to its Meaning and Forms, 1977,
University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-53230-1
Michell, George (1990), The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India, Volume 1: Buddhist, Jain,
Hindu, 1990, Penguin Books, ISBN 0140081445
Michell, George (1995). Architecture and Art of Southern India: Vijayanagara and the Successor
States 1350–1750. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-44110-0.
Nilsson, Sten (1968). European Architecture in India 1750–1850. London: Faber and Faber.
ISBN 978-0-571-08225-4.
Piercey, W. Douglas & Scarborough, Harold (2008), hospital, Encyclopædia Britannica.
Possehl, Gregory L. (1996), "Mehrgarh", Oxford Companion to Archaeology edited by Brian
Fagan, Oxford University Press.
Rowland, Benjamin, The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain, 1967 (3rd edn.),
Pelican History of Art, Penguin, ISBN 0140561021
Savage, George (2008), interior design, Encyclopædia Britannica.
Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999). Ancient Indian history and civilization (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1
33102415) (2 ed.). New Delhi: New Age International. ISBN 81-224-1198-3. OCLC 133102415 (htt
ps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/133102415).
Tadgell, Christopher (1990). The history of architecture in India : from the dawn of civilization to
the end of the Raj. London: Architecture Design and Technology Press. ISBN 978-1-85454-350-9.
Thapar, Bindia (2004). Introduction to Indian Architecture. Singapore: Periplus Editions. ISBN 978-
0-7946-0011-2.
Rodda & Ubertini (2004), The Basis of Civilization-Water Science?, International Association of
Hydrological Science, ISBN 1-901502-57-0.
Sinopoli, Carla M. (2003), The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South
India, C. 1350–1650, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-82613-6.
Sinopoli, Carla M. (2003), "Echoes of Empire: Vijayanagara and Historical Memory, Vijayanagara
as Historical Memory", Archaeologies of memory edited by Ruth M. Van Dyke & Susan E. Alcock,
Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 0-631-23585-X.
Singh, Vijay P. & Yadava, R. N. (2003), Water Resources System Operation: Proceedings of the
International Conference on Water and Environment, Allied Publishers, ISBN 81-7764-548-X.
Soekmono, R. (1995). Jan Fontein (ed.). The Javanese Candi: Function and Meaning, Volume 17
from Studies in Asian Art and Archaeology, Vol 17 (https://books.google.com/books?id=7cd2Ha7f
T90C). Leiden: E.J. BRILL. ISBN 9789004102156.
Vastu-Silpa Kosha, Encyclopedia of Hindu Temple architecture and Vastu/S.K.Ramachandara
Rao, Delhi, Devine Books, (Lala Murari Lal Chharia Oriental series) ISBN 978-93-81218-51-8
(Set)
Yazdani, Ghulam (1947). Bidar, Its History and Monuments (https://books.google.com/books?id=w
6xpQpOCtzAC).
Further reading
Havell, E.B. (1913). Indian Architecture, its psychology, structure, and history from the first
Muhammadan invasion to the present day (https://archive.org/stream/indianarchitectu00haveuoft#
page/n9/mode/2up). J. Murray, London.
Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. (1914). Viśvakarmā; examples of Indian architecture, sculpture,
painting, handicraft (https://archive.org/stream/cu31924022942993#page/n3/mode/2up). London.
Havell, E. B. (1915). The Ancient and Medieval Architecture of India: a study of Indo-Aryan
civilisation (https://archive.org/stream/cu31924011010109#page/n9/mode/2up). John Murray,
London.
Fletcher, Banister; Cruickshank, Dan, Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=Gt1jTpXAThwC), Architectural Press, 20th edition, 1996 (first published
1896). ISBN 0-7506-2267-9. Cf. Part Four, Chapter 26.
External links
Media related to Architecture of India at Wikimedia Commons
Kamiya, Taeko, The Architecture of India. (http://www.kamit.jp/engl.htm)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Architecture_of_India&oldid=1148134543"

Architecture of India

Uploaded by

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Copyright:

Available Formats

Architecture of India

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Architecture of India

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

4/11/23, 9:17 PM Architecture of India - Wikipedia

The interaction of local and foreign influences is demonstrated

Indus Valley Civilization (2600 BCE

discovered in just one section of the city, leading scholars to

Architectural decoration is extremely minimal, though there are

After collapse of mature harappan urban period, some cities still

CE, show cities such as Kushinagar or

Such a tradition is extremely clear in the Post-Maha-Janapadas Architecture

The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style,

The Buddhagupta pillar at

There may be further shrines or other buildings,

For most modern writers, nagara refers to north Indian styles,

Examples of early major North Indian temples that have survived

No pre-7th century CE South Indian style stone temples have

Richly decorated temples—including the complex at Khajuraho—

Styles called vesara include the early Badami Chalukya

Hoysala architecture is the distinctive building style developed

Khajuraho is home to 25 sandstone temples in total, although only

South Indian Temples

Vijayanagara architecture of the period (1336–1565) was a notable

An important temple is Papnath temple, dedicated Vesara style

The earliest survivals of Jain architecture are part of the Indian

There is considerable similarity between the styles of the different

The main buildings of the largest Dilwara temples are surrounded

Regional differences in Hindu temples are largely reflected in Jain

Detailed carving of elephant, Rani Ki Vav, Gujrat Somanath Temple

Adalaj stepwell Taranga Jain Temple, Gujrat

Following the collapse of the Mughal Empire, regional nawabs

Significant regional styles developed in the independent

The largest mosque in the Indian subcontinent was the 14th

Although the description in Pandua, the ancient capital, shows

By 1339, Shams-ud-din Shah Mir of the Shah Mir dynasty

The distinctive Indo-Islamic architecture style of

It is known for features including monumental Mughal elements

Safdarjung's Tomb is built in Tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah Shalimar Bagh is a Mughal

Akbar's Tomb, Agra was built Humayun's Tomb, Delhi, the

Most of the population of Rajasthan is Hindu, and Rajput elements

Some architectural style innovated and influenced

In Hindi, the "Chhatri" refers to a canopy or

Rajput Forts A Jharokha is a kind of suspended enclosed

The walled city of Jaipur was formed in 1727 by

Sikh architecture is heavily influenced by Mughal and Islamic

Gurdwara buildings do not have to conform to any set

In the 21st century, more and more gurdwaras (especially within

Many jyotirlinga temples were rebuilt by the Marathas after being

Distinctive features include:

Stupas in Thikse Monastery Ralang Monastery, Sikkim Tawang Monastery,

Tawang Monastery assembly Prayer hall at the Golden

The architecture of Bengal, which comprises the modern

Distinctive architectural elements are:-

Bengal is not rich in good stone for building, and

European colonial architecture

British Colonial Era: 1757–1947

Hyderabad,[111][110] Lutyens' Delhi

The Viceroy's House The War Memorial

The Secretariat The Council House, built

Fellowes Chisholm and Henry Irwin. The best examples of this

Madras High Court buildings Indo-Saracenic architecture

The Art Deco movement of the early 20th century