UNIT 5

ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS AND DISPLAY DEVICES

ELECTRONIC MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

The instruments, which are used to measure any quantity are known as measuring instruments.
The electronic instruments, which are useful for measuring either electrical quantities or
parameters that are most commonly are,

 Voltmeter
 Ammeter
 Ohmmeter
 Multimeter

Voltmeter

As the name suggests, voltmeter is a measuring instrument which measures the voltage across
any two points of an electric circuit. There are two types of voltmeters: DC voltmeter, and AC
voltmeter.
DC voltmeter measures the DC voltage across any two points of an electric circuit, whereas AC
voltmeter measures the AC voltage across any two points of an electric circuit. An example
of practical DC voltmeter is shown in below figure.

The DC voltmeter shown in above figure is a (0−100)V(0−100)V DC voltmeter. Hence, it can

be used to measure the DC voltages from zero volts to 10 volts.

Ammeter
As the name suggests, ammeter is a measuring instrument which measures the current flowing
through any two points of an electric circuit. There are two types of ammeters: DC ammeter,
and AC ammeter.
DC ammeter measures the DC current that flows through any two points of an electric circuit.
Whereas, AC ammeter measures the AC current that flows through any two points of an electric
circuit. An example of practical AC ammeter is shown in below figure −

The AC ammeter shown in above figure is a (0−100)A(0−100)A AC ammeter. Hence, it can be

used to measure the AC currents from zero Amperes to 100 Amperes.

Ohmmeter

Ohmmeter is used to measure the value of resistance between any two points of an electric
circuit. It can also be used for finding the value of an unknown resistor. There are two types of
ohmmeters: series ohmmeter, and shunt ohmmeter.
In series type ohmmeter, the resistor whose value is unknown and to be measured should be
connected in series with the ohmmeter. It is useful for measuring high values of resistances.

In shunt type ohmmeter, the resistor whose value is unknown and to be measured should be
connected in parallel (shunt) with the ohmmeter. It is useful for measuring low values of
resistances.
An example of practical shunt ohmmeter is shown in the above figure. The ohmmeter shown
in above figure is a (0−100)Ω(0−100)Ω shunt ohmmeter. Hence, it can be used to measure the
resistance values from zero ohms to 100 ohms.

Multimeter

Multimeter is an electronic instrument used to measure the quantities such as voltage, current
& resistance one at a time. It can be used to measure DC & AC voltages, DC & AC currents
and resistances of several ranges. A practical multimeter is shown in the following figure −

As shown in the figure, this multimeter can be used to measure various high resistances, low
resistances, DC voltages, AC voltages, DC currents, & AC currents. Different scales and range
of values for each of these quantities are marked in above figure.
The instruments which we considered in this chapter are of indicating type instruments, as the
pointers of these instruments deflect and point to a particular value. We will discuss about these
electronic measuring instruments in detail in later chapters.

Performance Characteristics
The characteristics of measurement instruments which are helpful to know the performance of
instrument and help in measuring any quantity or parameter, are known as Performance
Characteristics.

Types of Performance Characteristics

Performance characteristics of instruments can be classified into the following two types.
  Static Characteristics
 Dynamic Characteristics
Now, let us discuss about these two types of characteristics one by one.

Static Characteristics

The characteristics of quantities or parameters measuring instruments that do not vary with
respect to time are called static characteristics. Sometimes, these quantities or parameters may
vary slowly with respect to time. Following are the list of static characteristics.

 Accuracy
 Precision
 Sensitivity
 Resolution
 Static Error

Accuracy
The algebraic difference between the indicated value of an instrument, Ai and the true
value, At is known as accuracy. Mathematically, it can be represented as −
Accuracy=Ai−At

The term, accuracy signifies how much the indicated value of an instrument, Ai is closer to the
true value, At

Static Error
The difference between the true value, At of the quantity that does not vary with respect to time
and the indicated value of an instrument, Ai is known as static error, es. Mathematically, it can
be represented as −
es=At−Ai

The term, static error signifies the inaccuracy of the instrument. If the static error is represented
in terms of percentage, then it is called percentage of static error. Mathematically, it can be
represented as −
%es=esAt×100%

Substitute, the value of eses in the right hand side of above equation −
%es=At−AiAt×100

Where,
%es is the percentage of static error.
Precision
If an instrument indicates the same value repeatedly when it is used to measure the same
quantity under same circumstances for any number of times, then we can say that the instrument
has high precision.

Sensitivity
The ratio of change in output, ΔAout of an instrument for a given change in the input, ΔAin that
is to be measured is called sensitivity, S. Mathematically it can be represented as −
S=ΔAoutΔAin

The term sensitivity signifies the smallest change in the measurable input that is required for an
instrument to respond.
 If the calibration curve is linear, then the sensitivity of the instrument will be a constant
and it is equal to slope of the calibration curve.
 If the calibration curve is non-linear, then the sensitivity of the instrument will not be a
constant and it will vary with respect to the input.

Resolution
If the output of an instrument will change only when there is a specific increment of the input,
then that increment of the input is called Resolution. That means, the instrument is capable of
measuring the input effectively, when there is a resolution of the input.

Dynamic Characteristics

The characteristics of the instruments, which are used to measure the quantities or parameters
that vary very quickly with respect to time are called dynamic characteristics. Following are the
list of dynamic characteristics.

 Speed of Response
 Dynamic Error
 Fidelity
 Lag
Now, let us discuss about these dynamic characteristics one by one.

Speed of Response
The speed at which the instrument responds whenever there is any change in the quantity to be
measured is called speed of response. It indicates how fast the instrument is.
 Lag
The amount of delay present in the response of an instrument whenever there is a change in the
quantity to be measured is called measuring lag. It is also simply called lag.

Dynamic Error
The difference between the true value, At of the quantity that varies with respect to time and the
indicated value of an instrument, Ai is known as dynamic error, ed

Fidelity
The degree to which an instrument indicates changes in the measured quantity without any
dynamic error is known as Fidelity
he errors, which occur during measurement are known as measurement errors. In this chapter,
let us discuss about the types of measurement errors.

Measurement Error
Definition: The measurement error is defined as the difference between the true or actual value
and the measured value. The true value is the average of the infinite number of measurements,
and the measured value is the precise value.

Types of Errors in Measurement

The error may arise from the different source and are usually classified into the following types.
These types are

1. Gross Errors
2. Systematic Errors
3. Random Errors

1. Gross Errors
The gross error occurs because of the human mistakes. For examples consider the person using
the instruments takes the wrong reading, or they can record the incorrect data. Such type of error
comes under the gross error. The gross error can only be avoided by taking the reading carefully.
 For example – The experimenter reads the 31.5ºC reading while the actual reading is 21.5Cº.
This happens because of the oversights. The experimenter takes the wrong reading and because
of which the error occurs in the measurement.

Such type of error is very common in the measurement. The complete elimination of such type
of error is not possible. Some of the gross error easily detected by the experimenter but some of
them are difficult to find. Two methods can remove the gross error.

Two methods can remove the gross error. These methods are

 The reading should be taken very carefully.

 Two or more readings should be taken of the measurement quantity. The readings are taken by
the different experimenter and at a different point for removing the error.

2. Systematic Errors
The systematic errors are mainly classified into three categories.

1. Instrumental Errors
2. Environmental Errors
 3. Observational Errors

2 (i) Instrumental Errors

These errors mainly arise due to the three main reasons.

(a) Inherent Shortcomings of Instruments – Such types of errors are inbuilt in instruments
because of their mechanical structure. They may be due to manufacturing, calibration or
operation of the device. These errors may cause the error to read too low or too high.

For example – If the instrument uses the weak spring then it gives the high value of measuring
quantity. The error occurs in the instrument because of the friction or hysteresis loss.

(b) Misuse of Instrument – The error occurs in the instrument because of the fault of the
operator. A good instrument used in an unintelligent way may give an enormous result.

For example – the misuse of the instrument may cause the failure to adjust the zero of
instruments, poor initial adjustment, using lead to too high resistance. These improper practices
may not cause permanent damage to the instrument, but all the same, they cause errors.

(c) Loading Effect – It is the most common type of error which is caused by the instrument in
measurement work. For example, when the voltmeter is connected to the high resistance circuit it
gives a misleading reading, and when it is connected to the low resistance circuit, it gives the
dependable reading. This means the voltmeter has a loading effect on the circuit.

The error caused by the loading effect can be overcome by using the meters intelligently. For
example, when measuring a low resistance by the ammeter-voltmeter method, a voltmeter having
a very high value of resistance should be used.

2 (ii) Environmental Errors

These errors are due to the external condition of the measuring devices. Such types of errors
mainly occur due to the effect of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibration or because of
the magnetic or electrostatic field. The corrective measures employed to eliminate or to reduce
these undesirable effects are

 The arrangement should be made to keep the conditions as constant as possible.

 Using the equipment which is free from these effects.
 By using the techniques which eliminate the effect of these disturbances.
 By applying the computed corrections.
2 (iii) Observational Errors
Such types of errors are due to the wrong observation of the reading. There are many sources of
observational error. For example, the pointer of a voltmeter resets slightly above the surface of
the scale. Thus an error occurs (because of parallax) unless the line of vision of the observer is
exactly above the pointer. To minimise the parallax error highly accurate meters are provided
with mirrored scales.

3. Random Errors
The error which is caused by the sudden change in the atmospheric condition, such type of error
is called random error. These types of error remain even after the removal of the systematic
error. Hence such type of error is also called residual error

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Digital Multimeter

Digital multimeter is a test equipment which offers several electronic measurement task in one
tool. It is also known as the voltmeter or Ohm meter or Volt Ohm meter. The standard and basic
measurements performed by multimeter are the measurements of amps, volts, and ohms. Apart
from that, these digital multimeters perform many additional measurements by using digital and
logic technology. These may include temperature, frequency, continuity, capacitance etc. The
new improved integrated circuits of digital multimeter are more efficient, faster and work with a
large accuracy as compared to an analogue multimeter.

Parts of Digital Multimeter

A multimeter is a simple but useful device which has only three parts; Display screen, selection
knob, ports.

Display screen-It has illuminated display screen for better visualization. It has five digits display
screen; one represent sign value and the other four are for number representation.

Selection knob- As we know a single multimeter performs so many tasks like reading voltage,
resistance, and current. The selection knob allows the user to select the different job.

Port- There are two ports on the front of the unit. One is the mAVΩ port which allows the
measurement of all the three units: current up to 200 mA, voltage, and resistance. The red probe
is plugged into this port. The other is COM port which means common and it normally
connected to –ev of a circuit and black probe is plugged into it. There is one particular port is
10A, which is use to measures large current in the circuit.

Features of Digital Multimeter

Now a day, wide range of digital multimeters are available in the market. But their features make
it a good multimeter. Some of the features which are very useful and should be there in a
multimeter are:

Auto-Range
This feature enables multimeter to change their internal range according to the requirement to
detect the correct voltage, current, or resistance of the circuit. It has an ability to stop the meter at
the particular range and prevent the overloading if the meter is in volt range. Such multimeters
are of high quality and have more features.

A Back-Lit LCD
It is a fancy feature, but felt very useful in dark situations when there is no other light source for
watching reading in the multimeter.
Auto-Off
It is a great feature but normally comes in higher end version. It facilitates user to forget to turn
the meter off when it is not in use.

Decent Probes

Decent probes are bonus above all. In multimeters normally leads are used which get damage at
flex point. So it is better to use probes which make work easier and easy to replace if get
damaged.

Auto Polarity

It is an important feature that shows the polarity of the current. When the voltage of current
being measured shows positive reading (i.e. same polarity to meter connections) and if it shows
negative (i.e. opposite polarity to meter connections). Such facility was not available in an
analog multimeter and the meter deflects backward and reverses back to take the reading
accurately.

Tutorial for Current Measurement

The measurements of voltage and resistance are most simple and can be done with certain
precaution if required. But in the case of current measurement firm precaution is obligatory.
Reading current is quite tricky because current should be measured in series. To do so, the flow
of current is interrupted and keeps the digital multimeter in-line so that current passes through
DMM. The rest of the connection is same as done in the case of voltage measurement and
resistance.

Digital multimeter has two ports; A and µA mA for measurement of current. The reason behind
the two ports is to avoid overloading. In digital multimeter current has to pass through a fuse and
if large current passes through the fuse it will blow out. A port is designated for large current and
µA mA for small current. For measuring large current, plug one of the cords in A port and other
in COM port. For measuring small current in a circuit, plug one cord in µA mA and the other in
COM. While doing the connection, one more thing keeps in consideration and that is the
direction of the current. A multimeter is connected in such a way that current enters from A port
and leaves the DMM from the COM port, as shown in a figure. Most of the multimeter uses
direct current. But if the circuit is drawing alternate current then you should use non-contact
tester rather than the multimeter.
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SIGNAL GENERATORS
 It is an instrument which provides different output wave forms including sine wave,
triangular wave, pulse train and an amplitude modulated waveform.
 It provides variety of different signals for testing various electronic circuits at low
powers.

Requirements of a Signal Generator:

  The output frequency of signal generator should be very stable.
 The amplitude of output signal should be controllable from low values to relatively larger
values.
 The amplitude should be stable, the harmonic contents should be as low as possible. The
output should be distortion free.
 Should provide low spurious output.
 Low out-put distortion for modulation depths below 1% of the carrier frequency
 More output distortion

Block Diagram:

Envelope Feedback

 Feedback can be used to reduce output distortion

 Detecting the output to obtain the modulation envelope
 Comparing this with the amplitude modulation input and then amplifying and feeding
back the difference as the introduction signal.

Heterodyne Principle

 Gives a continuously variable wide frequency range output from a single instrument.
 Signal quality is good
 (f2 – f1)
 Considerable amount of noise and spurious signals.
Multiplier and Divider Technique:

 Multiplier generator-O/P from the fixed frequency oscillator is fed through a series of
tuned multiplier.
 The O/P from each stage is fed to a tuned filter. Which selects the high frequency
output.
 Frequency modulation-master oscillator
 Amplitude modulation – D.C supply to the last multiplier stage.
 O/P from the divider are square waved which

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Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

A Cathode Ray Oscilloscope is a special type of device. It can display the amplitude of an
electrical signal as a function of time.
Used for displaying, measuring and analyzing different electrical signals.

Block Diagram of Oscilloscope

The functionality of Oscilloscope can be interpreted more easily with the help of its block
diagram. To understand the block diagram more clearly we need to focus on its major parts.
Let’s discuss what are those parts which made up a device which can generate the waveform.
Parts of Oscilloscope
1. Cathode Ray Tube
2. Vertical Deflection System
3. Horizontal Deflection System
4. Delay line Circuit
5. Trigger Circuit

Cathode Ray Tube

The cathode ray tube consists of an electron gun, vertical deflection plates, horizontal deflection
plates, phosphor screen and electrode. The electron gun generates the beam of an electron when
the voltage is applied to it. It must be noted that the voltage applied to the electron gun is quite
low while the voltage applied for accelerating the beam of electron is very high.

The beam of an electron when generated by the electron gun is passed from vertical deflection
plate and horizontal deflection plate and it creates the pattern on the phosphor screen. When the
light ray strikes the phosphor screen, a bright spot or luminous spot is created.

The electron beam suffers from deflection due to the presence of vertical deflection plate and
horizontal deflection plate. The extent of deflection is directly dependant on the signal which is
received from the output terminal of the vertical amplifier and the horizontal amplifier.

It is due to this deflection phenomenon the luminous spots are created on different parts of the
screen, and thus waveform can be seen by these luminous spots.
Vertical Amplifier

The vertical amplifier receives the input from the signal which is to be measured. The vertical
amplifier receives the input signal and then amplifies it so that the signal of high intensity is
supplied to the vertical deflection plate.
If a low-intensity signal strikes the vertical deflection plate, the electron beam will not be
deflected effectively to create the bright spots on desired points on the screen. Thus, the vertical
amplifier is a significant device.

Horizontal Amplifier

The horizontal amplifier generates the signal which provides voltage to horizontal deflection
plates. The horizontal deflection plates deflect the beam along the horizontal direction. This is
helpful to create the waveform along with the time domain.

The horizontal amplifier is the crucial part. This is because the deflection of the electron beam in
the horizontal direction will be effective only when the signal applied from the output of the
horizontal amplifier is high enough to create the bright spots at the desired location on the
phosphor screen.

Delay line Circuit

When the signal from the vertical amplifier is fed to the vertical deflection plates, then some part
of the amplified signal is supplied to the time base generator. This trigger pulse generated from
the time-based generator is amplified with the help of the horizontal amplifier.
After this, it is fed to horizontal deflection plates. This process requires approximately 100ns.
Thus, it is crucial to delay the signal generated by the vertical amplifier too in order to maintain
synchronization.
The delay line is essential because there is the delay when any electronic signal passes through
the electronic circuitry.

Trigger Circuit

The trigger pulse is generated by the time base generator to provide synchronization of the
signals obtained from the horizontal and vertical amplifier.

Working of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope:

The working principle of a cathode ray oscilloscope depends on the movement of an electron
beam due to the electrostatic force. When an electron beam strikes a phosphor surface, it creates
a glowing spot on it. A CRO applies the electrostatic force on the electron beam from two
perpendicular directions. That means we apply one force along the X-axis and another along the
Y-axis. The spot on the phosphor screen moves due to the effect of these two mutually
perpendicular electrostatic forces. It moves to create the required waveform of the input signal.

Vertical Plates
The electron beam deflects along the X-axis due to a periodic electrostatic force applied at a
constant rate. More clearly to say, the glowing spot moves along the X-axis on the phosphor
screen. It moves at a constant speed with constant intervals.

Horizontal Plates
In addition to that, we apply the electrostatic force on the electron beam along the Y-axis. This
force is proportional to the amplitude of the signal. Hence, the electron beam deflects up and
down along the Y-axis.

Electrostatic Deflection in
When an electron beam passes through an electric field a deflection may occur in the beam
depending upon the relative direction of the field and the beam. The electrostatic deflection
in cathode ray oscilloscope occurs on the basis of this phenomenon.
Upward Electrostatic Deflection of Electron Beam
Suppose ‘m’ is the mass of one electron coming out from the electron gun. The velocity at which
this electron comes out from the gun is ‘vx’.
‘Va’ is the accelerating voltage. That means the voltage difference between the cathode and
anode of the cathode ray tube (CRT). Again we consider ‘e’ is the charge of one electron.
The kinetic energy obtained by the electron is-

Since, the charge of the electron is ‘e’ and it crosses the potential difference ‘V a’, we can write,

This electron will pass through the fields of horizontal plates and vertical plates. Obviously these
two fields are perpendicular to the motion of the electric. Therefore these electric fields can not
affect the velocity (vx) of the electron.
So, when the electron entries in the field due to vertical plates (y plates) it will have the same
velocity ‘vx’.
Suppose the vertical distance between the y plates is ‘d’.

‘ld’ is the length of each y plate.

‘L’ is the perpendicular distance from the display screen to the meet point of the electric field of
y plates.

‘Vd’ is the voltage or potential difference between the y plates.

Therefore the electric field intensity between y plates is-
Again the force acting on a charged particle in an electric field is the product of the field
intensity and charge of the particle.
Therefore the force acting on the electron in between the y plates is-

Suppose ‘ay’ is the acceleration of the electron due to this force in the vertical direction.
Therefore we can write,

Then,

Now, the time taken by the electron to cross the y plate is-

Therefore the velocity of the electron along the vertical direction is-

This is the vertical velocity of the electron with which the electron leaves the y plates. Therefore
we can consider the average velocity in y direction is-
Hence, the vertical deflection at the end of the y plates of the electron is-

After leaving the y plates the electron will not undergo through any other electric field. Hence, it
will not deflect further. So, it follows a straight line to strike on the phosphor coated display
screen.

Hence, from the principle of trigonometry,

Where ‘D’ is the deflection of the electron from the origin on the display screen.

Again, we have already derived,

So, the deflection of the electron or in other words of the electron beam is directly proportional
to the voltage (Vd) applied across the y plate.

Sensitivity of CRT

Deflection per volt is the sensitivity of cathode ray tube.

Therefore,

Deflection Factor of CRT

This is reciprocal of the sensitivity,

It signifies the vertical scale of the display screen that means volt per unit length.

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 PHOTODIODE
What is a Photodiode?

It is a form of light-weight sensor that converts light energy into electrical voltage or current.
Photodiode is a type of semi conducting device with PN junction. Between the p (positive) and n
(negative) layers, an intrinsic layer is present. The photo diode accepts light energy as input to
generate electric current.

It is also called as Photodetector, photo sensor or light detector. Photo diode operates in reverse
bias condition i.e. the p – side of the photodiode is connected with negative terminal of battery
(or the power supply) and n – side to the positive terminal of battery.

Typical photodiode materials are Silicon, Germanium, Indium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide and
Indium gallium arsenide.

Internally, a photodiode has optical filters, built in lens and a surface area. When surface area of
photodiode increases, it results in more response time. Few photo diodes will look like Light
Emitting Diode (LED). It has two terminals as shown below. The smaller terminal acts as
cathode and longer terminal acts as anode.

The symbol of the photodiode is similar to that of an LED but the arrows point inwards as opposed to outwards
in the LED. The following image shows the symbol of a photodiode.

Working of a Photodiode

Generally, when a light is made to illuminate the PN junction, covalent bonds are ionized. This
generates hole and electron pairs. Photocurrents are produced due to generation of electron-hole
pairs. Electron hole pairs are formed when photons of energy more than 1.1eV hits the diode.
When the photon enters the depletion region of diode, it hits the atom with high energy. This
results in release of electron from atom structure. After the electron release, free electrons and
hole are produced.

In general, an electron will have a negative charge and holes will have a positive charge. The
depletion energy will have built in an electric field. Due to that electric field, electron-hole pairs
move away from the junction. Hence, holes move to anode and electrons move to the cathode to
produce photocurrent. The photon absorption intensity and photon energy are directly
proportional to each other. When energy of photos is less, the absorption will be more. This
entire process is known as Inner Photoelectric Effect.

Intrinsic Excitations and Extrinsic Excitations are the two methods via which the photon
excitation happens. The process of intrinsic excitation happens, when an electron in the valence
band is excited by photon to conduction band.

Modes of operation of a Photo Diode

Photodiode operates in three different modes namely Photovoltaic mode, Photoconductive mode
and Avalanche diode mode.

Photovoltaic Mode

This is otherwise called as Zero Bias mode. When a photodiode operates low frequency
applications and ultra-level light applications, this mode is preferred. When photodiode is
irradiated by flash of light, voltage is produced. The voltage produced will be in very small
dynamic range and it has a non-linear characteristic. When photodiode is configured with OP-
AMP in this mode, there will be a very less variation with temperature.
Photoconductive Mode

In this mode, photodiode will act in reverse biased condition. Cathode will be positive and anode
will be negative. When the reverse voltage increases, the width of the depletion layer also
increases. Due to this the response time and junction capacitance will be reduced. Comparatively
this mode of operation is fast and produces electronic noise.
Transimpedance amplifiers are used as preamplifiers for photodiodes. Modes of Such amplifiers
keep the voltage maintains to be constant to make photo diode operate in the photoconductive
mode.

Avalanche Diode Mode

In this mode, avalanche diode operates at a high reverse bias condition. It allows multiplication
of an avalanche breakdown to each photo-produced electron-hole pair. Hence, this produces
internal gain within photodiode. The internal gain increases the device response.

Connecting a Photodiode in an External Circuit

A photodiode operates in a circuit in reverse bias. Anode is connected to circuit ground and
cathode to positive supply voltage of the circuit. When illuminated by light, current flows from
cathode to anode.

When photodiodes are used with external circuits, they are connected to a power source in the
circuit. The amount of current produced by a photodiode will be very small. This value of current
will not be enough to drive an electronic device. So when they are connected to an external
power source, it delivers more current to the circuit. So, battery is used as a power source. The
battery source helps to increase the current value, which helps the external devices to have a
better performance

V-I Characteristics of Photodiode

Photodiode operates in reverse bias condition. Reverse voltages are plotted along X axis in volts
and reverse current are plotted along Y-axis in microampere. Reverse current does not depend on
reverse voltage. When there is no light illumination, reverse current will be almost zero. The
minimum amount of current present is called as Dark Current. Once when the light illumination
increases, reverse current also increases linearly.
Applications of Photodiode

 In a simple day to day applications, photodiodes are used. The reason for their use is their
linear response of photodiode to a light illumination. When more amount of light falls on the
sensor, it produces high amount of current. The increase in current will be displayed on a
galvanometer connected to the circuit.
 Photodiodes helps to provide an electric isolation with help of optocouplers. When two
isolated circuits are illuminated by light, optocouplers is used to couple the circuit optically.
But the circuits will be isolated electrically. Compared to conventional devices, optocouplers
are fast.
 Photodiodes are applied in safety electronics like fire and smoke detectors. It is also used in
TV units.
 When utilized in cameras, they act as photo sensors. It is used in scintillator charge-coupled
devices, photoconductors, and photomultiplier tubes.
 Photodiodes are also widely used in numerous medical applications like instruments to
analyze samples, detectors for computed tomography and also used in blood gas monitors.

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Function Generator using ICL8038

 Optoisolator or Optocoupler
Principle of Optoisolator

An optoisolator or an optocoupler is a device that transfers electrical signals between two

electrically isolated circuits through light energy. Opto-isolators prevent the high voltages in one
part of the circuit from affecting or destroying other parts of the system.

Basic Construction of Optoisolator

Opto-isolator is a device, which has two diodes: One is a source or emitter of light, usually a
light emitting diode (LED) and other is photodiode acting as the photosensor. The LED converts
an electrical input signal into light, and the photodiode detects incoming light and based on the
incoming light either generates corresponding electric energy. A basic optocoupler is shown
below

Operating Principle of Optoisolator

The working principle of optoisolator is simple and interesting. The output signal of one circuit
can be controlled by varying input signal in another circuit, where the two circuits are electrically
isolated. A powerful light emitting diode (LED) is connected across a variable voltage source.
By adjusting the input voltage across the LED, the intensity of the light emitted from the LED
can be controlled. The variable source and the LED form the input circuit of the optocoupler or
optoisolator.
A photodiode is present in front of the LED so that the light from the LED directly strikes the
junction of the photodiode. The photodiode is in reverse biased condition. The reverse biased
circuit of the photodiode forms the output circuit of the system. It is also ensured that there is no
other light falling on the photodiode junction and the system is protected from any external light,
except the light coming from the LED. Initially, no voltage is applied to the LED; hence the LED
does not glow. In this condition as no light falls on the photodiode, there would be only dark
current flowing through the output circuit. Dark current is the reverse saturation current of the
reverse biased photodiode when it entire dark. This is the unavoidable reverse leakage current of
the diode. Now, if we increase the voltage across the LED, the LED starts glowing and at same
time intensity of the light increases with increasing input voltage across the LED. With
increasing light intensity, the reverse current in the photodiode increases, since the reverse
current in a photodiode is linearly proportional to the intensity of light falling on the photodiode
junction. Also, if we decrease the intensity of light in the input, the output photodiode current
will decrease.

Applications of Optoisolator
Optocouplers or of Optoisolators are used in,

1. Lamp Ballasts
2. Light Dimmers
3. Valve or Motor Controllers
4. Microcontrollers for interfacing with High Voltage Circuits.

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LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED)

A light releasing diode is an electric component that emits light when the electric current
flows through it. It is a light source based on semiconductors. When current passes through the
LED, the electrons recombine with holes emitting light in the process. It is a specific type of
diode having similar characteristics as the p-n junction diode. This means that an LED allows the
flow of current in its forward direction while it blocks the flow in the reverse direction. Light-
emitting diodes are built using a weak layer of heavily doped semiconductor material. Based on
the semiconductor material used and the amount of doping, an LED will emit a colored light at a
particular spectral wavelength when forward biased.

LED Symbol
Below is the demonstration of the LED symbol. The symbol is similar to that of the p-n
junction diode. The difference between these two symbols is that the two arrows indicate that the
diode is emitting the light.
Light Emitting Diode Circuit
The LEDs also have a specific drop in voltage forward in cases where it is used typical circuits
like a conventional diode. The drop in voltage depends on the current of the LED, the color of
the produced light, etc. There are different values in the drop of voltage that would vary from
1.5V to 2.5 V current for 10 to 50 mA current.

Working Principle of LED

The holes lie in the valence band, while the free electrons are in the conduction band. When
there is a forward bias in the p-n junction, the electron which is a part of the n-type
semiconductor material would overrun the p-n junction and join with the holes in the p-type
semiconductor material. Therefore, regarding the holes, the free electrons would be at the
higher energy bands.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LED

When this movement of free electron and hole takes place, there is a change in the energy level
as the voltage drops from the conduction band to the valance band. There is a release of energy
due to the motion of the electron. In standard diodes, the release of energy in the manner of heat.
But in LED the release of energy in the form of photons would emit light energy. The entire
process is known as electroluminescence, and the diodes are known as a light-emitting diode.
In LED, energy discharged in light form hinges on the forbidden energy gap. One could
manipulate the wavelength of the light produced. Therefore, from its wavelength, the light color
and its visibility or cannot be controlled. The color and wavelength of the light emitted can be
determined by doping it with several impurities.
LED materials and light colours

WAVELENGTH COLOUR VF @ 20MA MATERIAL

RANGE (NM)
< 400 Ultraviolet 3.1 - 4.4 Aluminium nitride (AlN)
Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN)
400 - 450 Violet 2.8 - 4.0 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
450 - 500 Blue 2.5 - 3.7 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Silicon carbide (SiC)
500 - 570 Green 1.9 - 4.0 Gallium phosphide (GaP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)
610 - 760 Red 1.6 - 2.0 Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium phosphide (GaP)
WAVELENGTH COLOUR VF @ 20MA MATERIAL
RANGE (NM)
> 760 Infrared < 1.9 Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Luminous Efficacy

The LEDs’ luminous efficacy can be defined as the produced luminous flux in lm for each unit
and electrical power can be used within W. The rated internal efficacy order of Blue color LED
is 75 lm/W; amber LEDs have 500 lm/W & red LEDs have 155 lm/W. Because of internal re-
absorption, the losses can be taken into consideration; the order of luminous efficacy ranges from
20 to 25 lm/W for green & amber LEDs. This efficacy definition is also known as external
efficacy & is analogous to the efficacy definition normally used for other types of light sources
like multicolor LED.

I-V Characteristics of LED

There are different types of light-emitting diodes are available in the market and there are
different LED characteristics which include the color light, or wavelength radiation, light
intensity. The important characteristic of the LED is color. In the starting use of LED, there is the
only red color. As the use of LED is increased with the help of the semiconductor process and
doing the research on the new metals for LED, the different colors were formed.

The following graph shows the approximate curves between the forward voltage and the current.
Each curve in the graph indicates a different color.

Advantages and Disadvantages of LED’s

The advantages of light-emitting diode include the following.

 The cost of LED’s is less and they are tiny.

 By using the LED’s electricity is controlled.
 The intensity of the LED differs with the help of the microcontroller.
 Long Lifetime
 Energy efficient
 No warm-up period
 Rugged
 Doesn’t affect by cold temperatures
 Directional
 Color Rendering is Excellent
 Environmentally friendly
 Controllable

There are many applications of LED

a. LED is used as a bulb in the homes and industries
b. The light-emitting diodes are used in motorcycles and cars
c. These are used in mobile phones to display the message
d. At the traffic light signals led’s are used

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SEVEN-SEGMENT LED

Seven segment displays are the output display device that provide a way to display information
in the form of image or text or decimal numbers which is an alternative to the more complex dot
matrix displays.

Seven-segment LED circuit configuration

 Common anode: when the common pin is positive

 Common cathode: when the common pin is negative
Truth table for each decimal digit
Seven segment displays must be controlled by other external devices where different types of
microcontrollers are useful to communicate with these external devices, like switches, keypads,
and memory.

Applications of Seven Segment Displays:

Common applications of seven segment displays are in:
1. Digital clocks
2. Clock radios
3. Calculators
4. Wristwatchers
5. Speedometers
6. Motor-vehicle odometers
7. Radio frequency indicators
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