DATABASE TUTORIAL

1. Explain the different types of NoSql databases.

NoSQL (Not Only SQL) databases are a category of databases that provide non-relational data
storage and retrieval mechanisms. Unlike traditional relational databases, NoSQL databases are
designed to handle large-scale, distributed, and unstructured data. Here are some common types of
NoSQL databases:

1. Document databases store and manage data in the form of semi-structured documents,
typically using formats like JSON or XML.

• Each document is self-contained and can vary in structure, allowing flexibility in data
representation. Examples: MongoDB, Couch base.

2. Key-Value Stores: store data as a collection of key-value pairs, where each value is associated
with a unique key.

• They provide high-performance read and write operations but offer limited query
capabilities.Examples: Redis, Riak, Amazon DynamoDB.

3. Column-family stores organize data into columns and column families, which are grouped
together.

• Each column can have a different schema, allowing for flexibility in data representation.

• They are designed for scalability and can handle large amounts of data. Examples: Apache
Cassandra, Apache HBase.

4. Graph Databases: focus on representing and querying relationships between data entities.

• They store data in nodes (representing entities) and edges (representing relationships) to form a
graph structure.

• Graph databases excel at handling complex relationships and traversing the graph efficiently.
Examples: Neo4j, Amazon Neptune.

5. Wide-Column Stores: are designed to handle large amounts of structured and semi-structured
data.

• They organize data in column families and allow for dynamic column addition.

• Wide-column stores provide high scalability and can handle large-scale data sets.Examples:
Apache Cassandra, ScyllaDB.

Each type of NoSQL database is optimized for specific use cases and data models, offering
advantages such as scalability, flexibility, and performance. The choice of the NoSQL database type
depends on the nature of the data, scalability requirements, query patterns, and the specific needs
of the application or system.
2. Explain any concurrency control mechanisms used in databases.
Concurrency control mechanisms are essential in database systems to manage concurrent
access to shared resources, such as database records, to ensure data consistency and prevent
conflicts. Here are some commonly used concurrency control mechanisms:

Lock-Based Protocols: This mechanism uses locks to control access to shared resources. Two
popular lock-based protocols are:
Two-Phase Locking (2PL): Transactions acquire locks before accessing a resource and release
them only after completing the transaction. This ensures a strict serial order of acquiring and
releasing locks.
Optimistic Concurrency Control (OCC): Transactions proceed without acquiring locks initially.
Before committing, they verify if any conflicts have occurred by comparing the read and write
sets with the committed transactions. If conflicts are detected, appropriate actions are taken.
Timestamp Ordering: Each transaction is assigned a unique timestamp that determines its order
of execution. Two widely used timestamp-based protocols are:
Timestamp Ordering Protocol: Transactions are scheduled and executed based on their
timestamps. Conflicts are resolved by aborting and restarting the younger transaction.
Thomas' Write Rule: This rule allows a transaction to write a data item only if its timestamp is
the largest among all transactions that have previously read the item. This ensures serializability.
Multiversion Concurrency Control (MVCC): MVCC maintains multiple versions of a data item to
allow concurrent access. Each transaction sees a consistent snapshot of the database at the
start time of the transaction, preventing conflicts with concurrent transactions. MVCC is
commonly used in databases that support read-committed or repeatable-read isolation levels.
Snapshot Isolation: This mechanism allows each transaction to read a consistent snapshot of
the database. It ensures that a transaction's reads are not affected by concurrent writes and
avoids conflicts by delaying write operations until the transaction commits.
Serializable Schedules: Serializability ensures that concurrent execution of transactions
produces the same result as if they were executed sequentially. Various techniques, such as
locking, timestamp ordering, and conflict detection, can be used to enforce serializability.
These are just a few examples of concurrency control mechanisms used in databases. The choice
of mechanism depends on factors like the application requirements, workload characteristics,
isolation levels, and trade-offs between performance and data consistency.
3. Distinguish between data mining and data warehousing.
Data Warehousing: is the process of collecting, organizing, and storing large volumes of
structured and historical data from multiple sources into a central repository, known as a data
warehouse.
-is designed to support efficient querying, reporting, and analysis of data. It provides a
consolidated view of data from various operational systems, making it easier to perform
complex analysis and generate meaningful insights.
involves activities like data extraction, transformation, and loading (ETL), data modeling, and
schema design to ensure data consistency, integrity, and performance.
- is typically structured and optimized for analytical processing. It is stored in a way that
supports fast retrieval and supports various data mining and business intelligence applications.
 Data Mining: is the process of discovering patterns, relationships, and insights from large
datasets using statistical and machine learning techniques.
-It involves extracting valuable information and knowledge from the data warehouse or other
data sources by applying algorithms and analytical models.
-aims to uncover hidden patterns, trends, anomalies, and correlations that can help in making
predictions, optimizing business processes, identifying customer behavior, and making data-
driven decisions.
- techniques include clustering, classification, regression, association rule mining, anomaly
detection, and text mining.
- often involves exploratory analysis and hypothesis testing to identify meaningful patterns and
relationships in the data. It may require pre-processing and data preparation steps to handle
missing values, outliers, and noise in the data.
data warehousing focuses on the collection, organization, and storage of data from multiple
sources into a central repository, while data mining focuses on analyzing and extracting insights
from the data stored in a data warehouse or other data sources. Data warehousing provides the
foundation and infrastructure for data mining by providing a consolidated and well-structured
dataset for analysis and exploration.
4. Describe security issues associated with modern databases.
Unauthorized Access: One of the primary concerns is unauthorized access to the database. If
proper authentication and access controls are not in place, malicious individuals can gain
unauthorized access to sensitive data, potentially leading to data breaches and information
leaks.
SQL Injection: is a technique where attackers exploit vulnerabilities in input validation
mechanisms to inject malicious SQL code into database queries. This can lead to unauthorized
data access, data manipulation, or even complete database compromise.
Data Leakage: Improper configuration of database permissions, weak access controls, or
vulnerabilities in the database management system (DBMS) can result in data leakage. Attackers
can exploit these weaknesses to extract sensitive data from the database, leading to financial
loss, reputational damage, or legal consequences.
Insecure Data Transmission: When data is transmitted between applications and databases, it is
essential to ensure secure communication channels. If data is transmitted over insecure
networks or protocols, it can be intercepted and accessed by unauthorized parties.
Inadequate or Weak Encryption: If sensitive data is not properly encrypted, it can be exposed if
the database or storage media is compromised. Weak encryption algorithms or improper key
management can also render encryption ineffective.
Insider Threats: Database security risks also come from within the organization. Insiders with
authorized access to the database may misuse their privileges, intentionally or unintentionally,
leading to data breaches or unauthorized activities.
Denial of Service (DoS): attack aims to disrupt or overload the database system by
overwhelming its resources. This can render the database unavailable, impacting business
operations and customer experience.
Malware and Ransomware: Databases can be susceptible to malware attacks, where malicious
software is used to gain control of the system or encrypt data for ransom. Ransomware attacks
can lead to data loss or demand financial extortion for data decryption.
 Weak Passwords and Credentials: Weak passwords or inadequate password management
practices can make databases vulnerable to brute-force attacks or credential theft. Attackers can
exploit weak credentials to gain unauthorized access to the database.
Lack of Auditing and Monitoring: Insufficient auditing and monitoring mechanisms make it
difficult to detect and respond to security incidents in a timely manner. Without proper logging
and real-time monitoring, it becomes challenging to identify suspicious activities or potential
security breaches.
To mitigate these security issues, it is crucial to implement robust access controls, regularly
update and patch database systems, use strong encryption algorithms, employ secure coding
practices, conduct regular security assessments and penetration testing, and educate users
about best security practices.
5. Explain the AAA model of database security.
The AAA model, also known as the Triple-A model or the AAA security framework, is a widely
recognized model for database security. AAA stands for Authentication, Authorization, and
Accounting. It provides a comprehensive approach to controlling access to databases and
ensuring data security. Let's explore each component of the AAA model:

Authentication: verifies the identity of users or entities attempting to access the database. It
ensures that only authorized individuals can gain access to the system. Authentication methods
commonly used in database security include:
Usernames and passwords: Users provide a unique username and a corresponding password to
authenticate their identity.
Multi-factor authentication (MFA): This involves combining multiple authentication factors,
such as passwords, biometrics, tokens, or smart cards, to enhance security.
Certificates: Digital certificates can be used to validate the identity of users or entities.
Single Sign-On (SSO): SSO enables users to authenticate once and access multiple systems or
applications without the need to provide credentials repeatedly.
Authorization: Authorization controls what actions or operations users can perform once they
are authenticated. It ensures that users have appropriate permissions and access rights to
perform specific operations on the database. Authorization mechanisms commonly used in the
AAA model include:
Role-Based Access Control (RBAC): Users are assigned specific roles, and Apermissions are
associated with those roles. Users inherit the permissions assigned to their roles, simplifying
administration and access management.
Access Control Lists (ACLs): ACLs define permissions for individual users or groups, specifying
which operations they can perform on specific database objects.
Attribute-Based Access Control (ABAC): ABAC uses attributes such as user attributes,
environmental attributes, and resource attributes to make authorization decisions.
Accounting (or Auditing): Accounting tracks and records activities related to database access
and usage. It provides a mechanism for monitoring, auditing, and logging user actions to detect
security breaches, troubleshoot issues, and ensure accountability. Accounting mechanisms
commonly used in the AAA model include:
 Logging: Database systems maintain logs that capture user activities, including login attempts,
data modifications, and system events. These logs can be analyzed to identify security incidents
or investigate suspicious activities.
Auditing: Auditing involves the regular review and analysis of log data to ensure compliance
with security policies, identify vulnerabilities, and detect unauthorized access attempts or
malicious activities.
Alerting and Reporting: Systems can generate alerts and reports based on predefined rules or
thresholds to notify administrators of potential security breaches or unusual activities.

By integrating Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting mechanisms, the AAA model

provides a holistic approach to database security. It ensures that only authenticated and
authorized users can access the database, and their actions are logged and audited for
accountability and detection of security incidents. Implementing the AAA model helps protect
sensitive data, maintain data integrity, and comply with security and regulatory requirements.
6. Describe the backup strategies that can adopted by database administrators.
Full Backup: A full backup involves copying the entire database, including all its data and
objects, to a separate storage location. It provides a complete snapshot of the database at a
specific point in time. While it offers comprehensive recovery capabilities, it can be time-
consuming and resource-intensive.
Incremental Backup: Incremental backups capture only the changes made to the database since
the last backup, be it a full or incremental backup. It reduces the backup window and storage
requirements compared to full backups. To restore the database, a combination of the most
recent full backup and subsequent incremental backups is required.
Differential Backup: Differential backups capture the changes made since the last full backup.
Unlike incremental backups, they do not rely on previous differential backups. Each differential
backup grows in size until the next full backup is taken. Although it requires more storage
compared to incremental backups, the restoration process is usually faster.
Transaction Log Backup: In addition to regular full or incremental backups, transaction log
backups capture the database's transaction log entries. This approach enables point-in-time
recovery, allowing administrators to restore the database to a specific moment before a failure
or corruption occurred. Transaction log backups are often used in conjunction with full backups
or differential backups.
Mirror or Replication: Database mirroring or replication involves maintaining an exact or
synchronized copy of the database on another server. It provides high availability and fault
tolerance. If the primary database fails, the mirrored or replicated copy can take over
seamlessly, minimizing downtime. This strategy is not a traditional backup, but it can serve as a
disaster recovery solution.
Offsite Backup: To protect against site-wide disasters or catastrophic events, it is crucial to store
backups offsite. Offsite backups can be physical media (tapes, disks) stored in a different
location or cloud-based backups. Storing backups offsite ensures data availability even if the
primary data center is compromised.
Database Snapshot: Some database systems offer the ability to create database snapshots,
which provide a read-only, point-in-time view of the database. Snapshots are useful for
 generating backups without impacting ongoing transactions. However, they are not a substitute
for traditional backups since they do not store the actual data.
Backup strategies may vary depending on factors such as the database size, criticality of data,
recovery time objectives (RTOs), and recovery point objectives (RPOs). A combination of these
strategies, tailored to the specific needs of the organization, can ensure data integrity and
minimize downtime in case of data loss or system failures.
7. Explain any two update propagation techniques in distributed databases.
Two-Phase Commit (2PC):
The Two-Phase Commit protocol ensures atomicity and consistency in updating distributed
databases. It involves two distinct phases:
a. Prepare Phase: The coordinator node responsible for initiating the update sends a prepare
message to all participating nodes (cohort nodes) involved in the transaction. Each cohort node
examines the local resources and checks for any conflicts or issues that may prevent the
transaction from committing successfully. If all cohort nodes are ready to commit, they respond
with an agreement message. Otherwise, if any node encounters an issue, it sends an abort
message.
b. Commit Phase: After receiving agreement messages from all cohort nodes, the coordinator
sends a commit message to each node, indicating that the transaction can be permanently
committed. Upon receiving the commit message, each cohort node applies the update and
acknowledges the completion.
If any cohort node encounters an issue during the prepare phase or receives an abort message,
it responds with an abort message during the commit phase, ensuring that all nodes agree on
the final outcome (commit or abort). This protocol guarantees consistency by ensuring that
either all nodes commit the update or all nodes abort it, thereby preventing data inconsistencies
across the distributed database.
Optimistic Concurrency Control:
Optimistic Concurrency Control (OCC) is a technique that allows concurrent execution of
transactions in a distributed database system without acquiring locks on data. It assumes that
conflicts between transactions are rare, and most transactions will complete without interfering
with each other. The update propagation in OCC involves the following steps:
a. Read Phase: When a transaction begins, it reads the required data from the distributed nodes
without acquiring locks. The transaction maintains a local copy of the data it has read.
b. Validation Phase: Before committing, the transaction re-evaluates the data it has read to
ensure that no conflicts have occurred. It checks if other transactions have modified the data it
has read. If conflicts are detected, the transaction aborts and restarts.
c. Write Phase: If the validation phase is successful, the transaction writes the updates to the
respective nodes, overwriting the previous values. The updates are propagated to the
distributed nodes without acquiring any locks.
Optimistic Concurrency Control relies on conflict detection and resolution mechanisms to
handle concurrent updates. If conflicts are infrequent, OCC can provide higher concurrency and
scalability compared to locking-based techniques. However, if conflicts occur frequently, the
overhead of aborting and restarting transactions can impact performance.
8. Explain the 3 V’s of Big Data.
Volume: Volume refers to the sheer size or scale of the data. With the advent of technology and the
growth of digital information, organizations now generate and collect vast amounts of data from
various sources such as transactions, social media, sensors, and more. The volume of data can range
from terabytes to petabytes and beyond. Dealing with such massive volumes requires robust
storage and processing capabilities to store, manage, and analyze the data effectively.

Velocity: Velocity refers to the speed at which data is generated, captured, and processed in real-
time or near real-time. Many applications and systems produce data at high speeds, including online
transactions, social media feeds, clickstreams, sensor data, and more. The challenge is to process
and analyze the data quickly to extract valuable insights and make timely decisions. Real-time data
processing technologies, stream processing frameworks, and efficient algorithms are used to handle
the velocity aspect of Big Data.

Variety: Variety denotes the diversity and complexity of data types and sources. Data comes in
various formats, including structured, semi-structured, and unstructured data. Structured data, such
as traditional relational databases, follows a predefined schema, while unstructured data, like
emails, documents, social media posts, images, and videos, lacks a well-defined structure.
Additionally, data can be sourced from multiple systems, databases, devices, and platforms.
Managing and integrating diverse data types and sources, and extracting meaningful insights from
them, requires advanced techniques like data integration, data cleansing, data transformation, and
flexible data models.

Veracity: Veracity refers to the reliability and trustworthiness of the data. Big Data often involves
data from various sources, which may be incomplete, inconsistent, or contain errors or inaccuracies.
Ensuring data quality and addressing issues related to data veracity is crucial for making reliable
decisions and drawing accurate insights.

Value: Value represents the ultimate goal of Big Data analytics—to extract meaningful insights and
value from the data. By analyzing large volumes of data with high velocity and diverse variety,
organizations can uncover patterns, trends, correlations, and other valuable information. The
insights derived from Big Data can lead to improved decision-making, operational efficiencies, new
revenue opportunities, customer personalization, and innovation.

9. Distinguish between centralized and distributed databases.

A centralized database is a data storage system where all data is stored in a single location or on a
single server. Here are some key characteristics of centralized databases:

Architecture: In a centralized database, a single server or a cluster of servers holds the entire
database, including all data and associated management components. Clients or applications
interact with the centralized database through a network connection.

Data Location: All data is stored in a single physical location, making it easily accessible and
manageable. This architecture simplifies data administration tasks, such as backups, security, and
maintenance.
 Data Consistency: Since there is only one copy of the database, maintaining data consistency is
relatively straightforward. Changes made to the data are immediately reflected in the centralized
database, ensuring data integrity.

Control and Security: Centralized databases offer centralized control over data access, security, and
permissions. Administrators can implement security measures, backup strategies, and access
controls more easily in a centralized environment.

A distributed database is a data storage system where data is spread across multiple sites or
servers. Each site may have its own local database management system. Here are some key
characteristics of distributed databases:

Architecture: Distributed databases consist of multiple nodes or sites, each hosting a portion of the
database. These nodes are connected through a network, enabling data sharing and communication
between them. Clients or applications can access the database through any of the distributed nodes.

Data Distribution: Data is distributed across multiple sites based on factors such as proximity to
users, data partitioning strategies, or specific business requirements. Each site manages its portion
of the data and may have control over its local data administration.

Data Replication: Distributed databases often employ data replication techniques, where copies of
data are stored on multiple nodes. Replication enhances data availability, fault tolerance, and
scalability. Updates made to one copy of the data are propagated to other copies to maintain data
consistency.

Performance and Scalability: Distributed databases can offer better performance and scalability
compared to centralized databases. Data can be stored closer to the users, reducing network latency
and improving response times. Additionally, distributed databases can handle larger volumes of data
and accommodate increased user loads by adding more nodes to the network.

Data Consistency and Coordination: Ensuring data consistency across distributed nodes can be
challenging. Distributed databases employ techniques like distributed transactions, replication
protocols, and consensus algorithms to maintain data consistency and coordinate updates across
nodes.

Complexity and Administration: Distributed databases are generally more complex to manage
compared to centralized databases. They require additional coordination, monitoring, and
synchronization mechanisms to ensure data integrity, backup strategies, and distributed query
optimization.

10. Describe the three types of timestamp-based concurrency control.

Timestamp Ordering:In timestamp ordering, each transaction is assigned a unique timestamp when it
begins. The system uses these timestamps to determine the order of transaction execution. The rules
for timestamp ordering are as follows:

a. Read Operation: If a transaction T wants to read an item, it can only read a version of that item that
was committed before T's timestamp.
 b. Write Operation: If a transaction T wants to write to an item, it can only do so if no other
transaction with a higher timestamp has already read or written to that item.

Following these rules ensures that transactions execute in a serializable order based on their
timestamps, preventing conflicts and maintaining data consistency. However, this approach may
lead to transaction rollbacks when conflicts occur.

Thomas' Write Rule:

Thomas' Write Rule extends timestamp ordering by allowing a transaction to write to an item even if
another transaction with a higher timestamp has read it. The rule is as follows:

If a transaction T1 with a lower timestamp writes to an item that a transaction T2 with a higher
timestamp has read, T2 is rolled back, and its changes are discarded.

By enforcing this rule, the system maintains strict data consistency and ensures that no transaction
writes to an item that has been read by a later transaction. It reduces the number of rollbacks
compared to strict timestamp ordering but may still result in some transaction aborts.

Multiversion Timestamp Ordering:

Multiversion timestamp ordering extends timestamp ordering by allowing multiple versions of an

item to coexist in the database. Each version is associated with a specific timestamp, indicating
when it was created. The rules for multiversion timestamp ordering are as follows:

a. Read Operation: A transaction T can read any version of an item that was committed before its
timestamp. If multiple versions exist, T reads the most recent committed version.

b. Write Operation: A transaction T that wants to write to an item creates a new version with its
timestamp. Existing transactions can continue to read older versions, while new transactions read
the newly created version.

By maintaining multiple versions of items, multiversion timestamp ordering allows concurrent

transactions to read and write without blocking each other, thereby improving concurrency.
However, it increases the storage requirements and complexity of managing multiple versions.

11. State the first three Armstrong’s Axioms for functional dependencies. Prove that each
of them is SOUND and COMPLETE
Armstrong's Axioms are a set of rules used to derive functional dependencies in a relational
database. The first three axioms are as follows:

Reflexivity (Reflexive Rule):

If Y is a subset of X, then X → Y holds.

Augmentation (Augmentation Rule):

If X → Y holds, then XZ → YZ also holds for any Z.

Transitivity (Transitive Rule):

 If X → Y and Y → Z hold, then X → Z also holds.

To prove that each of these axioms is both sound and complete, we need to show that they
correctly derive valid functional dependencies (soundness) and that they are capable of deriving all
valid functional dependencies (completeness).

Proof of Soundness:

Reflexivity:

Let X → Y be a valid functional dependency. If Y is a subset of X, then it is trivially true that X → Y

holds. Therefore, the reflexivity axiom is sound.

Augmentation:

Assume X → Y is a valid functional dependency. By the augmentation rule, we can add the same
attribute Z to both sides of the dependency to obtain XZ → YZ. This is sound because if X determines
Y, then adding an attribute Z to both sides should preserve the dependency.

Transitivity:

Suppose X → Y and Y → Z are valid functional dependencies. If X determines Y and Y determines Z,

then it follows that X determines Z. Therefore, the transitivity axiom is sound.

Proof of Completeness:

To prove completeness, we need to show that the axioms can derive all valid functional dependencies.
This can be done by demonstrating that we can derive any given functional dependency using a
combination of these three axioms.

Consider an example:

Given the functional dependencies:

A→B

B→C

We can use Armstrong's axioms to derive the following additional dependency:

A → C (using transitivity)

By applying the axioms repeatedly and combining them with the derived dependencies, we can derive
any valid functional dependency. Therefore, the axioms are complete.

In conclusion, the first three Armstrong's axioms (reflexivity, augmentation, and transitivity) are both
sound and complete. They accurately derive valid functional dependencies and can derive any valid
functional dependency.

12. Define a deadlock as used in databases

a deadlock refers to a situation where two or more transactions or processes are unable to proceed
because each is waiting for a resource held by another transaction or process in the deadlock cycle. This
results in a circular dependency, causing a standstill in the system's operation.

13. Distinguish between the eager and lazy update management strategies.

Eager and lazy update management strategies are two different approaches used in database systems to
handle updates and maintain data consistency. Here's how they differ:

Eager Update Management:

In eager update management, updates are immediately applied and made visible to other transactions
or users. This means that as soon as a transaction modifies a data item, the changes are written to the
database and become visible to subsequent transactions.

Characteristics of eager update management include:

Immediate Updates: Any modifications made by a transaction are immediately reflected in the
database. Other transactions can see the updated data right away.

Data Consistency: Eager updates ensure that the database remains in a consistent state at all times.
Transactions can rely on the most recent data, and integrity constraints are enforced as updates occur.

Locking and Concurrency Control: Eager updates typically require locking mechanisms to manage
concurrent access to shared data. Locks are used to prevent conflicts and maintain data integrity during
simultaneous updates.

Advantages of eager update management include immediate data availability and strong data
consistency. However, it can lead to increased contention and concurrency issues when multiple
transactions attempt to modify the same data concurrently. This approach may also result in higher
overhead due to frequent disk writes.

Lazy Update Management:

In contrast, lazy update management defers the application of updates until they are necessary or until
the transaction commits. Instead of immediately modifying the database, the changes are buffered or
stored separately and applied at a later stage.

Characteristics of lazy update management include:

Deferred Updates: Modifications made by a transaction are not immediately written to the database.
Instead, the updates are stored in a separate area or buffer.

Reduced Disk Writes: Lazy updates reduce the number of disk writes, as changes are accumulated and
written in batches rather than individually. This can improve performance by reducing I/O operations.

Reduced Concurrency Issues: By deferring updates, lazy update management can potentially reduce
conflicts and contention among concurrent transactions, as updates are applied in a controlled manner.
Lazy update management is often used in scenarios where write-intensive operations are frequent or
when data consistency can be temporarily relaxed. However, it may introduce a delay in the availability
of updated data, and there is a risk of losing buffered updates in case of system failures before the
changes are applied.

14. Eliminate redundant FDs from F= {XY, YX, YZ, ZY, XZ, ZX} using the
membership algorithm.
1. Start with the original set F.

2. For each FD X→Y in F, check if X→Y can be derived using the remaining FDs. If X→Y can be derived, it
is redundant and can be eliminated.

3. Repeat step 2 for each FD in F.

Let's apply the membership algorithm to eliminate redundant FDs:

Step 1: Start with the original set F = {X→Y, Y→X, Y→Z, Z→Y, X→Z, Z→X}.

Step 2: Check X→Y.

X→Y cannot be derived from the remaining FDs because there are no other FDs involving X or Y.

Keep X→Y in the set F.

Step 3: Check Y→X.

Y→X cannot be derived from the remaining FDs because there are no other FDs involving X or Y.

Keep Y→X in the set F.

Step 4: Check Y→Z.

Y→Z can be derived from the FDs Y→X and X→Z.

Y→Z is redundant and can be eliminated from the set F.

Updated F: {X→Y, Y→X, Z→Y, X→Z, Z→X}

Step 5: Check Z→Y.

Z→Y can be derived from the FDs Z→X and X→Y.

Z→Y is redundant and can be eliminated from the set F.

Updated F: {X→Y, Y→X, X→Z, Z→X}

Step 6: Check X→Z.

X→Z cannot be derived from the remaining FDs because there are no other FDs involving X or Z.

Keep X→Z in the set F.

Step 7: Check Z→X.

Z→X cannot be derived from the remaining FDs because there are no other FDs involving X or Z.
Keep Z→X in the set F.

The final set of non-redundant FDs after eliminating redundancies using the membership algorithm is:

F = {X→Y, Y→X, X→Z, Z→X}

These remaining FDs are the minimal cover of the original set of FDs F.

15. Consider the relation R(X,Y,Z,W,Q) and the set F={X→Z, Y→Z, Z→W,
WQ→Z,ZQ→X} and the decomposition of R into relations r1(X,W), r2(Y,X),
r3(Y,Q), r4(Z,W,Q) and r5(X,Q). Using the lossless join algorithm determine if
the decomposition is lossless or Lossy.
1. Compute the natural join of all the decomposed relations: r1 ⨝ r2 ⨝ r3 ⨝ r4 ⨝ r5.
2. If the result of the natural join in step 1 is equal to the original relation R, then the
decomposition is lossless. Otherwise, it is lossy.
Let's apply the lossless join algorithm:
r1 ⨝ r2 ⨝ r3 ⨝ r4 ⨝ r5
= (r1 ⨝ r2) ⨝ r3 ⨝ r4 ⨝ r5
= (X, W) ⨝ (Y, X) ⨝ (Y, Q) ⨝ (Z, W, Q) ⨝ (X, Q)
Now, let's perform the natural join step by step:
1. (X, W) ⨝ (Y, X) = (X, W, Y)
2. (X, W, Y) ⨝ (Y, Q) = (X, W, Y, Q)
3. (X, W, Y, Q) ⨝ (Z, W, Q) = (X, W, Y, Q, Z)
4. (X, W, Y, Q, Z) ⨝ (X, Q) = (X, W, Y, Q, Z)
The result of the natural join is (X, W, Y, Q, Z), which is not equal to the original relation R(X, Y,
Z, W, Q). Therefore, the decomposition is lossy.
Hence, the given decomposition of relation R(X, Y, Z, W, Q) into relations r1(X, W), r2(Y, X), r3(Y,
Q), r4(Z, W, Q), and r5(X, Q) is lossy.

16. Consider a relation R (A,B,C,D) and set F={ABC, CD, DA}.

List all candidate keys of relation R.
Step 1: Start with each individual attribute and check if it can functionally determine all other
attributes in the relation.
Checking for A as a candidate key:
A does not appear on the right side of any functional dependency in F.
A can functionally determine D through the dependency D→A.
A can functionally determine C through the dependency AB→C.
However, A cannot functionally determine B.
Checking for B as a candidate key:

B does not appear on the right side of any functional dependency in F.

B can functionally determine C through the dependency AB→C.
However, B cannot functionally determine any other attribute.
Checking for AB as a candidate key:
AB does not appear on the right side of any functional dependency in F.
AB can functionally determine C through the dependency AB→C.
AB can functionally determine D through the transitive dependency AB→C→D.
However, AB cannot functionally determine A or B individually.
Step 2: Combine attributes that are necessary to determine all other attributes.
In this case, we find that AB is the smallest combination of attributes that can functionally
determine all other attributes in the relation. Therefore, AB is the candidate key of relation R(A,
B, C, D).
To summarize, the candidate key of relation R(A, B, C, D) given the set of functional
dependencies F = {AB→C, C→D, D→A} is AB.
17. Two sets of FDs F and G are equivalent if every FD in set F can be inferred from set G,
and every FD in set G can be inferred from set F.
Show whether F={AC, ACD, EAD, EH} and G={ACD, EAH} are equivalent
or not.
Checking if every FD in F can be inferred from G:
1. A→C:
In G, we have A→CD, which implies A→C.
A→C can be inferred from G.
2. AC→D:
In G, we have A→CD, which implies AC→D.
AC→D can be inferred from G.
3. E→AD:
In G, we have E→AH, but there is no direct implication for E→AD.
E→AD cannot be inferred from G.
4. E→H:
In G, we have E→AH, which implies E→H.
E→H can be inferred from G.
Since E→AD cannot be inferred from G, every FD in F is not inferred from G.
Checking if every FD in G can be inferred from F:
1. A→CD:
In F, we have A→C, but there is no direct implication for A→CD.
A→CD cannot be inferred from F.
2. E→AH:
In F, we have E→AD, but there is no direct implication for E→AH.
E→AH cannot be inferred from F.
Since A→CD and E→AH cannot be inferred from F, every FD in G is not inferred from F.
Based on the above analysis, we can conclude that sets of functional dependencies F={A→C,
AC→D, E→AD, E→H} and G={A→CD, E→AH} are not equivalent.
18. Given a relation R(A,B,C,D,E) and Functional dependencies F={AB, ACD, BE}
Find all the candidate keys of relation R using the Attribute Closure Algorithm

To find all the candidate keys of relation R(A, B, C, D, E) using the Attribute Closure Algorithm with the
given set of functional dependencies F = {A→B, AC→D, B→E}, we can follow these steps:

Step 1: Start with an empty set of attributes, denoted as X.

X = {}

Step 2: For each attribute A in R, compute the closure of X ∪ A using the functional dependencies in F.

Compute the closure of X ∪ A:

For A:

Add A to X.
Calculate the closure of X ∪ A using F:

X = {A}

Closure(X ∪ A) = Closure({A}) = {A}

Step 3: Check if the closure of X ∪ A includes all attributes in R.

If the closure of X ∪ A is equal to R, then A is a candidate key.

If the closure of X ∪ A is not equal to R, then A is not a candidate key.

In this case, the closure of X ∪ A is {A}, which is not equal to R.

Repeat steps 2 and 3 for each attribute:

For B:

Add B to X.

Calculate the closure of X ∪ B using F:

X = {B}

Closure(X ∪ B) = Closure({B}) = {B}

The closure of X ∪ B is {B}, which is not equal to R.

For C:

Add C to X.

Calculate the closure of X ∪ C using F:

X = {C}

Closure(X ∪ C) = Closure({C}) = {C}

The closure of X ∪ C is {C}, which is not equal to R.

For D:

Add D to X.

Calculate the closure of X ∪ D using F:

X = {D}

Closure(X ∪ D) = Closure({D}) = {D}

The closure of X ∪ D is {D}, which is not equal to R.

For E:

Add E to X.

Calculate the closure of X ∪ E using F:

X = {E}

Closure(X ∪ E) = Closure({E}) = {E}

The closure of X ∪ E is {E}, which is not equal to R.

Based on the above calculations, we find that none of the individual attributes A, B, C, D, or E can
functionally determine all the attributes in R. Therefore, there are no candidate keys in this case.

In summary, there are no candidate keys for relation R(A, B, C, D, E) with the given set of functional
dependencies F = {A→B, AC→D, B→E}.