BRIDGE TEAM

This will teach the student proper bridge teamwork

and conduct of safe navigation and ship handling.
THE BRIDGE
A place on the ship where all commands took place or the central
command center of the vessel
THE BRIDGE TEAM
Are group of individuals with specified skills and knowledge to handle the ship. It is
composed of the OOW, helms man and look out which conducts the safety of the
ship and property at sea.
THE BRIDGE TEAM
–During
maneuvering of
special cases,
Assistance
should be
immediately
available to be
summoned to
the Bridge when
any change in
the situation so
requires.
Duties of the OFFICER on WATCH
• Should make a full appraisal of the situation and of the risk of collision.
Duties of the OFFICER on WATCH
• Full conduct full and
appraisal of the situation and
risk of collision, stranding and
other dangers to navigation.
Duties of the OFFICER on WATCH
• Detecting ships or aircrafts
in distress, shipwrecked
persons, wreck, debris,
and other hazards to safe
navigation.
Duties of the OFFICER on WATCH

Ensures the safe voyage

of the vessel.
Duties of the OFFICER on WATCH
Full account has to be taken in relation but not limited to:
State of weather
Visibility
Traffic density
Proximity of danger to
navigation.
Attention necessary when
navigating in or near TSS.
THE LOOK-OUT
Rule 5 of the Collision Regulation states that;
Every vessel shall at ALL
TIMES maintain a proper
look-out by sight and by
hearing

Continuous state of
vigilance by sight and
hearing and by all
available means with
regard to any significant
change in the
environment.
Duties of a LOOK-OUT
• FULL ATTENTION to look-out duties.
– No other duties shall be undertaken or assigned to the lookout
which could interfere with his duties.
Duties of a LOOK-OUT

The look-out should report any

lights, vessels or large floating
objects which he sees and in low
visibility, any fog signals which he
might be hearing.
Reporting of a LOOK-OUT

Boxing the Compass

– is a progress of
moving points, also a
fractional points of
compass in regular sea
advance and naming
them directionally by
points opposite the
given points
Reporting of a LOOK-OUT
Relative Points of the compass (Boxing the compass)
Reporting of a LOOK-OUT

• Relevant
navigation
marks should
be properly
identified and
marked.
Duties of a Helmsman
The duties of lookout and helmsman are separate and the
helmsman shall not be considered a lookout while steering.
Position fixing
• VISUAL and radar position fixing techniques should be used
whenever possible.
Short Range Aids to Navigation

• Commonly known as
NAVAID
• Intended to be used
visually or by radar
while in inland,
harbor and
approach, and
coastal navigation.
Visual Fix
As a general rule in
coastal navigation
Navigation should be
carried out on the most
suitable large scale chart
onboard.
Position
• Position of ship should be fixed at frequent intervals.

 0935H (fix)

 0905H (fix)

 GPS 0850H (Fix)

φ : 52° 02,8’ N
λ : 013° 57,4’E

 Lt. Hse. 0830H (Fix)

 : 003° range : 4,0 n.mi.
BASIC SHIP HANDLING
Shiphandling
Ship handling can be defined as the task using
forces under control to manage forces not
under control, to make the ship what you and
when you want.

There is no doubt that ship handling requires a

lot of practice and experience. However good
theoretical knowledge about the ship and its
surroundings is very important and highly
recommended to anyone to master the art.

This may sound easy but in real life situation

this could very difficult.
The Shiphandler
The professional
shiphandler should
familiarize themselves
with the advantage and
limitations of the
available equipment in
order to optimize its use
whenever needed.
Another important
qualification necessary
for the professional
shiphandler is the ability
to think and plan
“ahead” of the situation
thus being at all time be
prepared for the “next
move.”
Forces under direct control
The professional shiphandler should
familiarize themselves with the
performance and limitations of various
ship system used during maneuvering.

These forces are considered under

direct control during shiphandling:

Ship’s main engines

Ship’s propellers

Ship’s rudders

Ship’s thrusters

Ship’s anchors

Ships’ mooring system

Shallow water influence
When the water depth to draft ratio is
less than 2,5. this influence the
maneuvering characteristics of the ship.
When the ration becomes less than 1,5
the ship will need much more space to
complete the turn. The rudder response
time will also increase.

DEPTH = 1.2 x DRAFT DEPTH = 1.5 x DRAFT

FULL SHALLOW SHALLOW

WATER EFFECT FELT 40’ WATER
EFFECT BECOMES
48’ SIGNIFICANT
60’

8’
20’
Shallow water influence

On the graph is a maneuvering example of 280,000 Dwt VLCC on deep, medium and
shallow waters.

Ships maneuvering characteristics can be determined from the results of defined

standard manoeuvers. The maneuverability of a vessel changes due to the loading
condition, sailing and topography.
Forces under indirect control
The ship’s inertia varies on different loading
conditions, but the loading conditions can not be
normally change during a maneuver. To a certain
extent, changing the speed of the vessel can
control the hydrodynamic moment of inertia.

Other hydrodynamic factors such as squat, bank

effects and others can be avoided or minimized if
they are known and understood.

In actual practice, it is not impossible to calculate

the influence from all of these factors
continuously. In real life situation these forces
must be estimated based on experience and up-
to-date information. In shiphandling, there is no
substitute for experience.

These are samples of indirect forces which may

affect your shiphandling during maneuvering:

Ship’s inertia

Other hydrodynamic factors such as squat,

bank effects, interaction and others.
Forces under indirect control
BANK CUSHION – is the pushing of the bow of a ship away from the bank of a
narrow channel by water piled up between the bow and the bank by the vessel’s
bow waves

BANK SUCTION – is the pulling of the stern of a ship towards the bank of a
narrow channel by the lowering of pressure due to increased water velocity
(Bernoulli Effect), as well as by the suction of the ship’s propeller.

BANK BANK
SUCTION CUSHION
Forces under indirect control
SQUAT is the reduction in under keel clearance resulting from
the ship sinking deeper in the water and the change in trim,
which occurs when the vessel moves through the shallow
water.
In shallow waters (water depth less than
twice the draft), the water that normally
passes under the vessel is severely
restricted. The result is two things
The water passes under the hull at
higher speed and will result in a low
pressure and loss of buoyancy
(Bernoulli Law).
The build up of water ahead of the
vessel increases the longitudinal
resistance and pushes the pivot point
back.

In finding Squat, block coefficient of the hull is also important. Squat varies
directly with the block coefficient. Oil tankers and OBOs will have comparatively
more squat the passenger ships and container ships.
Forces under indirect control
One of the most important factor that influence squat effect on ships is the speed.
The squat increases with a ratio of speed x 2 reducing the speed is the best way
of reducing the squat.

SQUAT

UKC

OPEN CHANNEL BERTH UNDER KEEL CLEARANCE

SQT =Cb x Speed2 SQT =Cb x Speed2 UKC = _Vessel’s Draft__

100System just change the constant

For English 50 Depth of the Water
100 to 30
Forces not under control
Although no person can control
these forces, we can, through
close observation, and by using
available information sources,
obtain relevant information,
which can be very useful in
minimizing the effect of these
forces.

The most important forces not

under direct control which may
affect shiphandling during
maneuvering:

Tides

Wind

Waves

Currents

Fouling
Propeller and Rudder forces
THE AXIAL THRUST or the (Propeller Thrust) i.e. the fore and aft thrust – is the force
which cause the ship to move forward or astern in the water. The axial thrust is the most
efficient when the propeller is moving ahead because the lines of a ship is designed for that
purpose. It is less efficient when the ship is going astern because the throwing up of the
water against the ship’s stern prevents the setting up of a smooth flow of water through the
propeller
moves ship ahead
Reaction on
thrust block

Propeller thrust

axially astern

The stopping distance of a ship from full ahead depends largely on axial thrust, and is of importance
particularly in the case of emergency maneuvers. It might be about six ships lengths for a 10,000 Dwt
cargo ship but it will depend on the size and type of a ship, the power, and also some factors i.e. draught
and trim of the ship. Turbine power ships takes longer to stop because of lack of astern power , and also
sometimes because of it is necessary before the full astern revolution are built up. It is suggest to stop a
ship in the shortest distance from full ahead is not to put the engines immediately to full astern. This
subjects the engine and propeller to considerable strain and the propeller races out without gripping the
water and it largely ineffective. The propeller exerts greater breaking effect if the engines are put first to
slow ahead, then slow astern and then full astern as the ship progressively losses speed.
Propeller and Rudder forces
This sample diagram
shows a crash-stop test for
a VLCC

The ships inertia is

considerably larger when in
loaded condition.

The stopping distance for a

ship in loaded condition
can be up to 3 times
longer than when in
ballast, depending upon
the type of ships and the
prevailing circumstances.
Emergency Stopping
This diagram shows an approximate stopping distances of different types of ship

Stopping a ship in an emergency depends on the

weight and velocity and the engine power, in
narrow waters the ship must be stopped with
minimum deviation from the original course line.
One very effective way to achieve this is to
execute “Rudder cycling” or otherwise called
“fishtailing”
This is done by putting the rudder hard over until a
deviation of 10-20° is achieved, then turn the
rudder hard over to the opposite side hold until the
same course deviation is achieved. Continue these
action and simultaneously decrease engine rpm
slowly before you reverse the engine.
Pivot Point
The PIVOT POINT
is the point that the
vessel turns around
Pivot Point
Once
Whenthe
theship
initially
shipsputting
is issteadily
dead
engines
on
steaming,
theahead,
water,
thethe
the
pivot
pivot
pivot
point
point
point
settles
shifts
is generally
about
strongly
1/3
from
located
forward
theat
near
bow
thethe
centerbow,ofas
the
the
ship.
speed increased.

1/3
Pivot Point
Once the
When theship
initially
shipsputting
is issteadily
deadengines
on
steaming
theastern,
water,
astern,
as
thethe
pivot
thespeed
pivot
point
increased
point
is generally
settles
the
located
pivot
about point
1/3
at from
the
shifts
center
the strongly
stern
of the
aftship.
near the stern.

1/3
Turning Lever
The distance from the pivot point to the applied force is called the
Turning Lever. It is a long lever that gives you more turning moment
than a short one.
Turning Lever
When making headway
you get a long turning
lever and consequently
a greater turning
moment.
Turning Lever
When making
sternway a short
turning lever and
consequently you
experience a lesser
moment to turn the
ship.
Turning Lever
The same principles apply when you use bow thrusters or tugs

BERTH
BERTH

BERTH
DIW – both tugs exerts Slow headway – aft tug has Slow sternway – forward
same amount of power more power tug has more power
Propeller and Rudder Arrangement
The conventional propeller and rudder arrangement has been around for century
already. The propeller can be designed to turn clockwise or counter-clockwise. The
position of the rudder, which normally lies in the propeller slipstream, is critical with
regards to cavitation as well as efficiency.

Conventional rudders normally have a

maximum rudder angle of about 35°.

Generally speaking a ship with a right

hand turning propeller can be
expected to have a slight smaller
turning radius to port than to
starboard and vice versa for a ship with
left hand turning propeller.
Propeller and Rudder Arrangement
The conventional designed twin screw ships are normally designed with a right hand
and a left hand turning propellers and sometimes equipped with two rudders, each
behind each propellers. The reason fro making the outward turning propellers is
two-fold, reducing cavitation and taking greatest benefit from the transverse thrust.
.
The essence of good
maneuverability of twin screw
ships is not the result of one
factor alone, but rather
several other factors
combined:

The rudder configuration

The effect of torque

The effect of transverse
thrust
The pivot point
The turning ability
The competent
shiphandler
SOLAS Rules
SOLAS Rules
SOLAS Rules
Propulsion
Most ships are still equipped with
traditional single screw and single rudder
system, designed for getting from point A
to point B as economical as possible, this
case often represents a challenge to the
shiphandler with reference to
maneuvering in confined waters.

In order to achieved a better balance

between maneuverability and economy,
some ships are equipped with a propeller
and rudder system that differ considerable
from the traditional system.
Propulsion
The diesel engine is very widely used as
mean of propulsion for most ships
because it tends to be the least
expensive and reliable to run.

Low speed diesel engines operate

directly onto the shaft. Max Speed rpm
ranges from 85 -130 rpm.

The shiphandler must remember that

difficulties can be experienced in starting
the engine when still making a lot of
headway. This is because the propeller
will still be trying to turn in the water
stream and because of the direct drive
the engine tends to turn in the forward
direction.

Another important thing to remember is

that sometimes there might be a limited
amount of start air available. i.e. too
many starting orders during a short time
interval may empty the start air reservoir,
making starting very impossible for some
time.
Propulsion
Medium and high speed
diesels are popular
arrangements in smaller ships
such as ferries, car carriers
and other special type of
ships.

One several engines drive a

shaft through a gearbox and
clutch. The engines are
normally operated from the
bridge and are very
responsive, and like their low
speed relatives, can develop
almost as much power astern
as ahead; but, of course the
application of this astern
power is less efficient as ships
hulls, propellers and rudders
are usually designed to work
in the head direction.
Propulsion
The steam turbine is often found
in large ships and on ships where
high speed is required.

A turbine ship, while being

smooth running and more
reliable in the mechanical sense
has one major drawback. From
the shiphandler’s point of view
its response to control orders are
very slow for change of direction
of shaft rotation. Thus when
maneuvering a turbine driven
ships each movement must be
carefully planned and calculated.
Propulsion

Pitch is the distance a

propeller drives forward
for each complete
revolution, assuming it is
moving through a solid
element, just like a wood
screw driving through
wood.
Propulsion
Controllable Pitch
Propeller (CPP) are very
practical because by
modifying the pitch they
allow for thrust
optimization under
different load conditions.
With the controllable
pitch propellers, the user
can modify the pitch,
normally by means of a
hydraulic mechanism.
Propulsion

When using a CPP the main engine has to

be clutched in, so the propeller is
continuously turning, usually quite high
revolutions. As it neither practicable, nor
economical, to run an engine continuously
at excessive high rpm, it is important to
have some kind of combined control over
both rpm and pitch so that the pitch for
slow speed is balanced by a reduction in
revolutions. On most ships this is achieved
by installing a “combinator” which
automatically balanced engine revolutions
against propeller pitch, thus producing a
saving in fuel and a better propeller
performance
Propulsion
To use ahead power, a ship with CPP
propeller is not restricted to the
“old” stepper progression that has
been associated with fixed pitch
propellers. Any speed can be
selected by adjusting the
combinator control to the required
setting.

It is also possible to set the propeller

pitch for extremely low speeds, so
when it is essential to proceed at
very slow speed, the propeller and
rudder are still active and
steerageway can be maintained for
a lot longer than usual.
Propulsion
When “low Speed” or “stop” are
demanded, the blades of the CP
propeller are set with a very fine
angle and pitch. If the ship’s speed is
too high and does not already
match the propeller speed, the flow
of water through it will be restricted
and turbulence will develop behind
the propeller, which will also have
an adverse effect upon the rudder.

If the ship’s speed is not reduced

slowly and progressively, in much
the same way as a large directional
unstable ship, the rudder will be
shielded and the steering may
become erratic or poor.
Propulsion
One of the most common concerns
mentioned by many shiphandlers and
pilots, is the uncertainty as to which way
the bow will cunt, if all, when CPP is put
astern.

To answer this question, It is necessary to

first know which way the propeller is
turning when it is viewed from the stern.
The majority of CPPs are left handed or
moving in an anti-clockwise direction. The
effect however, is similar to a fixed pitch
right-handed propeller working aster, i.e.
the bow will tend to cant to starboard.

It is important to note that the transverse

thrust on some ships with CPP may be
weak and unreliable, due to vortices or
turbulence around the propeller blades. It
is therefore advisable to exercise some
caution when anticipating the effects of
stern power on some CPP powered ships.
Propulsion
A ducted propeller, also known as
a Kort nozzle, is a propeller fitted with a
non-rotating nozzle. It is used to improve
the efficiency of the propeller and is
especially used on heavily loaded
propellers or propellers with limited
diameter. The Kort nozzle is a shrouded,
propeller assembly for marine propulsion.
The hydrodynamic design of the shroud,
which is shaped like a foil, offers
advantages for certain conditions over
bare propellers.
Advantages are increased efficiency,
better course stability and less
vulnerability to debris. Downsides are
The advantages which can be expected for the ducted
reduced efficiency and course stability
propellers are:
when sailing astern and increase
of cavitation. Ducted propellers are also More output from the propeller
used to replace rudders.
Reduced propeller wash to a smaller arc, thereby
reducing erosion of canal and river banks

Better steering, especially at low speed

Better handling characteristics

Propulsion

Azipod is the ABB Group's registered brand name for their azimuth thruster. Originally developed in Finland
jointly by Kvaerner Masa-Yards dockyards and ABB, these are marine propulsion units consisting of diesel-electric-
driven propellers mounted on a steerable pod.
The distinguishing feature between the Azipod class of propulsion and other azimuthing propulsion devices is that in
the Azipod all propulsion power is delivered by an integrated electric motor instead of a mechanical shaft to the
vessel and a gearbox.
The pod's propeller usually faces forward because in this puller (or tractor) configuration the propeller is more
efficient due to operation in undisturbed flow. Because it can rotate around its mount axis, the pod can apply its
thrust in any direction. Azimuth thrusters allow ships to be more maneuverable and enable them to travel backward
nearly as efficiently as they can travel forward.
The podded design typically achieved a 9% better fuel efficiency than the conventional propulsion system when it
was first installed in the 1990s. Improvements to the conventional design have shrunk the gap to 6%-8%, but on
the other hand the hydrodynamic flow around the Azipod has been improved by fin retrofits and a dynamic
computer optimization of the respective operating angles of the pods in multipod installations, yielding overall
efficiency improvements now in the range of 18%.
The CRP (Contra-Rotating Propeller) Azipod places a contra-rotating azipod propeller behind a fixed propeller
achieving improved fuel efficiency.
Propulsion – Combined forces in Action
Right-Handed Single Screw Going Ahead

By convention, ship’s engines are

designed to have a clockwise-
turning direction when going
forward and when view from the
stern.
For this reason, right-handed
propellers are nearly universal in
a single screw ships.

Stern Movement
Strong
Suction

Weak
Suction
Propulsion – Combined forces in Action
The propeller thrust of the propeller blades
is divided into two components, a fore and
aft one and a very small athwart ship one.
The latter is called Transverse Thrust
THRUST, Screwing Effect, or Starting
Bias.

The result of this may be deduced by

considering the propeller to be a wheel,
Stern Movement carrying the stern through the water at
Strong right angles to the ship’s line of motion. The
Suction
cause however, considering an immersed
Weak
Suction
propeller is mainly due to the suction
exerted upon the hull immediately behind
the rotating blades. Since the hull is more
full in a way of the upper blades, the
suction has its greater effect at this position
and a bias is caused.

Wheeling Effect
Propulsion – Combined forces in Action
Single Screw with Right-Handed Propeller

Going Ahead Going Astern

Right Handed Propeller

Propeller turns clockwise Propeller turns anti-clockwise

Getting underway, the rudder kicks stern to starboard, requiring right rudder.
Underway at speed, side forces diminishes, requiring less right rudder, ship
requiring rudder action while on a constant course are said to posses “HELM”
Stooping, the propeller is reversed, both propeller thrust and side propeller
thrust reversed, kicking the stern to port.
Backing is less predictable, initially, side propeller thrust is strong and rudder
force is weak. Rudder force and response to rudder increase as the vessel
gains way.
Casting (Kicking Around) turns a ships in a small space. To turn the ships
sharply to port
Go ahead with left rudder until stern swings to starboard
As soon as the ship gains way, back propeller with right full rudder
until vessels stops.
Repeat steps 1 and 2 until vessel is headed in desired direction.
Propulsion – Combined forces in Action
Single Screw with Right-Handed Propeller

Going Ahead Going Astern

Right Handed Propeller

Propeller turns clockwise Propeller turns anti-clockwise

The bow cants to port, the swing The bow cants strongly to
decreasing as way is gathered starboard and will continue to do
and possibly changing in the so until connecting helm is used.
opposite sense.
Propulsion – Combined forces in Action
Single Screw with Left-Handed Propeller

Going Ahead Going Astern

Left Handed Propeller

Propeller turns anti-clockwise Propeller turns clockwise

The bow cants to starboard, the The bow cants strongly to port
swing decreasing as way is and will continue to do so until
gathered and possibly changing connecting helm is used.
in the opposite sense.
Propulsion – Combined forces in Action
Twin Screw Propellers

Twin screw ships invariably have

outward turning screws, i.e. the
propeller on the starboard side is
right-handed and the port side
propeller is left-handed. When
going astern, both propellers turn
inwards.
Propulsion – Combined forces in Action
Twin Screw Propeller
Going Ahead Going Astern

Right Handed Propeller

Left Handed Propeller
In a twin screw ships, propellers are offset from the centerline and a moment is created
by the latter by the fore and aft thrust of the screw, turning the ship to one side. If
both engines are going ahead or astern, and at the same revolution, the two
transversed thrust cancel each other. In any case the port screw is left handed, and
both its transversed thrust and its offset effect cant the bow to starboard when going
ahead. Similarly, the starboard screw when going ahead cants the bow to port, both by
its offset and its transversed thrust effects. From this, it is obvious that a ship fitted
with outward turning screw is more maneuverable than one fitted with inward-turning
screws. Consider the port propeller of such a ship; it is right handed, and therefore
when going ahead its transversed thrust cants the bow to port, while its off set effects
cants the bow to starboard. The net swing of the ship is the difference between these
two effects. With outward-turning screws the swing is controlled by the sum of the
effects.

Advantage of a twin screw ships in maneuvering:

Since the starboard propeller is Right handed and the port propeller is Left handed, if both
engines are turning at the same rpm, there will be no net side force.
Since starboard and port propellers are offset from the centerline, each individually exerts a
turning force both in forward and reverse, by operating one in forward and the other in reverse,
the vessel can be turned with little forward or aft movement.
Propulsion – Combined forces in Action
Triple Screw Propellers

Triple screw ships are usually

maneuvered on the outer screws,
the central one being used to
increase ahead or astern
directional force.
Propulsion – Combined forces in Action
Quadruple or Multiple Screw Propellers

Quadruple screw ships have

a pair of propellers on each
side, a right handed pair on
the starboard side and a
left-handed pair of
propellers on the port side.
They are usually
maneuvered on the outer
screws only.

A turbine equipped ships

with four screws generally
has the outer pair only
capable of going astern.
Propeller and Rudder Forces
Going Ahead Going Astern

Lower blades exerts more sideways thrust Lower blades exert more sideways thrust
than the upper blades. This reaction cants than the upper blades. This reaction cants
stern to starboard the stern to port

Transverse Thrust (Propeller Side Thrust) - it is the sideway thrust of the propeller
blades as they rotate. This has to be considered because the upper blades work near the
surface and the transverse effect is not sufficient to cancel the opposite effect of the lower
blades. For right handed propellers the resultant thrust tends to cants the ship’s stern to
starboard and her bow to port when operating forward propulsion. The effect is not very
pronounced since the lines of a ship are designed to feed water into the propeller when
going ahead and the upper blades are operating in water which is excessively broken. The
cants of the ship’s bow to port becomes apparent when the engines are first put ahead
from rest, but on gathering headway it may be counteracted by a very little opposite
rudder.
Propeller and Rudder Forces
Going Ahead Going Astern

Lower blades exerts more sideways thrust Lower blades exert more sideways thrust
than the upper blades. This reaction cants than the upper blades. This reaction cants
stern to starboard the stern to port

When a right handed propeller is put astern the backlash of the water against the ship’s
stern causes the surface water to considerable broken. The upper blades of the propeller
are thus less effective than the lower blades and the result is a pronounced kick of the
stern to port, so that the heads cants to starboard. This action cannot be controlled since
the rudder is ineffective when going astern. Under such conditions transverse thrust may
outweigh all other effects.

The transverse thrust is more effective in lighter ships than in loaded ships. Ships with left
hand propellers will have the opposite action to the described above.
Propeller and Rudder Forces
THE RUDDER (Rudder Force) - it effects depends upon the deflection of stream of
water, if the rudder is put over to starboard the reaction to this deflection cants the stern to
port and the ship’s head goes to starboard. The stream of water may be produced by the
ship’s movement through the water or by the axial flow of water from the propeller passing
through the rudder. When the engines are going ahead and the ship is moving through the
water both these effects are acting together but the rudder is still effective when a vessel is
moving ahead with the engines stopped or when the engines are put ahead when the ship is
not making way through the water.

Rudder deflects water stream.

AHEAD Reaction forces stern to cant in the
opposite direction

No smooth stream of water is set

ASTERN up past the rudder

When the engines are put astern the smooth flow of water is spoilt and the effect of the rudder is
unpredictable. In such cases transverse thrust takes charge and the rudder should be left
amidships. If the engine is put astern for a prolonged period, sufficient sternway may be achieved
to enable the ship to be steered, but this can option is only applicable in small ships
Steering System

The Actuator is situated on top of

the Rudder Stock in the steering
gear compartment. The rotor in the
rotary vane actuator is mounted
directly on the rudder stock.

The rudder stock connects the

actuator with the rudder.
Actuator Main Parts
Rudder System Operating Instruction
Emergency Scheme Poster
Steering System
Two types of electro hydraulic
steering system:
RAM type (cylinder type) this
uses cylinder pistons to move the
tiller
Rotary Vane Type – this type is
working through the pressure
working on the side vane or wing.

The working principles of the two are

very similar. A strong slow movement
of a mechanical surface is created by
the use of high oil pressure.

On the Ram type the piston is

connected by a ram or rod to a tiller,
and the tiller is fixed connected to a
rudder stock, creating the rotating
movement.

On the rotary vane the vane is fixed

to a boss (hub) that is fixed directly
to the stock.
Steering System
In order to move the rudder, the
steering gear has to create a
certain torque (measured in
kiloNewton meters)

The torque requirement is given

by the class rules to ensure a safe
manoeuverability of the ship, the
size and the shape of the rudder,
and also the speed of the vessel is
also taken into consideration.
Rudder Profile
The rudder arrangement is also exposed to these forces.

These forces depends upon the type and size of the rudder and its
arrangement.
Speed of Rudder
For regular ships the rudder must be able
to turn 35° to each side.

To meet the rules concerning rudder angle

velocity, the rudder must be able to turn
from 35° to 30° on the other side in
maximum 28 seconds. This is called the
minimum angle velocity.

30° 30°

35° 35°
Torque Capacity
The steering gear must be big enough to turn
the rudder to 35° port and starboard at full
speed (Rudder Torque / maximum working
torque). This torque is achieved at a certain oil
pressure working on the vanes of the rotor.

Full Speed
The safety valve is set at corresponding oil
pressure minimum 25% above this. When the
safety valves open the oil is allowed to by0pass
the vanes.

In addition the steering gear is to be pressure

tested with much higher pressure.
This is done by the manufacturer before
delivery.

The hydraulic system should be designed so

35° 35°
that “single failure” does not put the steering
gear out of function.
Rudder Force
The water which flows around
the propeller creates forces
that help turn the ship. If there
is no water flow around the
rudder, there will be no turning
effect.

When turning the rudder, the

water flowing around it will
create a pressure zone on one
side and a suction zone on the
other. These two zones
together will create a force
called “LIFT”.
Rudder Profile
Conventional rudders found on most
ships world wide, represent a
compromise between economy and
necessity. Conventional rudders
normally function satisfactorily for
normal steering and course change
requirements in open waters

The basic conventional rudder is

efficient up to a maximum of 45°.
At higher angles the rudder is not
capable of maintaining a smooth
water flow across both sides of the
rudder and the rudder “stalls” i.e.
losses its effect.
Rudder Profile
If the rudder has its entire area
aft of the rudder stock then it is
unbalanced. A rudder with
between 20 and 40% of its area
forward of the stock is a balanced
rudder. Most modern rudders are
of the semi-balanced design. This
means that a certain portion of
the water force acting on the
after part of the rudder is counter
acted by the force acting on the
forward part of the rudder; hence,
the steering gear can be lighter
and smaller.
Rudder Designs – Flap Rudder
Conventional rudders are somewhat
restricted when it comes to
maneuverability at slow speed and in
confined waters. Several developers have
made advanced and efficient rudder
systems in the last decades and some ships
are now fitted with modern and efficient
rudder system.
Rudder Designs – Spade Rudder
This is the most used rudder design on ferries and small ships. This type of
rudder give good maneuverability, depending on the available rudder angle
and rudder profile.
Rudder Designs – Half-Spade Rudder
This type of design are mostly used on bigger ships it is not as effective as
the spade rudder on the same size..
Rudder Designs – Flap Rudder
The flap rudder is different from a conventional rudder in that it utilizes an additional flap on the
trailing edge for steering. This type of rudder is used when very good maneuverability is required,
the rear fin “exaggerates” the movement of the rudder making the rudder more efficient. (increasing
the side lift). This allows two times the steering power compared to a traditional rudder, translating
into a more maneuverable ship.
Rudder Designs – Heel Rudder
This type of rudder is supported
with bearings on the top and
bottom providing an endurable
rudder construction.
Rudder Designs – Rotor Rudder
The rotor rudder is essentially a
conventional rudder but with the
addition of a rotating cylinder
mounted vertically on the edge of
the rudder. The purpose of this
design is to smoothen the water
flow at high rudder angles and
thereby improve the ship’s turning
performance.
Rudder Designs – T - Rudder
The purpose of this T-rudder
design is to combine the
advantages of the flap and rotor
rudder in order to get the best
possible rudder performance.

The performance is indeed

excellent, but unfortunately the
price is very high compared to its
predecessors. Not many ships
invest in this very excellent
rudder system.
Rudder Designs – Schilling - Rudder
This is an alternative design to
the flap rudder. The shape of the
rudder is such that it can be
turned up to 70° and still retain
excellent performance. The fore
body of the rudder is elliptical in
shape, but runs into a rear body
section, which is concave.
Rudder Designs – Schilling - Rudder
This rudder system is totally different from
all other rudder system both in design and
operation. The most unusual but essential
feature of this system is the propeller,
which even though it is a fixed pitch, it is
constantly running with the engine
permanently ahead revolution, normally
in maneuvering speed full ahead.

Immediately astern of the propeller, in

place of the conventional rudders, are two
Schilling rudders each of which can rotate
a total arc of 145°. The rudder do not act
independently of each other but are
instead synchronized to work in harmony
with each other in response to a single
joystick control on the bridge.
Turning Diagram – Twin Schilling Rudder
Rudder Performance
This diagram shows the
expected increase in
turning performance for
ship equipped with a
modern T-rudder, Rotor
rudder, Flap rudder and a
Normal conventional
rudder systems.

As can be seen from the

diagram, considerable
turning improvements are
obtained.
Rudder Performance
Special rudders deploying up to 70° are
used in much the same way as a
conventional rudder. When used in
combination with a good bow thruster
it is possible to develop excellent
lateral motion.

Care should be taken into account not

to move the ship with to high speed as
this may damage the rudder system or
may result to unnecessary wear and
tear. Some system do not allow a
rudder angle of more than 35° when
the speed is more than 5 knots.
Auto Pilots
Today majority of the ships uses
auto pilots to steer the ship in most
of the time. The performance of the
various auto pilots available varies a
lot. Proper adjustments of all
relevant auto pilot parameters is
very important in order to obtain
maximum performance from the
system under various weather
conditions.

It is highly recommended to use

manual steering regularly in order to
maintain good mastering of the
helm at all times. Lack of qualified
helmsmen are a growing problem to
shiphandlers now a days.
Turning Maneuvers
When turning with constant rate of
turn the radius may not remain
constant due to speed reduction
during the turn. However, if the turn
is made with very low ROT i.e. 6° per
minute, the speed loss is next to
nothing.

A low constant ROT setting on the

autopilot is most useful in passenger
ship, ferries, and other type of ships
operating in good weather condition
with stabilizers inactive in order to
avoid drag and save fuel.

A low ROT setting during a change of

course avoids banking the ship even
with stabilizers inactive. In general a
low ROT should be used whenever
possible as this may have so many
advantages in the aspect of safety,
economy and comfort points of view.
ROT Formula
Mathematical Formula If ROT is known and
for Calculation of ROT Turnn Radius is
is as follows required

ROT = _V  k_ R = ___V ___

R  60 ROT

V = ships speed in knots

R = Turn Radius in Nautical Miles
k = Conversion factor for radians to degrees

Example:
calculate the Rate of Turn for a
ships with a speed of 20 knots; and a
turn radius of 0,5 n.mi.

ROT = _V =_20 knots_ = 40° per minute

R = 0,5
Turning Maneuvers
In order to make turning maneuvers accurate
and predictable several modern autopilots have
steering modes for executing and control the
turns by preset Turning Radius (TR) or fixed
rate of turn (ROT. In confined waters the
simplicity of the geometrical shape of the circle
will ease the navigation and the control of the
actual track.

Today when proper documentation of proper

route planning is an IMO requirement, and more
and more ships are equipped with ECDIS and
advanced autopilots, even turns in open waters
should be planned and executed in an optimal
way.

Way
Track
Course
Point
Turning Maneuvers
Many ships are equipped with auto pilots
capable of following a present curve based on
radius input. Turning with pre-planned fixed
radius is recommended whenever precision
track keeping is required during a
maneuvering.

The following points should be taken into

account when planning a turn using a fixed
turning radius:

Use largest possible radius

Establish the wheel over point as

accurately as possible. 1 to 5 ships
length from the start point of the turn
radius is normal value for most ships.

Estimate wind, current, shallow water

effects and be prepared to adjust
heading manually whenever
necessary.
Maneuvering Characteristics
Ship’s maneuvering
characteristics are directly related
to the shape or her hull.

Optimal performance depends

upon the shape of the hull in
conjunction with engine power
and the propeller and rudder
system.
Pilot House Information
IMO resolution A.601 15)
defines the provision and
display of maneuvering
information onboard ships.

The maneuvering
information should be
presented as follows:

Pilot Card

Wheelhouse Poster

Maneuvering Booklet
Turning Circle
When considering the turning circle it must be
remembered the whole ship does not follow the
same path, but that the return will center about
the pivot point which lies about 1/3 of the ships
length from the bow.

The stern will swing wide on the turn, not

crossing the initial path until the ship has moved
at least two lengths forward and then following
a wider turning circle than the bow, the speed is
greatly affected by turning.
Turning Circle
When the vessel alters her course under helm through 360°
she moves on a roughly circular path called a TURNING
CIRCLE.
Throughout the turn her bow will slightly inside the circle
and her stern a little outside of it. The circle will be her
path traced out by her center of gravity.
At any instant during the turn a line drawn from the center
of curvature of the path, perpendicular to the ship’s fore
and aft line, meets the latter at a point called the PIVOT
POINT.
This is about 1/3 of the length forward. When the vessel
moves underway sternway the pivoting point moves aft,
very close to the stern.

ADVANCE – the distance the vessel moves in the

direction of the original course until the new course is
reached
TRANSFER – the distance the vessel moves
perpendicular to the original course during the turn.
TACTICAL DIAMETER – the distance gained to the
right or left of the original course after a turn of 180°
with a constant rudder angle
FINAL DIAMETER – the diameter of a circle traversed
by a vessel after running through 360° and maintaining
the same speed and rudder angle.
DRIFT ANGLE – the angle between the tangent to this
path, the turning circle, and the centerline of the vessel.
Turning Circle
When considering the Turning circle for a VLCC, full ahead 35° STBD rudder, deep water
turning circle it must be
remembered that the whole
ship does not follow the
same path, but that the turn
center about the pivot point
which lies about 1/3 of the
ship length from the bow.
The stern will swing wide
from the turn, not crossing
the initial path until the ship
has moved at least two
lengths forward and then
following a wider turning
circle than the bow. The
speed is greatly affected by
turning.

The loaded ship has more

area of the hull under water,
and consequently the
hydrodynamic forces that
help the ship turn is greater.
Turning Circle
Stopping and Turning Parameters
This ferry with two propellers
and two rudders and a lot of
engine power is very easy to
maneuver during good weather
conditions. However, with
strong crosswind the situation
changes dramatically because
of the small draft,
approximately 5,0 m, and a
large freeboard of more than
4,000 sq. meters.

As the diagram shows the

speed of the vessel is greatly
affected by a tight turn starting
at high speed. The turning
diameter is approximately 3
ships length, while the crash
stopping distance is less than
600 meters.
Stopping and Turning Parameters
This Bulk Carrier is in loaded
condition with a draft of 12,0m
and a speed of 15 knots. The
ships is equipped with a single
propeller and rudder system.
This ships is less much affected
by strong wind than the ferry,
on the other hand the inertia of
the ship is much smaller than
the ferry.

Crash stopping this big ship

requires 1 n. mile distance
ahead and with the rudder
amidships. The ship will, when
stopped end up facing the
opposite direction. The turning
circle indicates a turning
diameter of a little more than 3
ships length.
Stopping and Turning Parameters
This is a 250,000 Dwt VLCC with
a length of 330 meters, draft
20,0m and an engine power of
40,000Hp. Full speed is 16 knots.

The space needed to turn this

VLCC is much larger than other
ships. However, if we use ships’
length as a reference will find that
the turning diameter of the VLCC,
like many other ships is
approximately 3 ships length.

The weight to power ratio is very

low. It is not economically
acceptable to power a VLCC in
such a way that it can be stopped
quickly. It has been calculated
that the force required to stop a
VLCC with in half its unassisted
stopping distance would put a
large rocket into the Earth orbit.

If space is available, the best

and quickest way to stop a
VLCC is by turning the ship.
Ship’s Maneuvering Performance
It is important that the shiphandlers is 3x Ship’s Length
aware that the majority of the ship in
service around the globe are operated
without any proven documentation of
the ship’s maneuvering performance
standards.

The ship’s ability to manoeuver

depends on the following:

Ship’s steering ability

Ship’s turning ability

Ship’s stopping ability

Wheel Over

Engines ordered full astern

Docking Procedures – Right-Handed single Screw
NO Current; NO Wind

2
3 2

BERTH

1 Forward Slow Forward Slow in Steep

1 Approach
2 Back Down
2 Hard Port Rudder: Back
3 Stern Swings to Port Slow
Docking Procedures – Right-Handed single Screw
WITH Current; NO Wind

1
1

CURRENT
3 4
2

2
BERTH 3

Forward Slow Forward Slow in Steep

1 1 Approach
2 Attach Forward Spring 2 Hard Port Rudder: Back Slow

3 Current Stern Swings Stern in 3 Attach After Spring

Forward Slow; Hard left swing
4 stern in
Docking Procedures – Right-Handed single Screw
WITH Wind ; NO Current

WIND
1
1

2
2
WIND 4
3

BERTH 3 3

Forward Slow Forward Moderate in Steep

1 1 Approach
2 Back down; Stern Swings 2 Hard Port Rudder: Nose in

3 Wind pushes to dock 3 Attach Bow and After Springs

Forward Moderate; Hard left
4 pull stern into wind
Undocking Procedures – Right-Handed single Screw
NO Current; NO Wind

3
2

2
3

1 1

BERTH
1 Forward Slow on Aft Spring 1 Back with port Rudder
When Clear forward with Hard
2 Back with no Rudder 2 Port Rudder

3 Forward with Starboard Rudder

Undocking Procedures – Right-Handed single Screw
WITH Current; NO Wind

2
2

CURRENT
1 1

BERTH
On stern line, let the On bow line, let the current
1 1 push stern out
current push bow out

2 Let go Stern line; power ahead 2 Back down; starboard rudder

3 When clear forward; Hard

Port rudder
Undocking Procedures – Right-Handed single Screw
WITH Wind ; NO Current

WIND
4

3
2

2
WIND 1
1

BERTH
1 Double the bow lines 1 Cast off all lines
Forward Slow; Hard Port
2 rudder 2 Drift away from the dock

3 When clear; forward with

Back down; Starboard rudder 3 Right rudder
Forward ; Hard Starboard
4 Rudder
Open Sea Maneuvers
All officers in charge on a
navigational watch should have a
theoretical understanding of some
basic open sea manoeuvers. If
possible some practical training in
executing such maneuvers is highly
recommended:

Taking Pilot onboard

Man Overboard maneuvers

Search Patterns

Transfer at sea or
replenishment
Pilot Boarding
In conditions where strong wind is
causing large sea waves, it is
possible to use own ship’s wake in a
right turn to flatten the sea and
shield the pilot boat from large
waves. This will give the pilot boat
time to approach and for the pilot
to reach the relative safety of the
ladder.

During board, the propeller should

be stopped in order to avoid injury
if anyone should fall in the water.
Pilot
Pre-Arrival Planning

Pre-Arrival information
exchange with the pilot

Pilot on board

Preparing the outward bound

pilotage plan
Pilot Checklist
Pilot Checklist
Pilot
In order to prepare for the pilot, an
information exchange between the
ship and the pilot should take place
prior to boarding.

Once the pilot is onboard the

passage plan may need to be
discussed in more details.

Ship maneuvering and particulars

information should be available at
the bridge.
Pilot
The pilot is expected to have
special knowledge about
navigation in local waters.
Depending on local pilotage laws
the master may delegate the
conduct of ship to the pilot who
directs the navigation of the ship
in close cooperation with the
OOW or the Master.

The presence of the pilot does

not relieve the master or the
OOW of their duties and
obligations for the safety of the
ship.

Both should be prepared to

exercise the right not to proceed
to a point where the ship is put
in a dangerous situation
Pilot Ladder
• Required Boarding
Arrangements for Pilot
Pilot ladder must be in
accordance with I.M.O.
requirements and International
Maritime Pilots’ Association
Pilot Ladder
• Required Boarding Arrangements for Pilot
Height of the end of
the pilot ladder above
the water must be
according to the
specifications of the
pilot / as per pilot’s
request
Pilot Ladder
• Required Boarding Arrangements for Pilot
The Officer
in charge
should be
on standby
by the
bulwark
equipped
with a
portable
radio and
has
continuous
contact
with the
bridge
Pilot Ladder
• Required Boarding Arrangements for Pilot
The following must
not be present on the
structure of a pilot
ladder
Pilot Ladder
• Required Boarding Arrangements for Pilot
Adequate
illumination must
be provided during
night time
Pilot Ladder
• Required Boarding Arrangements for Pilot
For vessels with
more than 9
meters free board
and with no side
doors available, a
pilot ladder must
be combined with
an accommodation
ladder
Pilot Ladder
• Required Boarding Arrangements for Pilot
For mechanical pilot
hoist, it must be rigged
together with a pilot
ladder for immediate
transfer, as per
agreement between
pilot and master
Replenishing
When re-supplying it is usual to agree to
the general details of the transfer
operation by radio before hand. From the
ship handling aspect the important
details are the course and speed to be
adopted by the guide ship (usually the
bigger ship keeping a steady course and
speed) on which the other ship in
maneuvering up on the side.

The seed should be equal that both the

two ships have full control of their
maneuvering capabilities and special
attention must be given to the
possibilities of “Negative Pressure Areas”
around the ships’ hull, which will make
the ship uncontrollable. Transfer at sea is
a very difficult operation which should be
done with utmost care and attention.
Search Patterns
When you are entering a search area you are to start at searching in a specific pattern
Parallel Search Pattern
This is the first pattern that is
followed for undertaking a search
operation. Track line search pattern
can be undertaken can be
undertaken with one or more
vessels. The reason for adopting this
method is the assumption that the
object to be searched is in the near
vicinity and along the ‘track’. It is
also used when the search area is
large and only an approximate
location is necessary. Following this
pattern ensures uniform coverage.
The main vessel/s starts the search
parallel to each other as shown in
the diagram above. After a little
distance, the vessels turn away from
each other at 90 degrees. Then after
a short distance they again take a
right turn and move the entire
length parallel to each other.  The
spacing between two track lines is
referred to as ‘track spacing’, or to
put in simple words the distance
between two parallel lines is termed
as ‘track spacing’
Expanding Square Pattern

This pattern can be

undertaken by surface
vessels or even aircraft
search units. Starting at
the probable location of
the target, the search
vessels expand outward in
concentric squares.
Sector Search Pattern
The sector search is employed
when the position of the body
is known accurately and the
search has to be carried over a
small area. It is normally
carried out in the area, where
the casualty or the object has
been sighted. The probability of
detection of the object is high
close to datum and spreads the
search over.
On drawing the pattern it
comes like the spokes of a
wheel. The advantage is the
search vessels cross the datum
a number of times. The first
step is to determine the drift
and carry out the operations in
that direction. The distance
between two search legs is 120
degrees and it takes three
searches to complete one
circle.
Open Sea Manoeuvers
Open Sea Manoeuvers
Open Sea Manoeuvers
Towing Arrangement
Spring Hawser
Main Towing Hawser

TUG
Fish Plate
TUG
Towing Briddle

Towing Briddle – two equal lengths of wire cable or chain, connected to a fishplate, to distribute the
load on the tow and help prevent hawing
The SWL of each leg of the towing briddle should be at least equal of that of the main towing
hawser.
The towing briddle should be sufficient length to avoid subjecting it to excessive strain.

Fishplate – a triangular shaped plate used to join together the towing briddle and connect the main
towing hawser.
Spring Hawser – generally located between the fishplate and the main hawser. The purpose of this is to
provide weight and flexibility to the total tow make-up of the tow.
Main Towing Hawser – length should be from a catenary, this is used to reduce the stress on the main
towing hawser. It is also desirable that the length of the towline should such that the vessel will be
“in-step” being in-step reduces shock load on the towline.
Towing Arrangement

TUG
TUG
The following are some basic signals and manoeuvers common to almost all ports in the
united states. Signals are to be given with a hand whistle of the ship’s whistle:

SIGNAL MEANING
If Pushing or Backing “STOP”
1 BLAST
If Stopped, come ahead at NORMAL POWER
2 BLASTS Back with Normal Power
1 LONG BLAST Come Ahead DEAD SLOW
Increase to FULL POWER, Ahead or Astern, depending on
SERIES OF RAPID SHORT BLASTS
the direction in which the tug is presently working.

1 LONG AND 2 SHORT BLASTS Tug Service is Finished. Let go Tug Lines.
Towing Arrangement

TUG
Yaw TUG

YAWING – the biggest problem encountered while towing a single tow aster.
it is the veering of the tow from side to side on its towline making the
path of the tow unpredictable. Excessive yaw can even lead to
“tripping” of the tug

Yawing can be minimized by:

Trimming the tow by the stern
Deploying a stern drogue.
Towing Arrangement

TUG Catenary TOW

Wave Crest

CATENARY – in a towline, is the downward of the hawser, serving as a shock

absorber . Increased catenary reduces shock stress on the towing hawser.

In-Step – both the towed and towing vessel ride wave crest or trough at the
same time
Towing Arrangement

TUG Tripping TOW

TRIPPING – is the listing of the tug when pulled sideways, the force of the
pull may overcome the up-righting moment of the tug and this may cause it
to capsize.

Factors affecting the risk of Tripping or Capsizing:

height of the Towline
the danger of tripping is increased the closer the towline is secured
Towing Arrangement – Pushing Ahead
When the tug is
pushing the tow, they
must be rigidly tied
together so that they act
as a single vessel.
Typical placement of
lines are shown in the
diagram to ensure
immobility.

Face Line
Jockey Line
Towing Arrangement – Towing Alongside (Hip Towing)

Towing Alongside also known as 4

Hip Towing requires a rigid
connection between the tug and
the vessel towed.
1 2
3
To obtain better steering control,
while towing alongside, the tug is
secured to the aft quarter of the
of the tow with the stern of the
tug extending aft of the tow.
4

1 Bow Line
2 Towing Line 1
3
2

3 Backing Line
4 Stern Line
Towing Arrangement – Towing of more than 1 Tug

When towing with more than one tug, the hawser of the more powerful tug
should be attached closer to the center of the tow.

When towing in tandem, the smaller tug should be a ahead of the larger tug
towing the larger tug.
Towing Arrangement – Towing of more than 1 Tow (inline)

The line of the after tow may be attached to the stern of the forward tow

The hawser of the after tow may run under the forward tow and be attached
to the forward tow