INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY

This section introduces Science, Technology, and Society (STS) as a field of study. After defining science and
technology, the section traces the historical roots of STS as an academic field. It also enumerates emerging ethical
dilemmas that reinforce the importance of the study of STS in an age of scientific progress and technological
development.

 GENERAL CONCEPTS RELATED TO SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY

Science and technology innovations are prevalent in our society. It permeates our everyday activities, as well as
the tools that we use, from the simplest to the most complex. In order for you to completely grasp the impact of science
and technology on our society, it is necessary to study some concepts related to science and technology.

What is Science?

You have taken up science subjects since your primary school years, and the definition of science has been
repeatedly discussed since then. To give you a recall, Science comes from the Latin word scientia, meaning ‘knowledge’.
It refers to a systematic and methodical activity of building and organizing knowledge about how the universe behaves
through observation, experimentation, or both. Let’s discuss the nature of science below for you to understand it better.

The Nature of Science

The Nature of Science (NOS) was put together by the American Association for the Advancement of Science
(AAAS) which was anchored on decades of gathering information through research, investigation, and experiment about
the natural world. It is significant to understand the nature of science because it is a critical element of scientific literacy.
It enhances your understanding of science concepts and enables you to make informed decisions about scientifically-
based personal and societal issues. AAAS believes that all individuals involved with science teaching and learning should
have a shared accurate view of the nature of scientific knowledge, thus, NOS should be taught explicitly alongside other
disciplinary core ideas. The following sums up the nature of science:

A. The Scientific World View

 The world is understandable
 Scientific ideas are subject to change
 Scientific knowledge is durable
 Science cannot provide complete answers to all questions
B. The Scientific Inquiry
 Science demands evidence
 Science is a blend of logic and imagination
 Science explains and predicts
 Scientists try to identify and avoid bias
 Science is not authoritarian
C. The Scientific Enterprise
 Science is a complex social activity
 Science is organized into content disciplines and is conducted in various institutions
 There are generally accepted ethical principles in the conduct of science
 Scientists participate in public affairs both as specialists and as citizens

What is Technology?

Technology, the word often attached side by side with science comes from the Greek word techne, meaning ‘art,
skill or cunning of hand’. Technology is a way of knowing and is also a process of exploration and experimentation. It
involves the development and use of materials, tools, and approaches for solving human problems and helping to fulfill
human needs and desires. Technology addresses the needs and wants of society through the following fields:

 Information and Communication

 Bio-Related and Agriculture
 Medical
 Manufacturing and Construction
 Environmental
 Nanotechnology
 Transportation
 It is indisputable that many of the products of technology help humans accomplish tasks that would otherwise
be very difficult or impossible to carry out. Although technology provides many benefits, it also produces associated
costs and risks.

Relationship between Science, Technology, and Society

Science, technology, and society are closely linked, especially through scientific inquiry, technological problem-
solving, and communication. Science frequently utilizes and requires tools and processes developed by technology, and
conversely, technology often employs principles, laws, theories, and processes developed by means of science. Society,
as we know it today, has been affected in many ways by science and technology.For example, society demands for an
easy-access, and extensive and frequent communication. This leads to the research and development of an ever-
widening array of mobile phone capabilities. Access to these capabilities, in turn, influenced the way humans live. As
society relies more and more on mobile phones, additional features were continuously requested to improve like
increasing the speed of phone processors, the use of touch-enabled screens, or the implementation of mobile internet
access, and the cycle continues.

 HISTORICAL ROOTS OF STS AS AN ACADEMIC FIELD

As problems in science and technology continue to rise and become more observable, the need to pay attention
to their interactions with various aspects of human life, e.g. social, political, and economic, becomes ever more
necessary. How the different aspects of society shape and influence the progression and further development of science
and technology is the area of concern of a relatively new academic discipline called Science, Technology, and Society.

Science, Technology, and Society (STS) is a relatively young field that combines previously independent and older
disciplines, such as the history of science, philosophy of science, and sociology of science. As an academic field, STS,
according to Harvard University’s Kennedy School (2018), traces its roots from the interwar period and the start of the
Cold War. It was during this period when historians and scientists found interest in the interconnections of scientific
knowledge, technological systems, and society. The rise of STS as an academic field resulted from the recognition that
many schools today do not really prepare students to respond critically, reflectively, and proactively to the challenges
posed by science and technology in the modern world.

 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF STS

STS seeks to bridge the gap between two traditionally exclusive cultures --- humanities (interpretive) and natural
sciences (rational) --- so that humans will be able to better confront the moral, ethical, and existential dilemmas brought
by the continued developments in science and technology.

STS aims to help students to develop adaptability, equipped with not only academic skills but with a range of
practical skills which will make them functional citizens. With this, STS calls for educating you (our students) so that you
will be able to apply science and technology (tools, knowledge, process, and products) to solve problems in your
environment. STS is an important academic discipline to help you apply science so as to be skillful and useful and not just
become graduates who are alien to your own society. It is expected that students like you should become productive
members of society who are self-reliant, able to grow their own food, carryout disease preventive measures, and well-
informed on issues involving science and technology.

 ETHICAL DILEMMAS THAT REINFORCE THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF STS

 HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

 ANTECEDENT DEFINED

Though it is important to study scientific and technological

innovations that had important societal impacts, there would not be
enough time to study them all. What we would focus on are the historical
antecedents, which, according to Quinto, et al (2019), are “factors that
paved the way for the presence of advanced and sophisticated scientific
and ethnological innovations today.” This relationship of different
historical antecedents of science and technology across time can be seen.

 ANCIENT PERIOD

In the ancient times, people were concerned with transportation and navigation, communication and record
keeping, mass production, power and energy, security and protection, as well as health, observation, and measurement,
aesthetics, engineering, and architecture. A primary challenge they faced was the conservation of life. The early people
might have been successful in harnessing the rich resources that the world could provide but their survival posed a great
problem. Different illnesses and diseases, both natural and man-made, hampered the full potential of a human being.
Given this predicament, science and technology played a major role in the discovery of cures, if not the prevention of
illness. Moreover, in order to integrate their needs for better transportation, establishment of structures for protection
from human attacks and natural disasters, and construction of bigger and stronger infrastructure. Furthermore, the
people were not contented on beautifying their infrastructures and surrounding but more on being able to prolong life
with the mass production of food and advancement of medical technology, as well as raising the quality of life.

The rise of ancient civilizations such as Sumerians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Chinese paved
the way for advances in science and technology. Their contributions not only allowed these ancient civilizations to
flourish, but also paved the way for the developments of many other science and technology innovations.

Some of the important historical antecedents of much more modern science and technology innovations which
were discovered in the ancient times include the ancient wheel, paper, shadoof, Antikythera mechanism, and aeolipile.

 MEDIEVAL / MIDDLE AGES

The Middle Ages, which occurred between the collapse of the Roman Empire in 5th century AD and the colonial
expansion of Western Europe in late 15th century AD, was an age of which started with wars, migrations, and population
rise and fall. These events led to new technologies needed in the fields of weaponry, transportation and navigation, mass
food and farm production, and health. This is also the period of the emergence of scientific thinking and scientific
method. Because of this, many of our technologies can actually be traced back in this time period.

 MODERN AGES

According to Quinto, et al (2019), the Modern Ages was marked with a steady increase in population that
emphasizes the “importance of increasing the efficiency of transportation, communication, and production”. During the
Modern ages, more complicated problems were created that needed more solutions and greater risks for many aspects
of human life were needed to be addressed.

 SUMMARY
 The development of science and technology is affected by social contexts and social contexts affect the
developments in science and technology. By looking at the conditions present in a certain historical period, we
can discern the needs of humankind and these needs drive the development of science and technology.
 Certain scientific and technological innovations are considered as historical antecedents; that is, they are
precursors of other scientific innovations. They provide solutions to existing problems and are important
foundations for the development of future products and processes.
 The Ancient Period, Middle Ages, and Modern Ages are three historical periods marked with differing contexts
and thus developed different types of technologies.
 INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS AND SOCIETY

 WHAT IS AN INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTION?

Intellectual revolution refers to series of events that led to the emergence of modern science and more current
scientific thinking across critical periods in history. It reveals how society was transformed by science and technology for
it has a lot of improvements in astronomy, chemistry, mathematics and physics.

It is also the period where paradigm shifts occurred. It is where the scientific beliefs that have been widely
embraced and accepted by the people were challenged and opposed. It is the time period when advancements of
science and technology changed people’s perception and beliefs.

 COPERNICAN REVOLUTION

In the early times, people were fascinated with the

heavenly bodies. They became interested with the stars,
sun, moons and planets. Their curiosity is focused on the
components of the universe and wanted to know the
movement of the heavenly bodies and the effects in the
world where they live.

In the 6th century, Claudius Ptolemy introduced the

geocentric model which described the absolute perception
of the universe with the Earth as its center which was
thought to be true by most of the people and was widely
accepted at that time.

Copernican Revolution marks the shift from the belief

that the Earth was the center of the universe to the
heliocentric model of the universe where the sun is the
center of the solar system, as articulated by the Polish
astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus in the 16th century. In his
heliocentric model, Copernicus repositioned the Earth from
the center of the Solar System and introduced the idea that
the Earth rotates on its own axis causing day and night. The
Earth along with other heavenly bodies rotates around the
sun.

The heliocentric model was hardly accepted by the people, primarily by the church accusing Copernicus of
heresy. He even faced persecution because of this. They held their stance on their beliefs and refused to accept the
heliocentric model of the universe as the truth.

The shift from geocentric to heliocentric slowly happened through the contributions of the following intellectual
persons.

 Tycho Brahe’s careful observation of the star, Cassiopeia. He developed a compromise between the heliocentric
and geocentric models of the universe.
 Johannes Kepler’s said that all planets move in elliptical orbits and the sun at the center
 Galileo Galilie’s developed his own telescope and observed Venus
 Sir Isaac Newton’s law of gravitation

Heliocentrism was eventually accepted by people and marks the birth of modern astronomy which resulted in
the transformation of society’s thoughts and beliefs. The Copernican Revolution marked a turning point in the study of
cosmology and astronomy making it a truly significant intellectual revolution.
 DARWINIAN REVOLUTION

This Darwinian Revolution started when Charles Darwin Darwin (1809-

1882) (Figure 3.3) published his book “On the Origin of Species” which emphasizes
that organisms are the result of an evolution, a change in the heritable
characteristics of biological population over successive generations. He theorized
that species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small
inherited variations that increase individual’s ability to compete, survive, and
reproduce. Natural selection is often described as survival of the fittest, where
fitness refers to the ability to survive and reproduce. This theory of evolution has
two main points: (1) all life on Earth is connected and related to each other and (2)
this diversity of life came about because of the modifications in populations that
were driven by natural selection. An commonly cited example of the evolutionary
process can be seen in the beaks of Galapagos finches. (Figure 3.4)

Just like Copernicus, Darwin’s theory of evolution

also met resistance from the society. Critics see the theory
of evolution to be contradictory to the church’s teachings
that the source of life is a powerful creator. The theory
emerged at a time when most of the population believed
and accepted the biblical version of the Earth’s creation.
This caused conflict among people. Some believed that the
theory explained the origin of life, while the religious and
faithful contradicts it. This caused a debate between
science and religion.
Figure 3.4. Adaptation of the beak of Darwin’s Finches

 FREUDIAN REVOLUTION

According to MacNamara, et al. (2018), the field of psychology was

considered more of an art rather than science and was classified under the area of
philosophy. However, because of Sigmund Freud, the perception of society to
psychology changed. In the 19th century, Freud developed his theory of
psychoanalysis. According to Quinto, et al. (2019), psychoanalysis is “a scientific
method of understanding inner and unconscious conflicts embedded within one’s
personality, springing from free associations, dreams and fantasies of the
individual.” Among his ideas include the importance of the unconscious, and the
concept of id, ego, and superego. Freud emphasized the understanding of
unconscious because of its importance in human behaviour.

These three revolutionizing theories are just some of the many scientific ideas that transformed and molded
societies and beliefs. The changes they brought to the perspectives and perceptions of the scientific community and the
public are evidences of science and technology’s link to humanity. Through scientific research and experimentations,
people will continue to deepen their understanding of the world and the universe.
 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND NATION-BUILDING

 BRIEF HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES: PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD

Modern men arose on the Asian peninsula approximately 50 000 years ago, and they used stone tools and
weapons until around 40 000 years ago. The colonization of the Philippines fostered the growth of science and
technology in the archipelago. Indigenous science covers a wide range of information, skills, practices, and
representations drawn from traditional knowledge and practices that govern human cultures in their interactions with
nature.

 BRIEF HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES: COLONIAL PERIOD

Spanish Colonial Period

The Spanish colonial period is widely regarded as the beginning of modern science and technology in the
Philippines. During this time, Spanish colonizers changed the structure of Filipino society. They used reduccion to
combine scattered communities into larger and fewer communities within hearing distance of church bells. They
established towns, making tax collection, forced labor, and economic activities easier to carry out.

Religious education was a top priority for many Filipinos in the 1800s. The human body, plants, animals, and
celestial bodies were all highlighted in early science education. Early technology education focused on the use and
development of everyday tools. Physics, chemistry, natural history, and mathematics are examples of science subjects for
Bachelor of Arts degrees.

The opening of the Suez Canal allowed liberal ideas to spread from Europe to the Philippines. The shipbuilding
industry advanced as a result of the Galleon trade. Industries such as embroidery, tobacco, and weaving flourished after
the Philippines opened up to foreign trade. Trade and commerce also resulted in the development of public amenities
like transportation, lighting, banking, and information services.

The colonization of the Philippines by the Spaniards provided the Philippines with modern building materials
such as bricks and tiles. In 1887, the Laboratorio Municipal Ciudad de Manila was established to address public health
concerns and conduct medical research. Despite the fact that the Spaniards colonized the Philippines for over 300 years,
science and technology did not develop to their full potential. This is due to superstitions and Catholic doctrines, as well
as poor government administration in Spain.

American Colonial Period and the Commonwealth Period

In 1901, the Americans established the public education system and established the Department of Public
Instruction. By 1905, the Bureau of Science was established to foster the advancement of science and technology.
Between 1942 and 1945, the Japanese government occupied the Philippines, effectively halting scientific and
technological development. The goal is to prepare the entire country and its people to meet the demands of a
technologically driven world.

 BRIEF HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES: POST-COLONIAL PERIOD

The number of students studying physical sciences, engineering, medicine, and agriculture in the Philippines is
insufficient to meet the country's needs. Despite limited resources, the country concentrated on improving science and
technology. By 1957, the Science Act of 1958 was passed, but government support for science remained insufficient.

During the Marcos administration, he established Mindanao and Visayas campuses of the Philippine Science high
schools, as well as raising teacher and administrator pay. During Gloria Macapagal's administration, environmental,
scientific, and technological programs were emphasized in order to improve the country's economic status. The term
"Filipinnovation" was coined to help the Philippines become an Asian innovation powerhouse. Under Joseph Estrada, the
number of science and technology professionals grew, additional Philippine High Schools were built, and health care
services were prioritized.
 GOVERNMENT POLICIES ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The Philippine government initiated and implemented a number of programs, projects, and policies to advance
science and technology. The goal is to prepare the entire country and its people to meet the demands of a
technologically driven world, as well as to equip the people to live in a scientifically driven world.

Department of Science and Technology

The Department of Science and Technology (DOST) has recruited the National Research Council of the
Philippines (NCRP) to do research on how the nation may best prepare to fulfill the ASEAN 2015 Goals. The goal is to
ensure that all students in the region receive a high-quality education while not expanding the curriculum. They also
seek to improve school infrastructure and offer ICT connectivity, as well as provide local food security.

Other programs supported by the Philippine government through DOST include:

The number of branches of the Philippine Science and Technology Systems is growing thanks to the Philippine
Science High School System. The Balik Scientist Program, provides support for fundamental scientific and technical
research, as well as patents. To complement scientific and technology parks, the National Science and Engineering
Complexes will be built in Manila and Cagayan de Oro.

Philippine-American Academy of Science and Engineering

The Philippine-American Academy of Science and Engineering has identified a number of capacity-building
projects to assist science and technology in the Philippines. Establishing national centers of excellence in personnel and
institutional development, as well as regional centers to assist scientific enterprises, are among these initiatives.

Philippine Development Plan

The Philippine Development Plan (PDP) 2017-2022 is a massive undertaking aimed at improving the country's
infrastructure, increasing energy access, lowering citizen costs, maintaining economic growth, and adhering to global
climate change and sustainable growth agreements. On February 20th, 2017, the National Economic and Development
Authority (NEDA) Board and President Rodrigo Duterte approved the plan.

The following outcomes will be the result of the impact:

According to the World Bank's most recent report, the Philippines will be an upper middle-income country by
2022. The Philippines will have a high level of human development with a decreased prevalence of poverty in rural
regions - from 30% in 2015 to 20% in 2022. The unemployment rate will fall from 5.5 percent to 3-5 percent, and people
will have more faith in the government and society. Filipinos will be more resilient and driven to innovate. The Philippine
Congress has also enacted legislation to provide a legal foundation for science and technology. The country anticipates
using alternate and secure energy sources exploring mineral resources and discovering a treatment for numerous
ailments and illnesses. It also hopes to expand food production and handling natural catastrophes and tragedies.

 FILIPINOS IN THE FIELD OF SCIENCE

1. ENRIQUE MAPUA OSTREA JR.

A neonatologist who has had a substantial influence on science and technology in the Philippines through his pioneering
work on detecting prenatal exposure to drugs, nicotine, alcohol, and environmental.toxins through meconium analysis, a
newborn's first stools.

2. JOSE BEJAR CRUZ JR.

He has made important contributions to the theory and practice of automated control. His work in the 1970s and 1980s
on the control of leader-follower systems is still considered as one of the major contributions of the half-century in the
theory of hierarchical control systems. He was also named an officer of the renowned Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers.

3. MARI-JO PANGANIBAN RUIZ

She is well-known for her abilities as an educator and graph theorist.

4. JOSEFINO CACAS COMISO

His study has revealed the astounding rate at which Arctic sea ice is melting. He was a prominent figure in a global
project to monitor the planet's rapidly dwindling perennial sea ice cover, and he authored a report on the subject.
5. RAFAEL DINEROS GUERRERO III

He was recognized for his contributions to the improvement of Sex Reversal and Hatchery Techniques, both of which
help in the commercial production of high-yielding market-size fish.

6. LILIAN FORMALEJO PATENA

She is well-known for discovering the seedless lime and pomelo varieties, as well as doing plant biotechnology research.

7. FABIAN MILLAR DAYRIT

He is well-known for his phytochemical study on lagundi development as part of the National Integrated Research
Program on Medicinal Plants.

8. RAMON CABANOS BARBA

He is well-known for inventing floral induction in mango plants. The significance and effect of his findings, along with his
self-motivation to assist others, lead him to transform how mangoes and other crops are produced across the world,
therefore improving the life of those who work in agriculture.

9. LOURDES JANSUY CRUZ

She is a Filipino scientist whose work has advanced our understanding of the biochemistry of poisonous peptides derived
from the venom of fish-hunting Conus marine snails.

10. GREGORY LIGOT TANGONAN

He has played a key role in the development of optoelectronic applications in radar, optical networking, and analog
systems.

 SCIENCE EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

The Philippine Scientific Education Program is a national initiative aimed at improving science education in the
Philippines. Several initiatives and projects in the field of science education have been developed to promote scientific
literacy. Special science classrooms, special science primary schools, and the STEM track of the K12 educational system
are examples of these. The General Education curriculum also includes specific scientific classes.

Science Schools in the Philippines

PHILIPPINE SCIENCE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEMS (PSHSS)

PSHS System education is founded on a curriculum that prioritizes science and mathematics. The PSHS System prepares
students for careers in science and technology while also assisting in the improvement of the nation. It seeks to build
well-rounded individuals.

SPECIAL SCIENCE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS (SSES) PROJECT

The goal of the SSES Project is to impart scientific and technological learning, skills, and values to Filipino children. The
initiative began in June 2007, SY 2007-2008 with the designation of 57 elementary schools. The program was expanded
again for Batch 3 in SY 2011-2012, with an additional 5 schools in Region V.

QUEZON CITY REGIONAL SCIENCE HIGH SCHOOL

On September 17, 1967, it was known as Quezon City Science High School. It has served as the Regional Science High
School since 1998. Science and technology are heavily emphasized in the curriculum. Its objective is to give as many
opportunities as possible for science-gifted children to cultivate an inquisitive and creative attitude.

MANILA SCIENCE HIGH SCHOOL

The Manila Science High School was the country's first science high school. The program includes science and
mathematics significantly. Its vision is to develop scientists with souls. Humanities classes and other electives are
incorporated in their curriculum to accomplish this.
CENTRAL VISAYAN INSTITUTE FOUNDATION

The Dynamic Learning Program (DLP) is a synthesis of classical and current pedagogical approaches that aims to
maximize learning, creativity, and productivity. It is the precursor and progenitor of the well-known Dynamic Learning
program, which is a school-based innovation.

 INDIGENOUS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM

Indigenous Knowledge

Indigenous knowledge is imbued in the daily life experiences of young children as they grow up. They live and grow in a
society where the members of the community prominently practice indigenous knowledge. The lessons they learned are
intimately interwoven with their culture and environment. They views about nature and their reflections on their
experiences in daily life are evident in their stories, poems and songs.

Indigenous science

PAWILEN – It includes complex arrays of knowledge, expertise, practices, and presentations that guide human societies
in their enumerable interactions with the natural milieu (agriculture, medicine, naming and explaining natural
phenomena and strategies for coping with changing environments.

OGAWA – it is collectively lived in and experienced by the people of a given culture.

CAJETE – it includes everything from metaphysics to philosophy and various practical technologies practiced by
indigenous people both past and present.

IACCARINO – science is a part of culture, and how science is a part of culture, and how it is done largely depends on the
cultural practices of the people.

JOHNSTON – indigenous beliefs develop desirable values that are relevant or consistent to scientific attitudes.

 Motivating attitudes
 Cooperating attitudes
 Practical attitudes
 Reflective attitudes

KUHN – developmental stages of most sciences are characterized by continual competition between a number of distinct
views of nature, each partially derived from, and all roughly compatible with the dictates of scientific observation and
method.

SIBISI – it provides the basics of astronomy, pharmacology, food technology, or metallurgy, which were derived from
traditional knowledge and practices.

THE CONCEPT OF INDIGENOUS SCIENCE