4

Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of

Advanced Energy Storage for
Power System Applications
Marcelo Gustavo Molina
CONICET, Instituto de Energía Eléctrica, Universidad Nacional de San Juan
Argentina

1. Introduction
In general, a large percentage of the electric power produced is generated in huge
generation centres far from the consumption, and with centralized transmission and
distribution systems, where the weak point of this scheme is the efficiency with high energy
losses in the form of heat. This problem has been increased in the last years due to the
significant growth of electric energy demand and in the case of structures of weakly meshed
electrical grids, due to the high vulnerability in cases of faults that can originate frequently
severe transient and dynamic problems that lead to the reduction of the system security
(Dail et al., 2007). Many large blackouts that happened worldwide in the last decade are a
clear example of the consequences of this model of electric power. These problems, far from
finding effective solutions, are continuously increasing, even more impelled by energy
factors (oil crisis), ecological (climatic change) and by financial and regulatory restrictions of
wholesale markets, which causes the necessity of technological alternatives to assure, on one
hand the appropriate supply and quality of the electric power and on the other one, the
saving and the efficient use of the natural resources preserving the environment.
An alternative technological solution to this problem is using small generation units and
integrating them into the distribution network as near as possible of the consumption site,
making this way diminishing the dependence of the local electrical demand, of the energy
transmission power system. This solution is known as in-situ, distributed or dispersed
generation (DG) and represents a change in the paradigm of the traditional centralized
electric power generation (El-Khattam & Salama, 2004). In this way, the distribution grid
usually passive is transformed into active one, in the sense that decision making and control
is distributed and the power flows bidirectionally. Here it is consolidated the idea of using
clean non-conventional technologies of generation that use renewable energy sources (RESs)
that do not cause environmental pollution, such as wind, photovoltaic (PV), hydraulic,
biomass among others (Rahman, 2003).
At present, perhaps the most promising novel network structure that would allow obtaining
a better use of the distributed generation resources is the electrical microgrid (MG)
(Kroposki et al., 2008). This new paradigm tackles the distributed generation as a subsystem
formed by distributed energy resources (DERs), including DG, RESs and distributed energy
storage (DES) and controllable demand response (DR), also offering significant control
Source: Dynamic Modelling, Book edited by: Alisson V. Brito,
ISBN 978-953-7619-68-8, pp. 290, January 2010, INTECH, Croatia, downloaded from SCIYO.COM

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50 Dynamic Modelling

capacities on its operation. This grid is designed to be managed as a group with a

predictable unit of generation and demand, and can be operated as much interconnected to
the main power system as isolated. In this way, the coordinated control of DERs and DR
would allow maximizing the benefits for the owners of the microgrid, giving an attractive
remuneration, as well as for the users, providing the thermal and electric demands with
lesser energy costs and meeting the local requirements of security and dependability
(Katiraei et al., 2008).
In recent years, due mainly to the technology innovation, cost reduction, and government
policy stimulus there has been an extensive growth and rapid development in the
exploitation of renewable energies, particularly wind and photovoltaic solar ones. However,
the power provided by these RESs frequently changes and is hardly predictable, especially
for the case of wind generation. Today, there exists an increasing penetration of large-scale
wind farms (WF) and PV solar power plants into the electric power system all over the
world (Battaglini et al., 2009). This situation can lead to severe problems that affect the micro
grid security dramatically, particularly in a weak grid, i.e. system frequency oscillations due
to insufficient system damping, and/or violations of transmission capability margin due to
severe fluctuations of tie-line power flow, among others (Slootweg & Kling, 2003; Pourbeik
et al., 2006). Even more, as presently deregulated power markets are taking place,
generation and transmission resources are being utilized at higher efficiency rates, leading
to a tighter control of the spare generation capacity of the system (Pourbeik et al., 2006a).
In order to overcome these problems, energy storage systems (ESS) advanced solutions can
be utilized as an effective DES device with the ability of quickly exchanging the exceeding
energy stored during off-peak load periods and thus providing a bridge in meeting the
power and energy requirements of the microgrid. By combining the technology of energy
storage with a recent type of power electronic equipments, such as flexible alternating
current transmission systems (FACTS) (Song & Johns, 1999; Hingorani & Gyugyi, 2000), the
power system can take advantage of the flexibility benefits provided by the advanced ESSs
and the high controllability provided by power electronics. This allows enhancing the
electrical grid performance, providing the enough flexibility to adapt to the specific
conditions of the microgrid including intermittent RESs and operating in an autonomous
fashion. There are many advanced technologies available in the market for energy storage
with high potential of being applied in electrical microgrids. Such modern devices include
super (or ultra) capacitors (SCES or UCES, respectively), superconducting magnetic energy
storage (SMES), flywheels (FES) and advanced batteries (ABESS) among others. These ESSs
can play a crucial, multi-functional role since storage facilities are designed to excel in a
dynamic environment. Some factors driving the incorporation of these novel storage
technologies include reduced environmental impact, rapid response, high power, high
efficiency, and four-quadrant control, solving many of the challenges regarding the
increased use of renewable energy sources, and enhancing the overall reliability, power
quality, and security of power systems.

2. Overview of distributed energy storage technologies

A number of energy storage technologies have been developed or are under development
for power system applications. These systems use different energy storage technologies,
including conventional energy storage that have been extensively proven over many years,
and recently developed technologies with high potential for applications in modern power
systems, especially in electrical microgrids.

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Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of Advanced Energy Storage for Power System Applications 51

Four energy storage methodologies gather these technologies, i.e. chemical, electric,
mechanic, and thermal energy storage (Molina & Mercado, 2001, 2003). Chemical storage
methods use a reversible chemical reaction that takes place in the presence of an electrolyte
for storing/producing DC electricity. This approach includes both, battery systems and fuel
cells. Batteries contain the classic and well-known lead-acid type as well as the modern
redox (reduction-oxidation) flow batteries and the advanced battery energy storage systems
(ABESSs). ABESSs comprise new alkaline batteries, nickel chemistry (nickel-metal hydride–
NiMH, and nickel-cadmium–NiCd), lithium chemistry (lithium–Li, and lithium-ion–Li-Ion),
and sodium chemistry (sodium-sulfur–NaS, and sodium-salt–NaNiCl). Fuel cells (FC–
hydrogen cycle and reversible/regenerative FCs) include five major types, that is alkaline
fuel cells (AFC), proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), phosphoric acid fuel cells
(PAFC), molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC), direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC), and solid
oxide fuel cells (SOFC). Electric storage methods store energy directly as DC electricity in an
electric or magnetic field, with no other intermediate energy transformation. This approach
includes recent developments in superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) and the
so-called super (or ultra) capacitor energy storage (SCES or UCES, respectively). Modern
mechanical storage methods exchange their energy with the power system directly as AC
electricity using a synchronous or asynchronous motor/generator. This methodology
comprises updating of popular and well-proven pumped hydro, modern flywheels, and
compressed air energy storage (CAES) systems. Thermal storage systems store energy as
super-heated oil or molten salts. The heat of the salt or oil is used for steam generation and
then to run a turbine coupled to an electric motor/generator.
Most of these technologies have been classified in terms of power and energy applications,
grouped in short-term and long-term energy storage capabilities, as shown in Fig. 1 (Energy
Storage Association, 2003). In general terms, power applications refer to energy storage
systems rated for one hour or less, whereas energy applications would be for longer periods.

Fig. 1. Classification of energy storage technologies based on the storage capability

Energy storage in interconnected power systems has been studied for many years and the
benefits are well-known and in general understood (Nourai, 2002; Energy Storage
Association, 2003). In contrast, much less has been done particularly on distributed energy
storage, but most of the same benefits apply. In both cases, storage costs, limited sitting
opportunities, and technology limitations have restricted the use of energy storage during
last decades. This chapter will address DES technologies for power applications in
microgrids, i.e. considering only short-term energy storage capability requirements, since
they are essential for allowing the microgrid operation in autonomous fashion and even
more with high penetrations of intermittent renewable energy sources. They play the major

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52 Dynamic Modelling

role in control and operation of a microgrid by providing an instantaneous bridge in

meeting the power and energy requirements of the microgrid when DG sources primary
reserve is not sufficient to meet the demand, particularly in response time. The analysis
presented is focused on the three foremost advanced short-term energy storage systems,
such as super capacitors, SMESs and flywheels.

2.1 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage – SMES

SMES is a type of energy storage system where energy is permanently stored in a magnetic
field generated by the flow of DC current in a superconducting coil (SC). This coil is
cryogenically cooled to a temperature below its critical temperature to exhibit its
superconductivity property. The basic principle of a SMES is that once the superconducting
coil is charged, the current will not decay and the magnetic energy can be stored
indefinitely. This stored energy can be released back into the electric network by simply
discharging the coil (Buckles & Hassenzahl, 2000). An attractive and a potentially cost-
effective option for modern SMES systems is to use a high-temperature superconductor
(HTS: Ceramic oxide compound) SMES cooled by liquid nitrogen instead of the usual low-
temperature superconductor (LTS: Niobium-titanium alloy) SMES cooled by liquid helium
to provide a short-term buffer during a disturbance in the power system.
The basic structure of a SMES device is shown in Fig. 2. The base of the SMES unit is a large
superconducting coil, whose basic structure is composed of the cold components itself (the
SC with its support and connection components, and the cryostat) and the cryogenic
refrigerating system (Arsoy et al., 2003). On the other hand, the power conditioning system
provides a power electronic interface between the AC power system and the SC, aiming at
achieving two goals: one is to convert electric power from DC to AC, and the other is to
charge/discharge efficiently the superconducting coil.

Fig. 2. Basic structure of a SMES device

SMES systems have many advantages over typical storage systems. The dynamic
performance of a SMES system is far superior to other technologies. The superconducting
feature of the SMES coil implies the "permanent" storage of energy because it has no internal
resistance, which makes the stored energy not to be dissipated as heat. Moreover, this
allows the coil to release all its stored energy almost instantaneously, a reason why they are
very quick and have very short response times, limited by the switching time of the solid
state components responsible of the energy conversion. On the other hand, the operation of
the system and the lifetime are not influenced by the number of service cycles or the depth
of discharge as in the case of traditional batteries. Additionally, a SMES system is highly
efficient with more than 95% efficiency from input back to output, as well as highly reliable
because of no using moving parts to carry out the energy storing.

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Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of Advanced Energy Storage for Power System Applications 53

Among the disadvantages of the SMES device is the high cost of superconducting wires and
the large energy requirements for the refrigeration of the SMES system at cryogenic
temperatures, particularly in conventional units (LTS); although this demand is
considerably reduced by using modern HTS materials. In addition to these drawbacks is the
use of huge magnetic fields, which can overcome 9 T.

2.2 Super Capacitor Energy Storage – SCES

Capacitors store electric energy through the electric field formed between two conducting
plates (electrodes), when a DC voltage is applied across them. The so-called super capacitor
energy storage (SCES), aka ultra capacitor energy storage (UCES), are a relative recent
technology in the field of short-term energy storage systems and consist of a porous
structure of activated carbon for one or both electrodes, which are immersed into an
electrolytic solution (typically potassium hydroxide or sulphuric acid) and a separator that
prevents physical contact of the electrodes but allows ion transfer between them (Barker,
2002). This structure effectively creates two equivalent capacitors (between each electrode
and the electrolyte) connected in series, as shown in the schematic view of its internal
components of Fig. 3. Energy is stored as a charge separation in the double layer formed at
the interface between the solid electrode material surface and the liquid electrolyte in the
micropores of the electrodes. Due to this feature, these capacitors are also known as electric
double layer capacitors (EDLC) or simply advanced electrochemical capacitors.

Fig. 3. Schematic view of a super capacitor

A super capacitor largely is subject to the same physics as a standard capacitor. That is, the
capacitance is determined by the effective area of the electrodes, the separation distance of
them and the dielectric constant of the separating medium. However, the key difference of
the super capacitor is that with its structure of liquid electrolyte and porous electrodes
(activated carbon material), an extremely high specific surface area is obtained (hundreds of
m2/g) compared to the conventional electrode structure (Conway, 1999). Furthermore, it
ensures an extremely short distance at the interface between electrode and electrolyte (less
than 1 µm). These two factors lead to a very high capacitance per unit of volume, which can
be from hundreds to thousands times larger than electrolytic capacitors, up to a few
thousand Farads (typically 5000 F) (Schindall, 2007). Unfortunately, the maximum voltage is
limited to a few volts (normally up to 3 V) by the decomposition voltage of the electrolyte,
mainly because of the presence of impurities.
Super capacitors have big advantages which make them almost non comparable in many
applications. Because they have no moving parts, and require neither cooling nor heating,
and because they undergo no internal chemical changes as part of their function, they are

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54 Dynamic Modelling

robust and very efficient, reaching a cycle efficiency of 95% or more. Also, they require
practically no maintenance and the lifetime is exceptionally high, with no lifetime
degradation due to frequent and deep cycling. Presently, the life cycle of a typical super
capacitor reaches over hundred thousands of duty cycles or more than 10 year life. Since
super capacitors are capable of very fast charges and discharges, they make a perfect fit for
voltage regulation in the power world.
Unfortunately, the most important disadvantage of super capacitors is that they are in the
earliest stages of development as an ESS for power system applications and consequently
costs are still extremely high. Presently, very small super capacitors in the range of seven to
ten watts are widely available commercially for consumer power quality applications and
are commonly found in household electrical devices. Development of larger-scale capacitors
has been focused on electric vehicles. Presently, small-scale power quality (up to 250 kW) is
considered to be the most promising utility use for advanced capacitors.

2.3 Flywheel Energy Storage – FES

A flywheel device stores electric energy as kinetic (or inertial) energy of the rotor mass
spinning at very high speeds. Fig. 4 shows the structure of a conventional flywheel unit. The
charging/discharging of the device is carried out through an integrated electrical machine
operating either as a motor to accelerate the rotor up to the required high speeds by
absorbing power from the electric grid (charge mode) or as a generator to produce electrical
power on demand using the energy stored in the flywheel mass by decelerating the rotor
(discharge mode). The system has very low rotational losses due to the use of magnetic
bearings which prevent the contact between the stationary and rotating parts, thus
decreasing the friction. In addition, because the system operates in vacuum, the
aerodynamic resistance of the rotor is outstandingly reduced. These features permit the
system to reach efficiencies higher than 80% (Nourai et al., 2005).
Flywheels have the ability to charge and discharge rapidly, and are almost immune to
temperature fluctuations. They take up relatively little space, have lower maintenance
requirements than batteries, and have a long life span. Flywheel devices are relatively
tolerant of abuse, i.e. the lifetime of a flywheel system will not be shortened by a deep
discharge unlike a battery. The stored energy is directly proportional to the flywheel rotor
momentum and the square of the angular momentum, a reason why increments in the
rotation speed yield large benefits on the storage energy density. Keeping this in mind, the
classification in two types of flywheels arises: high speed flywheels (HS: approximately
40 000 rpm) and low speed flywheels (LS: approximately 7 000 rpm). High-speed flywheels
allow obtaining very compact units with high energy densities (Liu & Jiang, 2007).
Conventional magnetic bearings have low specific power consumption (W/g), which is
dissipated as heat in the copper of the bearing electromagnets. This power depends on the
structure of the bearing and the utilized control system. Modern superconducting magnetic
bearings, on the other hand, have demonstrated very low losses (10–2–10–3W/kg) in rotors at
low speeds. This leads to a very high overall efficiency of the system, exceeding 90%.
Although most of the flywheel technology was developed in the automobile and aerospace
industry, it is expected that flywheels have most commercial success targeted for power
delivery capabilities of up to 1 MW. They are particularly suitable for the PQ and reliability
market, but no large-scale applications of the technology have been installed to date. A big
disadvantage of modern high-temperature superconducting flywheel devices is that they
constitute a new technology, which is currently under development. Such systems would

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Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of Advanced Energy Storage for Power System Applications 55

offer inherent stability, minimal power loss, and simplicity of operation as well as increased
energy storage capacity, which may show a promising future for use in the power sector.

Fig. 4. Structure of a conventional flywheel

3. Application of advanced distributed energy storage in microgrids

For microgrids to work properly, an upstream interconnection switch must open typically
during an unacceptable power quality (PQ) condition, and the DER must be able to provide
electrical power to the islanded loads. This includes maintaining appropriate voltage and
frequency levels for the islanded subsystem. In this way, the DER must be able to supply the
active and reactive power requirements during islanded operation, so that fast-acting
generation reserve is required. As a result, for stable operation to balance any instantaneous
mismatch in active power, efficient distributed energy storage, such as super capacitors,
SMESs and flywheels, must be used (Katiraei et al., 2008).
In a distributed energy storage system, the power conditioning system (PCS) is the interface
that allows the effective connection to the electric power system. The PCS provides a power
electronic interface between the AC electric system and the DES, aiming at achieving two
major goals: one is to convert electric power from DC (or in some cases uncontrolled AC) to
AC (established by the utility grid), and the other is to charge/discharge efficiently the DES
device. The dynamics of the PCS directly influences the validity of the DES unit in the
dynamic control of the microgrid. With the appropriate topology of the PCS and its control
system design, the DES unit is capable of simultaneously performing both instantaneous
active and reactive power flow control, as required in modern microgrid applications.
The progress in new technologies of power electronics devices (Bose, 2002; Carrasco et al.,
2006), named flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS), is presently leading the use of
advanced energy storage solutions in order to enhance the electrical grid performance,
providing the enough flexibility to adapt to the specific conditions of the microgrid and
operating in an autonomous fashion. Just as flexible FACTS controllers permit to improve
the reliability and quality of transmission systems, these devices can be used in the
distribution level with comparable benefits for bringing solutions to a wide range of
problems. In this sense, FACTS-based power electronic controllers for distribution systems,
namely custom power (CP) devices (or simply distribution FACTS), are able to enhance the
reliability and the quality of power delivered to customers (Molina & Mercado, 2006). A
distribution static synchronous compensator (DSTATCOM) is a fast response, solid-state
power controller that belongs to advanced shunt-connected CP devices and provides
flexible voltage control at the point of common coupling (PCC) to the utility distribution

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56 Dynamic Modelling

feeder for power quality and stability improvements. It can exchange both active and
reactive powers with the distribution system by varying the amplitude and phase angle of
the PCS voltage with respect to the PCC voltage, if an energy storage system is included into
the inner DC bus. The effect is a controlled current flow through the tie reactance between
the DSTATCOM and the distribution network, this enabling the DSTATCOM to mitigate
voltage fluctuations such as sags, swells and transients. Furthermore, it can be utilized for
providing voltage regulation, power factor correction, harmonics compensation and
stability augmentation. The addition of energy storage to the power custom device, through
an appropriate interface, leads to a more flexible integrated controller. The ability of the
DSTATCOM-DES (also known simply as DES system) to supply effectively active power
allows expanding its compensation actions, reducing transmission losses and enhancing the
operation of the electric microgrid (Molina et al., 2007).
Fig. 5 depicts a functional model of various advanced energy storage devices integrated
with the appropriate power conditioning system for microgrid applications. This model
consists mainly of a DSTATCOM, the energy storage system and the interface between the
DSTATCOM and the DES, represented by the bidirectional converter.

Fig. 5. Basic circuit of a custom power device integrated with advanced energy storage
The DSTATCOM consists mainly of a three-phase power inverter shunt-connected to the
distribution network by means of a coupling transformer with line filter and the
corresponding control scheme. The integration of the DES into the DC bus of the
DSTATCOM device requires a rapid and robust bidirectional interface to adapt the wide
range of variation in voltage and current levels between both devices, according to the
specific DES employed. Controlling the DES rate of charge/discharge requires varying the
voltage magnitude (and polarity in some cases) according to the state-of-operation, while
keeping essentially constant the DC bus voltage of the DSTATCOM inverter. To this aim, a
two-quadrant converter topology according to the DES unit employed is proposed in order
to obtain a suitable control performance of the overall system.

4. Dynamic modelling and control design of the SMES system

A SMES system consists of several sub-systems, which must be carefully designed in order
to obtain a high performance compensation device for microgrid applications. The base of

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Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of Advanced Energy Storage for Power System Applications 57

the SMES unit is a large superconducting coil (SC). On the other hand, the power
conditioning system provides a power electronic interface between the AC electric system
and the SC, allowing the grid-connected operation of the DES. Fig. 6 shows the proposed
detailed model of the entire SMES system for applications in the distribution level. This
model consists of the SMES coil with its filtering and protection system and the PCS for
coupling to the electric grid.

Fig. 6. Full detailed model of the proposed SMES system

4.1 Power conditioning system of the SMES

4.1.1 Three-phase three-level DSTATCOM
The key part of the PCS is the DSTATCOM device, and is shared by the three advanced
selected DES systems, as will be described later. The proposed DSTATCOM essentially
consists of a three-phase voltage source inverter (VSI) built with semiconductors devices
having turn-off capabilities. This device is shunt-connected to the distribution network by
means of a coupling transformer and the corresponding line sinusoidal filter. Its topology
allows the device to generate at the point of common coupling to the AC network (PCC) a
set of three almost sinusoidal voltage waveforms at the fundamental frequency phase-
shifted 120º between each other, with controllable amplitude and phase angle. Since the
SMES coil is basically a stiff current source, the use of a current source inverter (CSI) would
emerge as the natural selection. However, the wide range of variation of the coil current and
voltage would cause the device to exceed its rating, which makes impractical the use of
conventional CSIs. On this basis, an analyses were performed to evaluate hybrid current
source inverters (HCSI) and voltage source inverters (VSI); concluding that the later ones are
a more cost-effective solution for the present application (Molina et al., 2007).
The three-phase VSI corresponds to a DC/AC switching power inverter using high-power
insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs). This semiconductor device is employed due to its
lower switching losses and reduced size when compared to other devices. In addition, as the
power rating of the inverter goes up to medium levels for typical DER applications (less
than few MWs), the output voltage control of the VSI can be efficiently achieved through
sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM) techniques. The connection to the utility grid is
made by means of a step-up Δ–Y coupling transformer, and second-order low pass sine
wave filters are included in order to reduce the perturbation on the distribution system from
high-frequency switching harmonics generated by the PWM control of the VSI. Since two
ways for linking the filter can be employed, i.e. placing it before and after the coupling
transformer, here it is preferred the first option because reduce notably the harmonics
contents into the transformer windings, thus reducing losses and avoiding its overrating.

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58 Dynamic Modelling

The VSI structure proposed is designed to make use of a three-level twelve pulse pole
structure, also called neutral point clamped (NPC), instead of a standard two-level six pulse
inverter structure (Rodriguez et al., 2002, Soto & Green, 2002). This three-level VSI topology
generates a more smoothly sinusoidal output voltage waveform than conventional two-level
structures without increasing the switching frequency and effectively doubles the power
rating of the VSI for a given semiconductor device. Moreover, the three level pole attempts
to address some limitations of the standard two-level by offering an additional flexibility of
a level in the output voltage, which can be controlled in duration, either to vary the
fundamental output voltage or to assist in the output waveform construction. This extra
feature is used here to assist in the output waveform structure. In this way, the harmonic
performance of the inverter is improved, also obtaining better efficiency and reliability. The
output line voltage waveforms of a three-level VSI connected to a 380 V utility system are
shown in Fig. 7. It is to be noted that in steady-state the VSI generates at its output terminals
a switched line voltage waveform with high harmonics content, reaching the voltage total
harmonic distortion (VTHD) almost 45% when unloaded. At the output terminals of the low
pass sine wave filters proposed, the VTHD is reduced to as low as 1%, decreasing this
quantity to even a half at the coupling transformer secondary output terminals (PCC). In
this way, the quality of the voltage waveforms introduced by the PWM control to the power
utility is improved and the requirements of IEEE Standard 519-1992 relative to power
quality (VTHD limit in 5 %) are entirely fulfilled (Bollen, 2000).

Fig. 7. Three-level NPC voltage source inverter output line voltage waveforms
The mathematical equations describing and representing the operation of the DSTATCOM
can be derived from the detailed model shown in Fig. 6 by taking into account some
assumptions respect to the operating conditions of the inverter. For this purpose, a
simplified equivalent VSI connected to the electric system is considered, also referred to as
an averaged model, which assumes the inverter operation under balanced conditions as
ideal, i.e. the voltage source inverter is seen as an ideal sinusoidal voltage source operating
at fundamental frequency, as depicted in Fig. 8. This consideration is valid since, as shown
in Fig. 7, the high-frequency harmonics produced by the inverter as result of the sinusoidal
PWM control techniques are mostly filtered by the low pass sine wave filters and the net
instantaneous output voltages at the point of common coupling resembles three sinusoidal
waveforms phase-shifted 120º between each other.
This ideal inverter is shunt-connected to the network at the PCC through an equivalent
inductance Ls, accounting for the leakage of the step-up coupling transformer and an

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Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of Advanced Energy Storage for Power System Applications 59

Fig. 8. Equivalent circuit diagram of the proposed inverter connected to the AC system
equivalent series resistance Rs, representing the transformers winding resistance and VSI
semiconductors conduction losses. The magnetizing inductance of the step-up transformer
can also be taken into consideration through a mutual equivalent inductance M. In the DC
side, the equivalent capacitance of the two DC bus capacitors, Cd1 and Cd2 (Cd1=Cd2), is
described through Cd=Cd1/2=Cd2/2 whereas the switching losses of the VSI and power losses
in the DC capacitors are considered by a parallel resistance Rp. As a result, the dynamics
equations governing the instantaneous values of the three-phase output voltages in the AC
side of the VSI and the current exchanged with the utility grid can be directly derived from
Fig. 8 by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) as follows:

⎡ vinv ⎤ ⎡ va ⎤ ⎡i a ⎤
⎢ vinvb ⎥ − ⎢ vb ⎥ = (R s + sL s ) ⎢ib ⎥ ,
⎢ a
⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢v ⎥ ⎢v ⎥
(1)
⎢⎣ic ⎥⎦
⎣ invc ⎦ ⎣ c ⎦

s: Laplace variable, being s = d dt for t > 0 (Heaviside operator p also used)

where:

⎡ Rs 0⎤ ⎡ Ls M⎤
⎢ ⎥, ⎢ ⎥
0 M
Rs = ⎢ 0 Rs 0 ⎥ Ls = ⎢ M Ls M⎥ (2)
⎢⎣ 0 0 Rs ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ M M Ls ⎥⎦

Under the assumption that the system has no zero sequence components (operation under
balanced conditions), all currents and voltages can be uniquely transformed into the
synchronous-rotating orthogonal two-axes reference frame, in which each vector is
described by means of its d and q components, instead of its three a, b, c components. Thus,
the new coordinate system is defined with the d-axis always coincident with the
instantaneous voltage vector, as described in Fig. 9. By defining the d-axis to be always
coincident with the instantaneous voltage vector v, yields vd equals |v|, while vq is null.
Consequently, the d-axis current component contributes to the instantaneous active power
and the q-axis current component represents the instantaneous reactive power. This
operation permits to develop a simpler and more accurate dynamic model of the
DSTATCOM.
By applying Park’s transformation (Krause, 1992) stated by equation (3), equations (1) and
(2) can be transformed into the synchronous rotating d-q reference frame as follows
(equations (4) through (7)):

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60 Dynamic Modelling

Fig. 9. DSTATCOM vectors in the synchronous rotating d-q reference frame

⎡ ⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎤
⎢ cosθ cos ⎜ θ − ⎟ cos ⎜ θ + ⎟
3 ⎠ ⎥⎥
⎢ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝
2⎢ ⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎥
K s = ⎢ − sin θ − sin ⎜ θ − ⎟ − sin ⎜ θ + ⎟⎥ ,
3⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠⎥
(3)

⎢ 1 ⎥
3

⎢ ⎥
1 1
⎣ 2 2 2 ⎦
with:

θ = ∫ ω (ξ )dξ +θ (0) : angle between the d-axis and the reference phase axis,
t

and ξ: integration variable

0

ω: synchronous angular speed of the network voltage at the fundamental system frequency f
(50 Hz throughout this chapter).
Thus,

⎡v − vd ⎤ ⎡ vinv − va ⎤ ⎡ i ⎤
⎢ invd ⎥ ⎡ ia ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ d⎥
⎢ vinv − vq ⎥ = K s ⎢ vinv − vb ⎥ , ⎢ iq ⎥ = K s ⎢ib ⎥
⎢ ⎥
a

⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
(4)
⎢v − v ⎥ − ⎢⎣ ic ⎥⎦
⎢
⎣ ⎥ ⎢
⎦ ⎣ 0⎦ ⎥
q b

⎣ inv0 0 ⎦
vinvc
vc i

Then, by neglecting the zero sequence components, equations (5) and (6) are derived.

⎡ vinvd ⎤ ⎡ vd ⎤ ⎡id ⎤ ⎡ −ω 0 ⎤ ⎡ iq ⎤
⎢ ⎥ − ⎢ ⎥ = ( R s + sL´s ) ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥ L´s ⎢ ⎥ ,
⎢⎣ vinvq ⎥⎦ ⎣ vq ⎦ ⎣ iq ⎦ ⎣ 0 ω ⎦ ⎣ id ⎦
(5)

where:

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Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of Advanced Energy Storage for Power System Applications 61

⎡R 0 ⎤ ⎡L´s 0 ⎤ ⎡Ls − M 0 ⎤
Rs = ⎢ s ⎥ , L´s = ⎢ 0 =
⎣ s⎦ ⎣ L´s ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 Ls − M ⎥⎦
(6)
0 R

It is to be noted that the coupling of phases abc through the term M in matrix Ls (equation
(2)), was fully eliminated in the d-q reference frame when the DSTATCOM transformers are
magnetically symmetric, as is usually the case. This decoupling of phases in the
synchronous-rotating system allows simplifying the control system design.
By rewriting equation (5), the following state equation can be obtained:

⎡ − Rs ⎤
ω ⎥
⎡ d ⎤ ⎢ L´ ⎡ id ⎤ ⎡ vinvd − v ⎤
s⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ s ⎥⎢ ⎥+ 1 ⎢ ⎥
i
⎣ iq ⎦ ⎢ −ω − Rs ⎥ ⎣ iq ⎦ L´ s ⎢⎣ vinvq ⎥⎦
(7)
⎢ ⎥
⎣ L´ s ⎦

A further major issue of the d-q transformation is its frequency dependence (ω). In this way,
with appropriate synchronization to the network (through angle θ), the control variables in
steady state are transformed into DC quantities. This feature is quite useful to develop an
efficient decoupled control system of the two current components. Although the model is
fundamental frequency-dependent, the instantaneous variables in the d-q reference frame
contain all the information concerning the three-phase variables, including steady-state
unbalance, harmonic waveform distortions and transient components.
The relation between the DC-side voltage Vd and the generated AC voltage vinv can be
described through the average switching function matrix in the dq reference frame Sav,dq of
the proposed inverter, as given by equation (8). This relation assumes that the DC capacitors
voltages are balanced and equal to Vd/2.

⎡ vinvd ⎤
⎢ ⎥ = Sav, dq Vd ,
⎣⎢ invq ⎦⎥
(8)
v

and the average switching function matrix in dq coordinates is computed as:

⎡Sav , d ⎤ 1 ⎡ cos α ⎤
Sav, dq = ⎢ ⎥ = mi a ⎢ ⎥ ,
⎣Sav ,q ⎦ 2 ⎣ sin α ⎦
(9)

mi: modulation index of the voltage source inverter, mi ∈ [0, 1].

being,

a=
3 n2
: turns ratio of the step-up Δ–Y coupling transformer,
2 n1
α: phase-shift of the DSTATCOM output voltage from the reference position,
The AC power exchanged by the DSTATCOM is related with the DC bus power on an
instantaneous basis in such a way that a power balance must exist between the input and
the output of the inverter. In this way, the AC power should be equal to the sum of the DC
resistance (Rp) power, representing losses (IGBTs switching and DC capacitors) and to the
charging rate of the DC equivalent capacitor (Cd) (neglecting the SMES action):

PAC = PDC (10)

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62 Dynamic Modelling

3
2
( )
vinvd id + vinvq iq = − d Vd sVd − d
C
2
V2
Rp
(11)

Essentially, equations (1) through (11) can be summarized in the state-space as described by
equation (12). This continuous state-space averaged mathematical model describes the
steady-state dynamics of the ideal DSTATCOM in the dq reference frame, and will be
subsequently used as a basis for designing the middle level control scheme to be proposed.
As reported by Acha et al. (2002), modelling of static inverters by using a synchronous-
rotating orthogonal d-q reference frame offer higher accuracy than employing stationary

abc or αβ.
coordinates. Moreover, this operation allows designing a simpler control system than using

⎡ − Rs Sav , d ⎤ ⎡ v ⎤
⎡ id ⎤ ⎢ ω ⎥ ⎡ id ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 2 L´s ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ L´s ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ Sav ,q ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢
L´s
− Rs ⎥
s ⎢ iq ⎥ = ⎢ −ω ⎥ ⎢ iq ⎥ − ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 2 L´s ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
(12)
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢
2 ⎥⎥ ⎥
L´s
⎢V ⎥ ⎢ − 3 S − − ⎢V ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ d ⎦ ⎢ 2 C av , d ⎣ d⎦ ⎢ 0
3
⎣ RpC d ⎦⎥ ⎣ ⎦⎥
Sav ,q
d 2 Cd

4.1.2 Two-quadrant three-level DC/DC converter

The inclusion of a SMES coil into the DC bus of the DSTATCOM VSI demands the use of a
rapid and robust bidirectional interface to adapt the wide range of variation in voltage and
current levels between both devices. Controlling the SMES coil rate of charge/discharge
requires varying as much the coil voltage magnitude as the polarity according to the coil
state-of-charge, while keeping essentially constant and balanced the voltage of the VSI DC
link capacitors. To this aim, a two-quadrant three-level IGBT DC/DC converter or chopper
is proposed to be employed, as shown in Fig. 6 (upper left side). This converter allows
decreasing the ratings of the overall PCS (specifically VSI and transformers) by regulating
the current flowing from the SMES coil to the inverter of the VSI and vice versa.
The three-level VSI topology previously described can be applied to reactive power
generation almost without voltage imbalance problems. But when active power exchange is
included, the inverter could not have balanced voltages without sacrificing output voltage
performance and auxiliary converters would be needed in order to provide a compensating
power flow between the capacitors of the DC link. For this reason, the use of a two-quadrant
three-level DC/DC converter as interface between the DSTATCOM and the SMES is
proposed instead of the commonly used standard two-level one (Molina & Mercado, 2007).
This converter makes use of the extra level to solve the above-mentioned possible voltage
imbalance problems, as will be described below. Major advantages of three-level DC/DC
chopper topologies compared to traditional two-level ones include reduction of voltage
stress of each IGBT by half, permitting to increase the chopper power ratings while
maintaining high dynamic performance and decreasing the harmonics distortion produced.
Furthermore, it includes the availability of redundant switching states, which allow
generating the same output voltage vector through various states. This last feature is very
significant to reduce switching losses and the VSI DC current ripple, but mainly to maintain
the charge balance of the DC capacitors, thus avoiding generating additional distortion.

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Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of Advanced Energy Storage for Power System Applications 63

Table 1 lists all possible combinations of the chopper output voltage vectors, Vpn (defining
the SMES side of the circuit as the output side) and their corresponding IGBT switching
states. As derived, the chopper can be thought of as a switching matrix device that combines
various states for applying either a positive, negative or null voltage to the SC coil. The
addition of an extra level to the DC/DC chopper allows enlarging its degrees of freedom. As
a result, the charge balance of the DC bus capacitors can be controlled by using the extra
switching states, at the same time acting as an enhanced conventional DC/DC converter.
The output voltage vectors can be selected based on the required SMES coil voltage and DC
bus neutral point (NP) voltage. In this way, multiple subtopologies can be used in order to
obtain output voltage vectors of magnitude 0 and Vd/2, in such a way that different vectors
of magnitude Vd/2 produce opposite currents flowing from/to the neutral point. This
condition causes a fluctuation in the NP potential which permits to maintain the charge
balance of the dc link capacitors. By properly selecting the duration of the different output
voltage vectors, an efficient DC/DC controller with NP voltage control capabilities is
obtained.

States T1 T2 T3 T4 Vpn
1 1 1 1 1 +Vd
2 0 0 0 0 –Vd
3 0 1 0 1 0
4 1 0 1 0 0
5 1 1 0 0 0
6 1 1 0 1 +Vd/2
7 1 1 1 0 +Vd/2
8 1 0 0 0 –Vd/2
9 0 1 0 0 –Vd/2
Table 1. Three-level chopper output voltage vectors and their resultant switching states
The DC/DC chopper has basically three modes of operation, namely the buck or charge
mode, the stand-by or free-wheeling mode and the boost or discharge mode. These modes
are obtained here by using a buck/boost topology control mode contrary to a bang-bang
control mode (Aware & Sutanto, 2004), which is much simpler yet produces higher AC
losses in the superconducting coil. The behaviour of the chopper for each mode of operation
can be explained in terms of operating a combination of three of the switching states shown
in Table 1 during a switching cycle Ts. The purpose of the chopper is to apply a positive,
null, or negative average voltage to the SMES coil, according to the mode of operation.
In the first mode of operation, that is the charge mode, the chopper works as a step-down
(buck) converter. Since power is supplied to the SC from the electric power system, this
mode can also be called powering mode, and makes use of a combination of positive and
null vectors. This is achieved through the switching states 1, 5 and 6 or 7 in order to produce
output voltage vectors +Vd, 0 and +Vd/2, respectively, with separate contribution of charge
at the NP from capacitors Cd1 and Cd2. In this mode, transistors T1 and T2 are always kept on,
while transistors T3 and T4 are modulated to obtain the appropriate output voltage, Vpn,
across the SMES coil. In this way, only subtopologies closest to the state 1 are used. In
consequence, only one semiconductor device is switched per switching cycle; this reducing
the switching losses compared to the standard two-level converter and thus also reducing
the input/output current ripple.

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64 Dynamic Modelling

Fig. 10(a) shows the switching function Sch of the three-level chopper operating in buck
mode. This function, which is stated in equation (13), is valid for the charge mode
independently of the switching states utilized for maintaining the charge balance of the DC
bus capacitors (states 6 or 7).

Sch = D1 + D2 + ∑ ⎢ 2
(
∞ ⎡ sin h π D
2) ⎤ ∞ ⎡ sin ( 2 h π D1 )
cos ⎣⎡ hω ( t − γ 2 − 2γ 1 ) ⎦⎤ ⎥ + ∑ ⎢
⎤
cos ⎣⎡ hω ( t − γ 1 ) ⎦⎤ ⎥ , (13)
h =1 ⎣ hπ ⎦ h =1 ⎣ hπ ⎦

D1 = ton1 2Ts : duty cycle for switching states 6 or 7

where, h=1, 2, 3 …

D2 = ton 2 Ts : duty cycle for switching state 1

γ 1 = D1 f : harmonic phase angle due to D1
γ 2 = D2 2 f : harmonic phase angle due to D2,
with f, being the fundamental electric grid frequency.
Once completed the charging of the SMES coil, the operating mode of the converter is
changed to the stand-by mode, for which only the state 5 is used. In this second mode of
operation transistors T3 and T4 are switched off, while transistors T1 and T2 are kept on all
the time. In this way, the SMES coil current circulates in a closed loop, so that this mode is
also known as free-wheeling mode. As in this mode no significant power losses are
developed through semiconductors, the current remains fairly constant.
In the third mode of operation, that is the discharge mode, the chopper works as a step-up
(boost) converter. Since power is returned back from the SC to the electric grid, this mode
can also be called regenerative mode, and makes use of a combination of negative and null
vectors. This is achieved through the switching states 2, 5 and 8 or 9 in order to produce
output voltage vectors –Vd, 0 and –Vd/2 with independent contribution of charge at the NP
from capacitors Cd1 and Cd2. As can be observed from Fig. 10(b), in this mode transistors T3
and T4 are constantly kept off while transistors T1 and T2 are controlled to obtain the suitable
voltage Vpn, across the SMES coil. In this way, only subtopologies closest to the state 2 are
used. In consequence, as in the case of the charge mode, only one semiconductor device is
switched per switching cycle.

(a) (b)
Fig. 10. Chopper switching functions. (a) Buck mode, Sch. (b) Boost mode, Sdch
Fig. 10(b) shows the switching function Sdch of the three-level chopper operating in boost
mode. This function, which is stated in equation (14), is valid for the discharge mode

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Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of Advanced Energy Storage for Power System Applications 65

independently of the switching states utilized for maintaining the charge balance of the DC
capacitors (states 8 or 9).

−Sdch = 1 − D1 − D2 + ∑ ⎢ 2
( 2 )
∞ ⎡ sin h π ( 1 − D ) ⎤
cos ⎣⎡ hω ( t − ζ 2 − 2ζ 1 ) ⎦⎤ ⎥
⎢
h =1 ⎣ π ⎦⎥
⎡ sin ( 2 h π ( 1 − D1 ) )
h
⎤
+∑ cos ⎣⎡ hω ( t − ζ 1 ) ⎦⎤ ⎥
, (14)
∞
⎢
h =1 ⎣⎢ hπ ⎦⎥

ζ 1 = ( 1 − D1 ) f : harmonic phase angle due to D1

where, h=1, 2, 3 …

ζ 2 = ( 1 − D2 ) 2 f : harmonic phase angle due to D2

By averaging the switching functions Sch and Sdch, which results analogous to neglecting
harmonics, a general expression relating the chopper average output voltage Vab to the VSI
average DC bus voltage Vd, can be derived through equation (15):

Vab = m Vd , (15)

m = (D1 + D2 ) : chopper in buck mode (charge)

being m, the modulation index expressed as:

m = −(1 − D1 − D2 ) : chopper in boost mode (discharge)

4.2 SMES coil

The equivalent circuit of the SMES coil makes use of a lumped parameter network
implemented by a six-segment model based on Steurer & Hribernik (2005) and Chen et al.
(2006), as described in Fig. 11. This representation allows characterizing the voltage
distribution and frequency response of the SC coil with reasonable accuracy over a
frequency range from DC to several thousand Hertz. The model comprises self inductances
(Li), mutual couplings between segments (i and j, Mij), AC loss resistances (RSi), skin effect-
related resistances (RShi), turn-ground (shunt–CShi) and turn-turn capacitances (series–CSi). A
metal oxide semiconductor (MOV) protection for transient voltage surge suppression is
included between the SMES model and the DC/DC converter.

Fig. 11. Multi-segment model of the SMES coil

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66 Dynamic Modelling

Fig. 12 shows the frequency domain analysis of the six-segment SMES model, measuring the
impedance of the SC across its terminals (Zpn) for the case of the coil including (solid-lines)
and not including (dashed-lines) surge capacitors (Cs1 and Cs2) in parallel with grounding-
balance resistors (Rg1 and Rg2) as well as a filter capacitor CF for reducing the effect of
resonance phenomena. As can be seen from the magnitude of the terminal impedance, the
coil has parallel resonance (higher magnitudes of Zpn) frequencies at around 70 Hz, 120 Hz,
200 Hz and series resonance (lower magnitudes of Zpn) frequencies at about 110 Hz and
190 Hz. The chopper output voltage Vpn contains both even and odd harmonics of the
switching frequency, which may excite coil resonances and cause significant voltage
amplification of transients with the consequent addition of insulation stress within the
SMES coil. Since the coil has a rather high inductance, these resonance frequencies become
lower, turning this phenomena an issue for selecting the chopper operating frequency. In
addition, high power DC/DC converters (several MWs) utilize low operating frequencies in
order to minimize losses, being significant in consequence to take into consideration the coil
resonance phenomena for choosing a safety frequency band of operation for the chopper.
Fortunately, the negative effects of the harmonics decrease faster than the inverse of the
harmonic order due to the skin effect occurring in the superconductor. In this way, for the
case presented here, the chopper operating frequency can be set as low as 500 Hz without
producing severe voltage amplification inside the SMES coil.

(a) (b)
Fig. 12. SMES coil terminal impedance Zpn versus frequency: (a) Magnitude of SMES coil
impedance (b) Phase angle of SMES coil impedance
The current and voltage of the superconducting inductor are related as:

iSC = ∫t VSC dτ + I SC 0
1 t
(16)
L SC 0

where,
LSC: equivalent full inductance of the SMES coil, accounting for all series self inductances Li
ISC0: initial current of the inductor
The amount of energy drawn from the SC coil is directly proportional to the equivalent
inductance and to the change in the coil current (iSCi−initial and iSCf−final currents) as:

ESMES =
1
2
(
LSC iSCi 2 − iSCf 2 ) (17)

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Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of Advanced Energy Storage for Power System Applications 67

4.3 Proposed control scheme of the SMES system

The proposed hierarchical three-level control scheme of the SMES unit consists of an
external, middle and internal level. Its design is based on concepts of instantaneous power
on the synchronous-rotating d-q reference frame, as depicted in Fig. 13. This structure has
the goal of rapidly and simultaneously controlling the active and reactive powers provided
by the SMES (Molina & Mercado, 2009). To this aim, the controller must ensure the
instantaneous energy balance among all the SMES components. In this way, the stored
energy is regulated through the PCS in a controlled manner for achieving the charging and
discharging of the SC coil.

4.3.1 External level control design

The external level control, which is outlined in Fig. 13 (left side) in a simplified form, is
responsible for determining the active and reactive power exchange between the
DSTATCOM-SMES device and the utility system. This control strategy is designed for
performing two major control objectives: the voltage control mode (VCM) with only reactive
power compensation capabilities and the active power control mode (APCM) for dynamic
active power exchange between the SMES and the electric grid. To this aim, the
instantaneous voltage at the PCC is computed by employing a synchronous-rotating
reference frame. In consequence, by applying Park’s transformation, the instantaneous
values of the three-phase AC bus voltages are transformed into d-q components, vd and vq
respectively, and then filtered to extract the fundamental components, vd1 and vq1. As
formerly described, the d-axis was defined always coincident with the instantaneous voltage
vector v, then vd1 results in steady-state equal to |v| while vq1 is null. Consequently, the d-
axis current component of the VSI contributes to the instantaneous active power p while the
q-axis current component represents the instantaneous reactive power q, as stated in
equations (18) and (19). Thus, to achieve a decoupled active and reactive power control, it is
required to provide a decoupled control strategy for id1 and iq1.

p= ( vd 1id 1 + vq 1iq 1 ) = v id 1 ,
3 3
(18)
2 2

q= ( vd 1iq 1 − vq 1id 1 ) = v iq 1 ,
3 3
(19)
2 2
In this way, only vd is used for computing the resultant current reference signals required for
the desired SMES output active and reactive powers. Independent limiters are use for
restrict both the power and current signals before setting the references idr1 and iqr1.
Additionally, the instantaneous actual output currents of the SMES, id1 and iq1, are computed
for use in the middle level control. In all cases, the signals are filtered by using second-order
low-pass filters to obtain the fundamental components employed by the control system. A
phase locked loop (PLL) is used for synchronizing, through the phase θs, the coordinate
transformations from abc to dq components in the voltage and current measurement system.
The phase signal is derived from the positive sequence components of the AC voltage vector
measured at the PCC of the DSTATCOM-SMES.
The standard control loop of the external level is the VCM and consists in controlling
(supporting and regulating) the voltage at the PCC through the modulation of the reactive
component of the DSTATCOM output current, iq1. This control mode has proved a very

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68 Dynamic Modelling

Fig. 13. Multi-level control scheme of the SMES system

good performance in conventional DSTATCOM controllers (with no energy storage). The
design of this control loop in the rotating frame is simpler than using stationary frame
techniques, and employs a standard proportional-integral (PI) compensator including an
anti-windup system to enhance the dynamic performance of the VCM system. This control
mode compares the reference voltage set by the operator with the actual measured value in
order to eliminate the steady-state voltage offset via the PI compensator. A voltage
regulation droop (typically 5%) Rd is included in order to allow the terminal voltage of the
DSTATCOM-SMES to vary in proportion with the compensating reactive current. Thus, the
PI controller with droop characteristics becomes a simple phase-lag compensator (LC1),
resulting in a stable fast response compensator. This feature is particularly significant in
cases that more high-speed voltage compensators are operating in the area. This
characteristic is comparable to the one included in generators´ voltage regulators.
The APCM allows controlling the active power exchanged with the electric system. The
control strategy to be applied can be designed for performing various control objectives
with dissimilar priorities, as widely presented in the literature (Molina & Mercado, 2006,
2007, 2009). In this chapter, a general active power command to achieve the desired system
response is provided. To this aim, the in-phase output current component reference signal of
the DSTATCOM, idr1 is straightforwardly derived from the reference active power. In this
way, the active power flow between the DSTATCOM-SMES and the power system can be
controlled so as to force the SC to absorb active power when Pr is negative, i.e. operating in
the charge mode, or to inject active power when Pr is positive, that is operating in the
discharge mode.

4.3.2 Middle level control design

The middle level control makes the expected output, i.e. positive sequence components of id
and iq, to dynamically track the reference values set by the external level. The middle level

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Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of Advanced Energy Storage for Power System Applications 69

control design, which is depicted in Fig. 13 (middle side), is based on a linearization of the
state-space averaged model of the SMES VSI in d-q coordinates, described in equation (12).
Inspection of this equation shows a cross-coupling of both components of the SMES output
current through ω. Therefore, in order to fully decouple the control of id and iq, appropriate
control signals have to be generated. To this aim, it is proposed the use of two control
signals x1 and x2, which are derived from assumption of zero derivatives of currents (s id and
s iq) in the upper part (AC side) of equation (12). This condition is assured by employing
conventional PI controllers with proper feedback of the SMES actual output current
components, as shown in Fig. 13. Thus, id and iq respond in steady-state to x1 and x2
respectively with no crosscoupling, as derived from equation (20). As can be noticed, with
the introduction of these new variables this control approach allows to obtain a quite
effective decoupled control with the VSI model (AC side) reduced to first-order functions.

⎡ − Rs ⎤
⎡id ⎤ ⎢ L´s
0 ⎥
⎡i ⎤ x
s⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ ⎢ d⎥ −⎡ 1⎤
⎣ iq ⎦ ⎢ 0 − Rs ⎥ ⎣ iq ⎦ ⎢⎣ x2 ⎥⎦
(20)
⎢ ⎥
⎣ L´s ⎦

From equation (12), it can be seen the additional coupling resulting from the DC capacitors
voltage Vd, as much in the DC side (lower part) as in the AC side (upper part). This
difficulty demands to maintain the DC bus voltage as constant as possible, in order to
decrease the influence of the dynamics of Vd. The solution to this problem is obtained by
using another PI compensator which allows eliminating the steady-state voltage variations
at the DC bus, by forcing the instantaneous balance of power between the DC and the AC
sides of the DSTATCOM through the modulation of the duty cycle (D) of the DC/DC
chopper. Finally, duty cycles D1 and D2 are computed through the novel controller in order
to prevent dc bus capacitors voltage drift/imbalance, as formerly explained. This novel
extra DC voltage control block provides the availability of managing the redundant
switching states of the chopper according to the capacitors charge unbalance measured
through the neutral point voltage, VPN = Vc1 − Vc2 . This specific loop modifying the
modulating waveforms of the internal level control is also proposed for reducing instability
problems caused by harmonics as much in the SMES device as in the electric system. The
application of a static determination of D1 and D2, such as the case of D1=D2=D/2, has
proved to be good enough for reaching an efficient equalization of the DC bus capacitors
over the full range of VSI output voltages and active/reactive power requirements.

4.3.3 Internal level control design

The internal level provides dynamic control of input signals for the DC/DC and DC/AC
converters. This level is responsible for generating the switching control signals for the
twelve valves of the three-level VSI, according to the control mode (SPWM) and types of
valves (IGBTs) used and for the four IGBTs of the buck/boost three-level DC/DC converter.
Fig. 13 (right side) shows a basic scheme of the internal level control of the SMES unit. This
level is mainly composed of a line synchronization module and a firing pulses generator for
both the VSI and the chopper. The coordinate transformation from Cartesian to Polar yields

absolute phase-shift rating α. The line synchronization module simply synchronizes the
the required magnitude of the output voltage vector Vinv produced by the VSI, and its

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70 Dynamic Modelling

SMES device switching pulses with the positive sequence components of the AC voltage
vector at the PCC through the PLL phase signal, θs.
In the case of the sinusoidal PWM pulses generator block, the controller of the VSI generates
pulses for the carrier-based three-phase PWM inverter using three-level topology. Thus, the
expected sinusoidal-based output voltage waveform Vabc* of the DSTACOM-SMES, which is
set by the middle level control, is compared to triangular signals generated by the carriers
generator for producing three-state PWM vectors (1, 0, -1). These states are decoded by the
states-to-pulses decoder via a look-up-table that relates each state with the corresponding
firing pulse for each IGBT of the four ones in each leg of the three-phase three-level VSI.
In the case of the DC/DC converter firing pulses generator block, the three-level PWM
modulator is built using a compound signal obtained as the difference of two standard two-
level PWM signals. According to the mode of operation of the chopper (charge/discharge),
switching functions Sch and Sdch are synthesized using equations (13) and (14).

5. Dynamic modelling and control design of the SCES system

Super capacitor energy storage (SCES) systems consist of several sub-systems, but share
most of them with SMES systems since both operate at DC voltage levels. The base of the
SCES system is the super capacitors bank. On the other hand, the power conditioning
system provides an electronic interface between the AC electric system and the super
capacitors, allowing the grid-connected operation of the DES. Fig. 14 shows the proposed
detailed model of the entire SCES system for applications in the distribution level. This
model consists of the super capacitors bank and the PCS for coupling to the electric grid
(Molina & Mercado, 2008).

Fig. 14. Detailed model of the proposed SCES

5.1 Power conditioning system of the SCES

5.1.1 Three-phase three-level DSTATCOM
As in the prior case of the SMES system, the key part of the PCS is the DSTATCOM device,
and utilizes the same topology that SMESs. The proposed DSTATCOM essentially consists
of a three-phase three-level VSI built with semiconductors devices having turn-off
capabilities, such as IGBTs, as shown in Fig. 14 (right side). This device is shunt-connected
to the distribution network by means of a coupling transformer and the corresponding line
sinusoidal filter. Equations governing the steady-state dynamics of the ideal DSTATCOM in
the dq reference frame were previously derived and summarized in equation (12).

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Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of Advanced Energy Storage for Power System Applications 71

5.1.2 Two-quadrant two-level DC/DC converter

The integration of the SCES system into the DC bus of the DSTATCOM device requires a
rapid and robust bidirectional interface to adapt the wide range of variation in voltage and
current levels between both devices, especially because of the super capacitors dynamic
behaviour, during both charge and discharge modes. Controlling the SCES system rate of
charge/discharge requires varying the voltage magnitude according to the SCU state-of-
operation, while keeping essentially constant the DC bus voltage of the DSTATCOM VSI (in
contrast to SMES systems, in SCESs polarity does not change). To this aim, a combined two-
quadrant two-level buck/boost DC/DC converter topology by using high-power fast-
switched IGBTs is proposed in order to obtain a suitable control performance of the overall
system. This step-down and step-up converter allows decreasing the ratings of the overall
power devices by regulating the current flowing from the SCES to the inverter of the
DSTATCOM and vice versa. Since there are no requirement for electrical isolation between
input and output, no isolation circuit is considered in this work.
The basic structure of the DC/DC boost converter proposed is shown in Fig. 14. This
switching-mode power device contains basically two couples of semiconductor switches
(two power IGBT transistors connected in anti-parallel to respective free-wheeling diodes,
Tbck–Dfu and Tbst–Dfd) and two energy storage devices (an inductor Lb and a capacitor Cd) for
producing a single polarity DC voltage output with greater or lower level than its input DC
voltage, according to the operation mode of the SCES. This bidirectional DC/DC converter
has basically the three standard modes of operation, namely the charge mode, the discharge
mode and the stand-by mode. In the charge mode, the chopper works as a step-down
(buck) converter employing Tbck, Dfd and Lb. This topology makes use of modulation of
transistor Tbck (upper IGBT in the leg), while keeping Tbst off at all times, in order to produce
a power flow from the DC bus of the DSTATCOM to the UCES system. Once completed the
charging of the UCES, the operating mode of the DC/DC converter is changed to the stand-
by mode, for which both IGBTs are maintained continually switched off. In the discharge
mode, the chopper operates as a step-up (boost) converter using Tbst, Dfu, Lb and Cd. This
topology employs the modulation of the lower IGBT of the leg, i.e. Tbst, while preserves Tbck
off all the time in order to produce a power flow from the UCES to the DSTATCOM DC bus.
The operation of the DC/DC converter in the continuous (current) conduction mode (CCM),
i.e. the current flows continuously in the inductor Lb during the entire switching cycle,
facilitates the development of the state-space model because only two switch states are
possible during a switching cycle for each operation mode, namely, (i) the power switch Tbck
is on and the diode Dfd is off; or (ii) Tbck is off and Dfd is on, for the charge mode, and (i) the
power switch Tbst is on and the diode Dfu is off; or (ii) Tbst is off and Dfu is on, for the
discharge mode. In steady-state CCM operation, the state-space equation that describes the
dynamics of the DC/DC converter is given by equation (21).

⎡ Sdc ⎤
⎡ I SCB ⎤ ⎢ 0 − ⎡I ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
0 ⎥ ⎡VSCB ⎤
Lb ⎥ ⎢ SCB ⎥ ⎢ L
s ⎢⎢ ⎥=⎢
⎥ ⎢ S
⎥
⎥+⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥,
⎥⎢ 1⎥ ⎢ ⎥
0 ⎥ ⎣⎢ Vd ⎦⎥ ⎢ 0
(21)
⎢⎣ Vd ⎥⎦ ⎢ − dc − ⎢ I d ⎦⎥
⎣
⎢⎣ ⎥
C⎦
⎣ Cd ⎦
where:
ISCB: Chopper input current, matching the SCES output current.

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72 Dynamic Modelling

VSCB: Chopper input voltage, the same as the SCES output voltage.
Vd: Chopper output voltage, coinciding with the VSI DC bus voltage.
id: Chopper output current.
Sdc: Switching function of the buck/boost DC/DC converter.
The switching function Sdc is a two-levelled waveform characterizing the signal that drives
the power switch of the DC/DC buck/boost converter, according to the operation mode.
If the switching frequency of the power switches is significantly higher than the natural
frequencies of the DC/DC converter, this discontinuous model can be approximated by a
continuous state-space averaged (SSA) model, where a new variable mc is introduced. In the
[0, 1] interval, mc is a continuous function and represents the modulation index of the
DC/DC converter. This variable is used for replacing the switching function in
equation (21), yielding the following SSA expression:

⎡ mc ⎤
⎡ IUCB ⎤ ⎢ 0 − ⎡I ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤
0 ⎥ ⎡VUCB ⎤
⎢ ⎥ Lb ⎥ ⎢ UCB ⎥ ⎢ L ⎢ ⎥,
⎢ ⎥
s⎢ ⎥=⎢ m ⎥⎢ ⎥+⎢ ⎥
1⎥ ⎢ ⎥
0 ⎥ ⎣⎢ Vd ⎦⎥ ⎢ 0
(22)
⎣⎢ Vd ⎦⎥ ⎢ − C − ⎢ I d ⎦⎥
⎣
⎣ d ⎦ ⎣⎢ C ⎦⎥
c

Since, in steady-state conditions the inductor current variation during both, on and off times
of Tb are essentially equal, so there is not net change of the inductor current from cycle to
cycle, and assuming a constant DC output voltage of the bidirectional converter, the steady-
state input-to-output voltage conversion relationship of the buck/boost converter is easily
derived from equation (22), by setting the inductor current derivative at zero, yielding
equation (23).

VSCB = mcVd (23)

In the same way, the relationship between the average input current ISCB and the DC/DC
converter output current Id in the CCM can be derived as follows:

I d = mc ISCB (24)

As can be observed, both the steady-state input-to-output current and voltage conversion
relationships coincide with the modulation index mc, which is defined as:
mc = D: for the bidirectional chopper in buck mode (charge),

where D ∈ [0, 1] is the duty cycle for switching Tbck or Tbst according to the operation mode,
mc = (1– D): for the bidirectional chopper in boost mode (discharge),

defined as the ratio of time during which the particular power switch is turned-on to the
period of one complete switching cycle, Ts.

5.2 Super capacitors bank

The super capacitor unit (SCU) performance is based mainly on an electrostatic effect, which
is purely physical reversible, rather than employing faradic reactions as is the case for
batteries, although includes an additional pseudocapacitive layer contributing to the overall
capacitance. Because of the complex physical phenomena in the double layer interface,
traditional simple models such as the classical lumped-parameter electrical model (Spyker
& Nelms, 2000) represented by a simple RC circuit composed only of a capacitance with an

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Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of Advanced Energy Storage for Power System Applications 73

equivalent series resistance (ESR), and an equivalent parallel resistance (EPR) are
inadequate for modelling EDLCs. These models yield a large inaccuracy when compared
with experimental results. Therefore, this work proposes the use of an enhanced electric
model of a super capacitor, based on the ones previously proposed by Rafika et al. (2007)
and Zubieta & Bonert (2000), which reflects with high precision the effects of frequency,
voltage and temperature in the dynamic behaviour. This solution is easy to implement in
any software environment (such as MATLAB, PSCAD, EMTP, etc) and allows an adequate
simulation time when the SCES is used in applications containing many states and non-
linear blocks such as the case of incorporating power electronic devices into electric power
systems. The model proposed describes the terminal behaviour of the EDLC unit over the
frequency range from DC to several thousand Hertz with sufficient accuracy.
The equivalent electric circuit model of the super capacitor unit is depicted in Fig. 15. In
order to define the structure of this equivalent circuit, three major aspects of the physics of
the double-layer capacitor should be taken into account. Firstly, based on the
electrochemistry of the interface between two materials in different phases, the double layer
capacitance is modelled by two ladder circuits consisting in resistive–capacitive branches
with different time constants (RE, RI–CA, RV–CV). Secondly, based on the theory of the
interfacial tension in the double layer, the capacitance of the device turns out to be in a
dependence on the potential difference, so that in order to reflect the voltage dependence of
the capacitance, CV is assumed to vary linearly with the voltage at its terminals (VSCB) by the
relation CV= 2KV VUC, while CA represents the constant capacitance and is empirically
determined in the order of 2/3 of the nominal capacitance value provided by the
manufacturer. Thirdly, the double-layer capacitor has a certain self-discharge as a
consequence of the diffusion of the excess ionic charges at the interface between the
electrode and the electrolyte, and due to the impurities in the SCU materials. This low
current-leakage pathway between the SCU terminals determines the duration time of stored
energy in open circuit, and is dependent of voltage and temperature. Hence, the super
capacitor self-discharge cannot be represented by a simple single resistance. It is necessary
to use two different time constant circuits, formed by RP1–CP1 and RP2–CP2, which depend on
the voltage VSCU and on the SCU operating temperature TSC. A parallel RL resistance giving
the long time leakage current contribution is also included. Circuit made up of RI–CI is
introduced into the model to take into account the electrolyte ionic resistance temperature
dependence in the low frequency range, with RI (T), while cancelling its effect in the high

Fig. 15. Advanced equivalent electric circuit model of the super capacitor unit/bank

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74 Dynamic Modelling

frequency range, through CI. Circuit formed by RI–CR gives more precision to the model by
increasing the value of the differential capacitance for the average frequencies. Eventually, a
small equivalent series inductance (nano Henrys) is added to the model for pulsed
applications.
Since the frequency characteristics of the complex impedance of electrochemical cells are
useful for characterizing a UCES unit, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) has
been also performed on a BCAP0010 super capacitor (Maxwell Technologies, 2008) for
extending the analysis from the time domain to the frequency domain. Thus, the EDLC is
swept in frequency for various voltage levels and with different temperatures. Fig. 16 plots
the real and imaginary components of super capacitor impedance as a function of frequency
for a bias voltage of 2.5 V and a temperature of 20 ºC. As can be observed from the real part,
the dependence of impedance on frequency can be divided into four distinct frequency
zones. Zone I, in the range 1 mHz−10 mHz with characteristic time constant from 100 to
1000 s, is determined by series (RI, RE) and parallel resistances. However, at very low
frequencies, leakage current represented by parallel resistance RL dominates the
contribution. Zone II, between 10 mHz and 10 Hz gives the information on the series
resistances RI and RE. In this zone, the effect of parallel resistance is negligible and both, RI
and RE contribute at 10 mHz to form the so-called DC series resistance ESR−DC given by
manufacturers. Zone III, in the range 10 Hz−1 kHz shows mainly the resistance RE due to all
the connections, particularly the contact resistance between the activated carbon and the
current collector as well as the minimal resistance of the electrolyte. In this range,
manufacturers specify this series resistance as an AC series resistance, also called
ESR−1 kHz. Zone IV, between 1 and 10 kHz is due to the super capacitor inductance and the
parasitic inductance of the all connecting cables. As can be derived from the imaginary part
of frequency characteristics of the SCES complex impedance, there exists a resonance
frequency around 25 Hz below which the SCU behaviour is entirely capacitive. During more
than ±1/2 decade of this resonance frequency, the imaginary component of the impedance
magnitude is relatively flat and approximately zero, this demonstrating a purely resistive
EDLC behaviour in this mid-frequency range. Above this frequency, the magnitude begins
increasing indicating a completely inductive effect.

Fig. 16. Impedance real and imaginary part of 2600F super capacitor (BCAP0010) as a
function of frequency with a bias voltage of 2.5V and a temperature of 20ºC

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Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of Advanced Energy Storage for Power System Applications 75

The amount of energy drawn from the super capacitor unit is directly proportional to the
differential capacitance and to the change in the terminal voltage (VSCUi−initial and
VSCUf−final voltages), as given by equation (28).

1
2
(
ESCU = CSCU VSCUi 2 − VSCUf 2 ) (25)

For practical applications in power systems, the required amount of terminal voltage and
energy of UCES exceed largely the quantities provided by an SCU. In this way, an SCES
system can be built by using multiple SCUs connected in series to form a SCES string and in
parallel to build a bank of SCUs (SCB), as depicted in Fig 14. For this topology, the terminal
voltage determines the number of capacitors Ns which must be connected in series to form a
string, and the total capacitance determines the number of super capacitors strings Np which
must be connected in parallel in the bank. The equivalent electric circuit model of the super
capacitor unit can be extended to the SCB by directly computing the total resistances,
capacitances and inductances according to the series and parallel contribution of each
parameter, as depicted in Fig. 15 (blue text). This proposed advanced dynamic model of SCB
shows a very good agreement with measured data at all the operating frequency range.

5.3 Proposed control scheme of the SCES system

The proposed hierarchical three-level control scheme of the SCES system consists of an
external, middle and internal level, of which each level has its own control objectives. Its
design, as in the case of the SMES device, is also based on the synchronous-rotating d-q
reference frame, as depicted in Fig. 17 (Molina & Mercado, 2008).

Fig. 17. Multi-level control scheme of the SCES system

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76 Dynamic Modelling

5.3.1 External level control design

As in the former case of the SMES system, the external level control, which is outlined in
Fig. 17 (left side), is responsible for determining the active and reactive power exchange
between the DSTATCOM-SCES device and the electric grid. This control strategy is
designed for performing the same major control objectives as SMES, i.e. VCM with only
reactive power compensation capabilities produced locally by the DSTATCOM and
independently of the storage device and the active power control mode (APCM) for
dynamic active power exchange between the SCES and the electric grid.

5.3.2 Middle level control design

The middle level control shares part of the algorithms corresponding to the SMES one, since
both devices utilize the same DSTATCOM topology and then the control of this last device
is identical. The difference with the SMES system is in the control of the DC/DC converter,
which is now specific for the SCB.
In the charge operation mode of the SCES, switches S1 and S2 are set at position Ch (charge),
so that the DC/DC converter acts as a buck or step-down chopper. In this way, only the
upper IGBT is switched while the lower one is kept off all the time. Since the super capacitor
current is highly responsive to the voltage applied, being this relation especially increased
by the SCES properties, i.e. the exceptionally low ESR and large capacitance, a hysteresis
current control (HCC) method is proposed here for this operation mode. The HCC
technique with fixed-band gives good performance, ensuring fast response and simplicity of
implementation but with the main drawback of varying the IGBT switching frequency and
then generating a variable-frequency harmonic content. To overcome this problem, an
adaptive hysteresis (nearly constant-frequency) current control technique (AHCC) for the
DC/DC converter operating in continuous conduction mode of ISCB is proposed (Ninkovic,
2002). The basic concept in this hysteresis control is to switch the buck DC/DC converter
IGBT to the opposite state (on-off) whenever the measured super capacitor current reaches
above or below a given boundary determined by the hysteresis band. The AHCC is based
on cycle-by-cycle hysteresis calculator, which generates the hysteresis window that will
keep the switching frequency in a very narrow band centred on a programmed average
value. The accuracy remains outstanding, and the ripple content allows the use of a smaller
filter than typical HCC. This technique gives good performance, ensuring fast response and
simplicity of implementation. In this way, the charging of the UCES is rapidly accomplished
at a current IThres computed by the external level control, provided that the voltage VSCB is
below the limit VSCBmax. During this process, the VSI DC bus voltage is controlled at a nearly
constant level via a PI control of the error signal between the reference and the measured
voltage at the DC bus, in such a way that a balance of powers are obtained between the
DSTATCOM inverter and the SCB. When the super capacitor maximum voltage is reached,
the DC/DC buck converter IGBT is switched-off and the charge operation mode of the
UCES is changed to the stand-by mode.
In the discharge operation mode of the SCES, switches S1 and S2 are set at position Dsch
(discharge), so that the DC/DC converter acts as a boost or step-up chopper. In this way,
only the lower IGBT Tbst is switched while the upper one is kept off at all times. Since the
ultracapacitor discharge current is to be controlled by the DC/DC converter input
impedance, a pulse-width modulation (PWM) control technique with double-loop control

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Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of Advanced Energy Storage for Power System Applications 77

strategy is proposed to be employed. This control mode has low harmonic content at a
constant-frequency and reduced switching losses. In this way, the discharging of the SCES is
rapidly accomplished at a level determined by the external level control, provided that the
voltage VSCB is above the limit VSCBmin. During this process, the VSI DC bus voltage is
regulated at a constant level via a PI control of the error signal between the reference and
the measured voltage at the DC bus. Thus, by adjusting the duty cycle D of the boost
chopper, the energy released from the ultracapacitor unit towards the VSI is regulated. An
inner current loop is introduced into the voltage loop to achieve an enhanced dynamic
response of the ultracapacitor current ISCB, so that rapid response can be derived from the
DC/DC boost converter.

5.3.3 Internal level control design

The internal level (right side of Fig. 17) is responsible for generating the switching signals
for the twelve valves of the DSTATCOM three-level VSI, in the same way as the SMES
internal control, and for both IGBTs of the buck/boost DC/DC converter. This level is
mainly composed of a line synchronization module, the three-phase three-level SPWM
firing pulses generator, an adaptive hysteresis current control generator for the IGBT of the
buck chopper and a PWM generator for the IGBT of the boost DC/DC converter.

6. Dynamic modelling and control design of the FES system

Flywheel energy storage (FES) systems are mainly composed of several sub-systems, such as
the rotor, the bearing system, the driving motor/generator and housing, and the PCS for
coupling to the electric grid. Unlike SMESs and SCESs that operate at DC voltage levels, FES
systems use an electric machine, such as a permanent magnet synchronous machine
(PMSM) in the proposed topology, in order to generate a set of three sinusoidal voltage
waveforms phase-shifted 120º between each other, with variable amplitude and frequency.
On the other hand, the power conditioning system provides an electronic interface between
the two AC electric systems, i.e. the electric utility grid and the flywheel machine, allowing
the grid-connected operation of the DES. The proposed detailed model and the global
control scheme of an economical and reliable FES system for applications in the distribution
level is depicted in Fig. 18.

6.1 Power conditioning system of the FES

The power conditioning system (PCS) used for connecting RESs to the distribution grid
requires the flexible, efficient and reliable generation of high quality electric power. The PCS
proposed in this work is composed of a back-to-back AC/DC/AC converter that fulfills all
the requirements stated above. Since the variable speed rotor of the flywheel is directly
coupled to the synchronous motor/generator, this later produces an output voltage with
variable amplitude and frequency. This condition demands the use of an extra conditioner
to meet the amplitude and frequency requirements of the utility grid, resulting in a back-to-
back converter topology (Suvire & Mercado, 2008). Two voltage source inverters compose
the core of the back-to-back converter, i.e. a machine-side inverter and a grid-side one. As
can be clearly seen for Fig. 18, the grid-side VSI is part of the well-known DSTATCOM
device employed in both SMESs and SCESs systems.

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78 Dynamic Modelling

Fig. 18. Full detailed model of the proposed flywheel system

6.1.1 Three-phase three-level DSTATCOM

As in both prior cases of the SMES and SCES system, the key part of the PCS is the
DSTATCOM device, and utilizes the same topology previously described. The proposed
DSTATCOM essentially consists of a three-phase three-level VSI made with IGBTs, as
shown in Fig. 18 (right side). This device is shunt-connected to the distribution network by
means of a coupling transformer and the corresponding line sinusoidal filter. Equations
governing the steady-state dynamics of the ideal DSTATCOM in the dq reference frame
were previously derived and summarized in equation (12).

6.1.2 Two-quadrant three-level AC/DC converter

The machine-side three-phase three-level VSI corresponds to an AC/DC switching power
inverter using high-power insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs). This device is
analogous to the grid-side VSI (DSTATCOM part) and converts the variable amplitude and
frequency output voltage of the PMSM into a roughly constant DC voltage level of the
DSTATCOM inner bus. The VSI structure proposed is equal to the DSTATCOM VSI, i.e. a
three-level twelve pulse NPC structure, instead of a standard two-level six pulse inverter
structure. This three-level VSI topology generates a more smoothly sinusoidal output
voltage waveform than conventional two-level structures without increasing the switching
frequency and effectively doubles the power rating of the VSI for a given semiconductor
device while maintaining high dynamic performance. This feature is essential in order to
reduce power loses in the electric machine and then for improving the efficiency of the
entire FES system, but also mainly to maintain the charge balance of the intermediate DC
bus capacitors, thus avoiding contributing to both AC systems (PMSG and electric grid)
with additional distortion. Equations governing the steady-state dynamics of the ideal
machine-side VSI in the dq reference frame are basically derived from the DSTATCOM VSI
mathematical model described by equation (12), but modifying the electrical parameters of
the grid by the PMSM as will be later explained.

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Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of Advanced Energy Storage for Power System Applications 79

6.2 Flywheels
The flywheel energy storage system is based on the principle that a rotating mass at high
speed can be used to store and retrieve energy. Thus, the flywheel itself is just a mass with
high inertia, which is coupled to an electric machine to form the DES. The use of a PMSM is
proposed for this application since results very attractive due to advantages such as the
inclusion of self-excitation, high power factor, and especially high efficiency and fast
dynamic response (Zhou & Qi, 2009). This means that modelling the electrical behaviour of
the system can be determined by modelling a PMSM with high inertia.
The permanent magnet synchronous machine can be electrically described using a simple
equivalent circuit with an armature equation including back electromotive forces (emfs).
This model assumes that saturation is neglected, the induced emfs are sinusoidal, the eddy
currents and hysteresis losses are negligible, and that there are no field current dynamics
(Samineni et al., 2003). In this way, voltage equations for the PMSM are given by:

⎡uam ⎤ ⎡ua ⎤ ⎡iam ⎤

⎢ubm ⎥ − ⎢ub ⎥ = ( R m + sL ) ⎢ibm ⎥ ,
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ (26)
⎢⎣ ucm ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ uc ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ icm ⎥⎦

where:

⎡ Rm 0 ⎤ ⎡Laa Lac ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
0 Lab
Rm =⎢ 0 Rm 0 ⎥ , L = ⎢Lab Lbb Lbc ⎥ , (27)
⎢⎣ 0 0 Rm ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Lac Lbc Lcc ⎥⎦

being:
uim (i=a, b, c): stator phase voltages in abc coordinates
ui: back emfs in abc coordinates
iim: stator currents in abc coordinates
Lij: stator winding inductances, including self and mutual ones (combinations of i and j=a, b,
c). It is considered symmetry for mutual inductances, so that Lij=Lji
The terminal voltages applied from the machine-side VSI to the stator, uim and the back
emfs, ui are balanced three-phase voltages, being the later defined as follows:

ui = ωsΨ mi , (28)

with:
Ψmi: permanent-magnet flux linkage in abc coordinates
ωs: synchronous angular speed of the electric machine, aka rotor electrical speed.
Since there is no functional equation for instantaneous reactive power in the abc reference
frame, it is useful to apply a transformation to the synchronous-rotating orthogonal d-q set
aligned with the rotor flux to equations (26) and (27) in order to analyze the electric

replacing ω with the rotor electrical speed, ωs and defining the q-axis to be always coincident
machine. This is performed by applying Park’s transformation defined in equation (3),

with the instantaneous stator mmfs, which rotate at the same speed as that of the rotor
(yielding uq equals |u|, while ud is null). This is beneficial because any AC signals that spins
at ws become DC quantities in the rotor dq frame. Then, by neglecting the zero sequence
components, equations (29) and (30) are derived.

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80 Dynamic Modelling

⎡udm ⎤ ⎡ud ⎤ ⎡idm ⎤ ⎡− ωs 0 ⎤

⎢u ⎥ − ⎢u ⎥ = (R m + sL´s ) ⎢i ⎥ + ⎢
⎡iqm ⎤
⎣⎢ qm ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ q ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ qm ⎦⎥ ⎣ 0 ωs ⎥⎦ s ⎢i ⎥ ,
⎣ dm ⎦
L´ (29)

where:

⎡Rm 0 ⎤ ⎡Ld 0 ⎤
Rm = ⎢ ⎥ , L´s = ⎢ 0 L ⎥ , ud = ωsΨ qm , uq = ωsΨ dm
⎣ m⎦ ⎣⎢ q ⎥⎦
(30)
0 R

Flux Linkages in the dq frame can be expressed in terms of the stator currents, inductances,
and the flux linkage due to the permanent magnets of the rotor linking the stator, Ψm as:

Ψ dm = Ld idm + Ψ m (31)

Ψ qm = Lq iqm (32)

By rewriting equation (29), the following state equation can be obtained:

⎡ − Rm ⎡ udm ⎤
ωs ⎤⎥
⎡idm ⎤ ⎢ Ld ⎡ dm ⎤ ⎢ Ld ⎥
s⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
− Rm ⎥ ⎢iqm ⎥ + ⎢ uqm − u ⎥ ,
i

⎣⎢ qm ⎦⎥ ⎢ − ωs ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥ ⎢
(33)
⎢ Lq ⎥ Lq ⎥
i
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

being u = ωsΨ m
In the rotor dq frame, the active and reactive powers are calculated as follows:

p= ( vdmidm + vqmiqm )
3
(34)
2

q= ( vdmiqm − vqmidm )
3
(35)
2
The developed electromagnetic torque of the electric machine takes the following

[ ]
convenient form:

Te = pp ψ miqm + (Ld − Lq ) idmiqm ,

3
(36)
2
where pp is the number of pole-pairs of the PMSM.
For a non-salient-pole machine, as the employed here, the stator winding direct and
quadrature inductances Ld and Lq, are approximately equal. Indeed this application uses a
surface mount permanent magnet synchronous machine (SPMSM) which has zero saliency.
This means that the direct-axis current idm does not contribute to the electrical torque Te, as
described by equation (37). The key concept is to keep null the direct current, idm by an
appropriate transformation synchronization in order to obtain maximal torque with
minimum current, iqm.

Te = p p ψ miqm = KTe iqm

3
(37)
2

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Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of Advanced Energy Storage for Power System Applications 81

Using the convenient forms of active and reactive powers in the d-q reference frame, it can
be derived a simple controller for the proposed machine.
The FES system rotor dynamics can be mechanically modelled using a single-mass model
given by equation (38). In other word, as previously discussed, the flywheel is modelled as
an additional inertia to the rotor of the PMSM.

dωm
Te = Tl + Bωm + Jc , (38)
dt
where:
Tl: load torque
B: viscous friction coefficient
Jc: combined inertia moment of the FES system (PMSM inertia, Jm plus flywheel rotor inertia, Jf)
ωm: rotor mechanical speed (whereas ωs is the rotor electrical speed)
Solving equation (38) for the rotor mechanical speed, it is obtained:

⎛ Te − Tl − Bωm ⎞
ωm = ∫ ⎜ ⎟ dt ,
⎝ ⎠
(39)
Jc

and

ωr
ωm = (40)
pp

As can be noted, the flywheel rotor mechanical speed depends on the torque, the friction
coefficient and on the inertia of the coupling flywheel-electric machine.
The machine torque can be then easily defined by the emf power, Pe:

Te =
ωm
Pe
(41)

combined inertia of the flywheel-machine and to the change in rotation speed (ωmi−initial
The amount of energy drawn from the flywheel unit is directly proportional to the

and ωmf−final speeds), as given by equation (42).

EFES =
1
2
(
J c ω mi 2 − ω mf 2
) (42)

6.3 Proposed Control Scheme of the FES System

As in both prior cases of the SMES and SCES system, the proposed three-level control
scheme of the FES system consists of an external, middle and internal level. Since each
control level has its own control objectives, independently of the other levels, some
structures are identical to previous DES systems controllers. Its design is also performed in
the synchronous-rotating d-q reference frame, as depicted in Fig. 19. This arrangement has
the goal of rapidly and simultaneously controlling the reactive power generated by the
DSTATCOM and the active power provided by the FES system during the
charging/discharging process.

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82 Dynamic Modelling

Fig. 19. Multi-level control scheme of the FES system

6.3.1 External level control design

As in the earlier both DES cases described, the external level control, which is outlined in
Fig. 19 (left side), is responsible for determining the active and reactive power exchange
between the DSTATCOM-FES device and the electric grid. This control strategy is designed
for performing the same major control objectives, i.e. VCM with only reactive power
compensation capabilities produced locally by the DSTATCOM and APCM for dynamic
active power exchange between the FES and the microgrid. The only blocks added in the
case of the FES control is the measurement system related to the PMSG. This block includes
the stator instantaneous currents sensing and the dq transformation and filtering block in
order to extract the fundamental components, idm1 and idq1. This method computes the rotor
flux angle indirectly based on the measured rotor position, θm of the electric machine. As
formerly described, the q-axis was defined always coincident with the instantaneous stator
mmfs, such that only the quadrature-axis current iqm contribute to the electrical torque Te,
this notably optimizing the machine torque and simplifying the middle level control design.

6.3.2 Middle level control design

The middle level control makes the expected output, i.e. positive sequence components of
idm and iqm, to dynamically track the reference values set by the external level. This level
control design, which is depicted in Fig. 19 (middle side), is based on a linearization of the
state-space averaged model of the FES system PCS. The dynamic performance of the
proposed PCS, consisting of a back-to-back converter topology with two VSIs (a machine-
side AC/DC converter and a grid-side DC/AC one), is described using equations (12) and
(33), respectively. As can be noted, since all the presented DES devices utilize the same
DSTATCOM topology as part of their respective PCSs, some algorithms corresponding to
the middle level control are shared. The major difference is in the control of the AC/DC
converter, which is now particular for the used electric machine drive (Toliyat et al., 2005).

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Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of Advanced Energy Storage for Power System Applications 83

Inspection of equation (33) shows a cross-coupling of both components of the PMSM output
current through ω. Therefore, in order to fully decouple the control of idm and iqm,
appropriate control signals have to be generated. To this aim, two conventional PI
controllers with proper feedback of the PMSM actual output current components are used,
consequently responding in steady-state with no crosscoupling, as in the case of the
DSTACOM VSI control.
Control of the FES system is in essence controlling the motor/generator that is coupled to
the flywheel. The FES PCS has basically three modes of operation, namely the charge mode,
the stand-by or free-wheeling mode and the discharge mode.
A typical setup when energy is stored into the device is allowing electrical power to flow
into the electric machine (PMSM working as a motor), creating a torque which accelerates
the speed of the rotating mass (flywheel). In the charge operation mode of the FES, switches
S1 and S2 are set at position Ch (charge), so that the DC bus voltage is regulated by the
DSTATCOM inverter (grid-side VSI), while the machine-side inverter is used for controlling
the rotor mechanical speed. In this startup stage, since a high torque is required, a current
control is essential. Thus, a reference torque command is employed from a speed PI
controller acting on the speed error (ωmr–ωm). When the FES system maximum speed is
reached, the PCS achieves the stand-by mode, which maintains stable the rotor speed.
When power is drawn from the FES device, the rotating mass is allowed to decelerate
(PMSM working as a generator) and apply a torque to the electric machine, which
discharges power at the machine terminals to the electric grid. In the discharge operation
mode of the FES, switches S1 and S2 are set at position Dsch (discharge), so that the FES
system itself regulates the DC bus voltage by decelerating the flywheel, when Te is obtained
from PI voltage controller acting on the voltage error (Vdr–Vd). Additionally, a negative gain
is needed in the PI voltage controller because when the FES system releases energy, the
current flows from the machine-side converter to the grid-side converter (opposite to the
charge mode).

6.3.3 Internal level control design

The internal level (right side of Fig. 19) is responsible for generating the switching signals
for the twelve IGBTs of the DSTATCOM three-level VSI (grid-side), and for the twelve
IGBTs of the machine-side three-level VSI. This level is mainly composed of line and flux
synchronization module, and the three-phase three-level SPWM firing pulses generator for
both inverters of the back-to-back converter.

7. Digital simulation results

The distribution power system used to validate the proposed full detailed modelling and
control approaches of the selected DSTATCOM-DES devices is depicted in Fig. 20 as a
single-line diagram. This power system implements a substation feeding an electrical
microgrid, which includes the selected advanced DES units. The small microgrid does not
include any distributed generation for simplifying the study. The utility system is
represented by a classical single machine-infinite bus type (SMIB) system. This basic 7-bus
distribution network operates at 25 kV/50 Hz, and implements a 50 MW short circuit power
level infinite bus through a Thevenin equivalent. A set of linear loads are grouped at bus 4
in the microgrid, and are modelled by constant impedances. A microgrid central breaker

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84 Dynamic Modelling

(MGCB) with automatic reclosing capabilities is employed for the interconnection of the
point of common coupling (PCC) of the MG (bus 4) to the substation of the utility
distribution system through a 15 km tie-line. The proposed DSTATCOM-DES devices to be
studied are placed at bus 4 and includes a 25 kV/1.2 kV step-up transformer with a
±1.5 MVA/2.5 kV DC bus DSTATCOM and an advanced 0.75 MW/4 MJ DES. DES devices
included all previously modelled advanced ESSs, i.e. SMES, SCES and FES.

Fig. 20. Single-line diagram of the test power system with the microgrid containing DES
The dynamic performance of the proposed dynamic modelling and control schemes of the
selected DES systems is assessed through digital simulations carried out in the
MATLAB/Simulink environment (The MathWorks Inc., 2009), by using SimPowerSystems.
For full dynamic performance studies, independent control of active and reactive powers
exchanged between the DES and the electric grid is carried out. To this aim, all DES systems
are firstly charged to be initialized at the same energy level of 2 MJ (half capacity). Thus, the
two control modes of the DSTATCOM-DES systems are analyzed using two case studies.
The first case study (Scenario 1) corresponds to the DSTATCOM-DES device operating in
VCM. In this case, the topology presented in the test system without the activation of the
DSTATCOM-DES, the so-called base case, is used as a benchmark for the reactive power
studies. Under this situation, the distribution utility feeds the load of 1.5 MW/0.35 Mvar, i.e.
only the breaker B2 is closed. The supply voltages and currents are balanced and in steady-
state. The voltage obtained at bus 3 in this steady-state is 0.94 p.u. (base voltage at 25 kV). At
t=0.4 s, a reactive load of 0.8 Mvar is suddenly connected at bus 3 by closing B3 and later
disconnected at t=0.6 s. Fig. 21 presents the system response before, during and after the
contingency described. As can be seen, the increase of the inductive reactive load produces a
voltage sag (aka dip) at bus 3 of near 21 % respect to the value in steady-state during 200 ms,
until the reactive load is disconnected. Although the DSTATCOM-DES is not operating, i.e.
not exchanging power with the grid as can be seen from response of d and q current
components, the DSTATCOM-DES is connected (B1 is closed) and still forced to generate an
output voltage waveform accurately synchronized in amplitude and in phase with the grid
positive sequence voltage at the PCC for being ready to be quickly activated when
necessary. The DSTATCOM-DES signals of Fig. 21 were introduced for comparison
purposes with the subsequent cases studied.

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Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of Advanced Energy Storage for Power System Applications 85

The second case study (Scenario 2) corresponds to the DSTATCOM-DES device operating in
APCM. This case study is particular for each energy storage technology considered, since
each DES device modifies in a different way the dynamics of the DSTATCOM device.
The SMES system studied is composed of a stack of 4 Bi-2212 HTS coils with a total
equivalent nominal inductance of 8.3 H operated at 30 K, and a critical current of 1.2 kA. The
SMES arrangement was initialized at about 2 MJ, so that the consequent initial coil current is
set at about 722 A. The SCES system is made up of a string of 468 Maxwell Boostcap
BCAP0010 (2600 F/2.5 V/20ºC) super capacitors with a total equivalent nominal capacitance
of about 5.6 F and a maximum voltage of 1170 V at 20ºC. The super capacitors bank was also
initialized at about 2 MJ, so that the corresponding initial voltage is fixed at near 850 V. In
the case of the proposed FES system, it consists of a high speed flywheel with operating
speed range of 14 000 rpm–28 000 rpm and total system inertia of 14e-3 kg-m2. The PMSM is
a three phase, two pair poles one and operates in the frequency range of 467 Hz–933 Hz.
Since, the FES system is also initialized at 2 MJ, the initial rotor speed is fixed at about
22 000 rpm. The base case used for this study is the same previously described, but
considering only the steady-state scenario prior to the voltage sag, i.e. until 0.4 s with the
utility grid feeding only the load of 1.5 MW/0.35 Mvar (breaker B2 closed). In this case, the
topology presented in the test system without the activation of the DSTATCOM-DES (base
case) is also used as a benchmark for the APCM case study.

7.1 Scenario 1: Connection of the DSTATCOM-DES in voltage control mode

The dynamic response in controlling the reactive power locally generated by the
DSTATCOM-DES independently of the active power exchange is now studied through the
simulation results of Fig. 22. The good performance of the voltage regulator of the
DSTATCOM device is evidently depicted by the rapid compensation of reactive power and
the consequent improvement of the voltage profile, after activation at t= 0.2 s, and even
more during the voltage sag between 0.4 s and 0.6 s. As can be noted from actual and
reference values of iq, the only reactive power exchange with the utility system, independent
of the active power, allows efficiently regulating the voltage at bus 3, from 0.94 p.u. in the
base case up to the reference value of near 1 p.u., and particularly during the sag, when the
voltage goes down to 0.75 p.u. in the base case and the VCM allows restoring quickly the
voltage back to about 1 p.u. and thus mitigating completely the voltage perturbation. The
DSTATCOM-DES provides near 0.83 Mvar of capacitive reactive power for improving the
voltage profile during the sag and about 0.22 Mvar during the previous steady-state. As a
consequence of the global improvement of the voltage profile at bus 3 (PCC), the active
power demanded by loads is slightly enlarged. The decoupling characteristics between the
active and reactive powers are excellent because of the full decoupled current control
strategy implemented in the d-q frame. It is significant to note that, since only reactive power
is exchanged with the grid in this control mode, there is no need for energy storage or any
other external energy source. In fact, this reactive power is locally and electronically
generated just by the DSTATCOM, so that the results of Fig. 21 and 22 are valid for any DES
coupled to the DSTATCOM. This DES is maintained idle (or in stand-by mode) during the
entire VCM operation by using the electronic interface which couples it to the DSTATCOM.
Since in this control mode only reactive power is injected/absorbed at the PCC, the
maximum apparent power of the DSTATCOM VSI, i.e. 1.5 MVA, can be used for
compensating deeper sags. When active power is included in the control goals, some

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86 Dynamic Modelling

criterion of dynamic distribution of limits should be considered according to priorities set by

the DSTATCOM-DES operator.

DSTATCOM-DES phase voltage and current, va, ia

Bus 3 (PCC) voltage, vd

DSTATCOM-DES actual and ref. current, id, idref

DSTATCOM-DES actual and ref. current, iq, iqref

Fig. 21. Simulation results for the base case (with no activation of DSTATCOM-DES)

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Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of Advanced Energy Storage for Power System Applications 87

DSTATCOM-DES phase voltage and current, va, ia

Bus 3 (PCC) voltage, vd

DSTATCOM-DES actual and ref. current, id, idref

DSTATCOM-DES actual and ref. current, iq, iqref

Fig. 22. Simulation results for the case with the DSTATCOM-DES in VCM

7.2 Scenario 2: Connection of the DSTATCOM-DES in active power control mode

The full dynamic response in controlling the active power flow injected/absorbed by the
DES unit independently of the reactive power generated is now analyzed through the

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88 Dynamic Modelling

simulation results of Fig. 23. This case study is particular for each energy storage
technology, but the three DESs selected for power applications in microgrids shown some
almost coincident responses, so that the study is focused on the SMES device dynamic
behaviour analysis and the difference with the other devices will be remarked when is
required. In this case study, an active power command Pr is set to make step changes of
0.5 MW during 200 ms as much in the discharge as in the charge modes of operation with
the VCM control scheme deactivated. Thus, reactive power is not generated and the device
is fully used to exchange active power with the microgrid. Under these circumstances, an
active power of around 30 % of the active power demanded by the load is injected during
the discharge mode and absorbed during the charge mode of the SMES coil. As can be noted
from actual and reference values of id and iq shown in Fig. 23 only active power is rapidly
exchanged with the utility system, in both discharge/charge modes of operation,
independently of the reactive power. As can be seen, there exists a very low transient

DSTATCOM-SMES phase voltage and current, va, ia Bus 3 (PCC) voltage, vd

DSTATCOM-SMES actual and ref. current, id, idref DSTATCOM-SMES active and reactive power

DSTATCOM-SMES actual and ref. current, iq, iqref DSTATCOM-SMES coil current, iSC

Fig. 23. Simulation results for the case with the DSTATCOM-DES in active power control
mode

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Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of Advanced Energy Storage for Power System Applications 89

coupling between the active and reactive powers exchanged by the SMES due to the full
decoupled current control strategy in the synchronous-rotating d-q reference frame. As
expected, the phase ´a´ voltage at the PCC (bus 3) is in-phase with the SMES DSTATCOM
output current during the active power injection (discharge mode) and in opposite-phase
during the active power absorption (charge mode). This active power exchange produces
substantial changes in the terminal voltage vd1, because the test power grid studied is pretty
weak. A significant issue to be noted is that the dynamic active power response of the SMES
in APCM is very fast and better than the reactive power one in VCM. This is a consequence
of the PI compensator included for voltage regulation at the PCC, which inevitably adds a
lag in the response. As can be also seen from the comparison of transient responses of the
three selected DES devices, SMESs and SCESs are the faster DES devices and response
almost identically in one and a half cycle, with a settling time of approximately 30 ms. In the
same way, the FES device is hardly slower than both later and its response exceed the two
cycles with a settling time of almost 45 ms. The discharging and charging processes
performed produce a variation of about 0.1 MJ of the energy stored in the DES devices. In
the case of the SMES system, this variation is carried out by reducing the coil current from
722 A down to about 705 A and then returning to the initial value (without considering
loses). The SCES bank obtains this energy variation by changing the terminal voltage from
850 V in the initial state to 828 V and then going back to the original state of charge. In the
case of the FES device, the energy change is performed by decelerating the flywheel rotor
speed from 22 000 rpm to 21 673 rpm and then accelerating back to the previous condition.

8. Conclusion
This chapter has thoroughly discussed the power application of advanced distributed
energy storage systems in modern electrical microgrids. More specifically, of the various
advanced storage systems nowadays existing, the three foremost ones for power
applications have been considered, i.e. ultra capacitors, SMESs and flywheels. To this aim,
major operating characteristics of these modern devices have been analyzed and a real
detailed full dynamic model of all DES units has been studied. Moreover, a novel power
conditioning system of the selected DES units to simultaneously and independently control
active and reactive power flow in the distribution network level and a new three-level
control scheme have been proposed, comprising a full decoupled current control strategy in
the synchronous-rotating d-q reference frame. The dynamic performance of the proposed
systems has been fully validated by digital simulations carried out by using
SimPowerSystems of MATLAB/Simulink. The dynamic modelling approaches proposed
describe the dynamic behaviour of the DES units over the frequency range from DC to
several thousand Hertz with sufficient accuracy. The results show that the novel multi-level
control schemes ensure fast controllability and minimum oscillatory behaviour of the DES
systems operating in the four-quadrant modes, which enables to effectively increase the
transient and dynamic stability of the power system. The improved capabilities of the
integrated DSTATCOM-DES controllers to rapidly control the active power exchange
between the DES and the utility system, simultaneously and independently of the reactive
power exchange, permit to greatly enhance the operation and control of the electric system.
The fast response DES devices show to be very effective in enhancing the distribution power
quality, successfully mitigating disturbances such as voltage sags and voltage/current
harmonic distortion, among others.

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90 Dynamic Modelling

9. Acknowledgments
The author wishes to thank CONICET (Argentinean National Research Council for Science
and Technology), IEE/UNSJ (Institute of Electrical Energy at the National University of San
Juan) and ANPCyT (National Agency for Scientific and Technological Promotion) under
grant FONCYT PICT 2005 – Cod. No. 33407, for the financial support of this work.

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 Dynamic Modelling
Edited by Alisson V. Brito

ISBN 978-953-7619-68-8
Hard cover, 290 pages
Publisher InTech
Published online 01, January, 2010
Published in print edition January, 2010

When talking about modelling it is natural to talk about simulation. Simulation is the imitation of the operation of
a real-world process or systems over time. The objective is to generate a history of the model and the
observation of that history helps us understand how the real-world system works, not necessarily involving the
real-world into this process. A system (or process) model takes the form of a set of assumptions concerning its
operation. In a model mathematical and logical assumptions are considered, and entities and their relationship
are delimited. The objective of a model – and its respective simulation – is to answer a vast number of “what-if”
questions. Some questions answered in this book are: What if the power distribution system does not work as
expected? What if the produced ships were not able to transport all the demanded containers through the
Yangtze River in China? And, what if an installed wind farm does not produce the expected amount of
energyt? Answering these questions without a dynamic simulation model could be extremely expensive or
even impossible in some cases and this book aims to present possible solutions to these problems.

How to reference
In order to correctly reference this scholarly work, feel free to copy and paste the following:

Marcelo Gustavo Molina (2010). Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of Advanced Energy Storage for
Power System Applications, Dynamic Modelling, Alisson V. Brito (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-7619-68-8, InTech,
Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/dynamic-modelling/dynamic-modelling-and-control-design-
of-advanced-energy-storage-for-power-system-applications

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