Modifiable areal unit problem

The modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP) is a

source of statistical bias that can significantly impact
the results of statistical hypothesis tests. MAUP affects
results when point-based measures of spatial
phenomena are aggregated into spatial partitions or
areal units (such as regions or districts) as in, for
example, population density or illness rates.[1][2] The
resulting summary values (e.g., totals, rates,
proportions, densities) are influenced by both the shape
and scale of the aggregation unit.[3]

For example, census data may be aggregated into

county districts, census tracts, postcode areas, police
precincts, or any other arbitrary spatial partition. Thus
the results of data aggregation are dependent on the
mapmaker's choice of which "modifiable areal unit" to
An example of the modifiable areal unit problem
use in their analysis. A census choropleth map
and the distortion of rate calculations
calculating population density using state boundaries
will yield radically different results than a map that
calculates density based on county boundaries. Furthermore, census district boundaries are also subject to
change over time,[4] meaning the MAUP must be considered when comparing past data to current data.

Background
The issue was first recognized by Gehlke and Biehl in 1934[5] and later described in detail in an entry in
the Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography (CATMOG) series by Stan Openshaw (1984) and in
the book by Giuseppe Arbia (1988). In particular, Openshaw (1984) observed that "the areal units (zonal
objects) used in many geographical studies are arbitrary, modifiable, and subject to the whims and fancies
of whoever is doing, or did, the aggregating".[6] The problem is especially apparent when the aggregate
data are used for cluster analysis for spatial epidemiology, spatial statistics or choropleth mapping, in which
misinterpretations can easily be made without realizing it. Many fields of science, especially human
geography are prone to disregard the MAUP when drawing inferences from statistics based on aggregated
data.[2] MAUP is closely related to the topic of ecological fallacy and ecological bias (Arbia, 1988).

Ecological bias caused by MAUP has been documented as two separate effects that usually occur
simultaneously during the analysis of aggregated data. First, the scale effect causes variation in statistical
results between different levels of aggregation (radial distance). Therefore, the association between
variables depends on the size of areal units for which data are reported. Generally, correlation increases as
areal unit size increases. The zoning effect describes variation in correlation statistics caused by the
regrouping of data into different configurations at the same scale (areal shape).[7]

Since the 1930s, research has found extra variation in statistical results because of the MAUP. The standard
methods of calculating within-group and between-group variance do not account for the extra variance seen
in MAUP studies as the groupings change. MAUP can be used as a methodology to calculate upper and
lower limits as well as average regression parameters for multiple sets of spatial groupings. The MAUP is a
critical source of error in spatial studies, whether observational or experimental. As such, unit consistency,
particularly in a time-series cross-sectional (TSCS) context, is essential. Further, robustness checks of unit
sensitivity to alternative spatial aggregation should be routinely performed to mitigate associated biases on
resulting statistical estimates.

Suggested solutions
Several suggestions have been made in literature to reduce aggregation bias during regression analysis. A
researcher might correct the variance-covariance matrix using samples from individual-level data.[8]
Alternatively, one might focus on local spatial regression rather than global regression. A researcher might
also attempt to design areal units to maximize a particular statistical result.[6] Others have argued that it may
be difficult to construct a single set of optimal aggregation units for multiple variables, each of which may
exhibit non-stationarity and spatial autocorrelation across space in different ways. Others have suggested
developing statistics that change across scales in a predictable way, perhaps using fractal dimension as a
scale-independent measure of spatial relationships. Others have suggested Bayesian hierarchical models as
a general methodology for combining aggregated and individual-level data for ecological inference.

Studies of the MAUP based on empirical data can only provide limited insight due to an inability to control
relationships between multiple spatial variables. Data simulation is necessary to have control over various
properties of individual-level data. Simulation studies have demonstrated that the spatial support of
variables can affect the magnitude of ecological bias caused by spatial data aggregation.[9]

MAUP sensitivity analysis

Using simulations for univariate data, Larsen advocated the use of a Variance Ratio to investigate the effect
of spatial configuration, spatial association, and data aggregation.[10] A detailed description of the variation
of statistics due to MAUP is presented by Reynolds, who demonstrates the importance of the spatial
arrangement and spatial autocorrelation of data values.[11] Reynold’s simulation experiments were
expanded by Swift, who in which a series of nine exercises began with simulated regression analysis and
spatial trend, then focused on the topic of MAUP in the context of spatial epidemiology. A method of
MAUP sensitivity analysis is presented that demonstrates that the MAUP is not entirely a problem.[9]
MAUP can be used as an analytical tool to help understand spatial heterogeneity and spatial
autocorrelation.

This topic is of particular importance because in some cases data aggregation can obscure a strong
correlation between variables, making the relationship appear weak or even negative. Conversely, MAUP
can cause random variables to appear as if there is a significant association where there is not. Multivariate
regression parameters are more sensitive to MAUP than correlation coefficients. Until a more analytical
solution to MAUP is discovered, spatial sensitivity analysis using a variety of areal units is recommended as
a methodology to estimate the uncertainty of correlation and regression coefficients due to ecological bias.
An example of data simulation and re-aggregation using the ArcPy library is available.[12] [13]

In transport planning, MAUP is associated to Traffic Analysis Zoning (TAZ). A major point of departure in
understanding problems in transportation analysis is the recognition that spatial analysis has some
limitations associated with the discretization of space. Among them, modifiable areal units and boundary
problems are directly or indirectly related to transportation planning and analysis through the design of
traffic analysis zones – most of transport studies require directly or indirectly the definition of TAZs. The
modifiable boundary and the scale issues should all be given specific attention during the specification of a
TAZ because of the effects these factors exert on statistical and mathematical properties of spatial patterns
(ie the modifiable areal unit problem—MAUP). In the studies of Viegas, Martinez and Silva (2009,
2009b)[13] the authors propose a method where the results obtained from the study of spatial data are not
independent of the scale, and the aggregation effects are implicit in the choice of zonal boundaries. The
delineation of zonal boundaries of TAZs has a direct impact on the reality and accuracy of the results
obtained from transportation forecasting models. In this paper the MAUP effects on the TAZ definition and
the transportation demand models are measured and analyzed using different grids (in size and in origin
location). This analysis was developed by building an application integrated in commercial GIS software
and by using a case study (Lisbon Metropolitan Area) to test its implementabiity and performance. The
results reveal the conflict between statistical and geographic precision, and their relationship with the loss of
information in the traffic assignment step of the transportation planning models.[13]

See also
Arbia's law of geography
Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography
Modifiable temporal unit problem
Representation theory
Spatial analysis
Uncertain geographic context problem

Applications

Boundary problem (in spatial analysis)

Gerrymandering
Red states and blue states
Spatial econometrics
Spatial epidemiology

References
1. Openshaw, Stan (1983). The Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (https://alexsingleton.files.wordp
ress.com/2014/09/38-maup-openshaw.pdf) (PDF). ISBN 0-86094-134-5.
2. Chen, Xiang; Ye, Xinyue; Widener, Michael J.; Delmelle, Eric; Kwan, Mei-Po; Shannon,
Jerry; Racine, Racine F.; Adams, Aaron; Liang, Lu; Peng, Jia (27 December 2022). "A
systematic review of the modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP) in community food
environmental research" (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs44212-022-00021-1). Urban
Informatics. 1. doi:10.1007/s44212-022-00021-1 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs44212-022-00
021-1). S2CID 255206315 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:255206315).
3. "MAUP | Definition – Esri Support GIS Dictionary" (http://support.esri.com/other-resources/gi
s-dictionary/term/MAUP). support.esri.com. Retrieved 2017-03-09.
4. Geography, US Census Bureau. "Geographic Boundary Change Notes" (https://www.censu
s.gov/geo/reference/boundary-changes.html). www.census.gov. Retrieved 2017-02-24.
5. Gehlke & Biehl 1934
6. Openshaw 1984, p. 3
7. Fotheringham, A. S.; Rogerson, P. A (2008). "The Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP)".
The SAGE handbook of spatial analysis. Sage. pp. 105–124. ISBN 978-1-4129-1082-8.
8. Holt D, Steel D, Tranmer M, Wrigley N. (1996). “Aggregation and ecological effects in
geographically based data.” “Geographical Analysis” 28:244{261
9. Swift, A., Liu, L., and Uber, J. (2008) "Reducing MAUP bias of correlation statistics between
water quality and GI illness." Computers, Environment and Urban Systems 32, 134–148
10. Larsen, J. (2000). "The Modifiable Areal Unit Problem: A problem or a source of spatial
information?" PhD thesis, Ohio State University.
11. Reynolds, H. (1998). "The Modifiable Area Unit Problem: Empirical Analysis By Statistical
Simulation." PhD thesis, Department of Geography University of Toronto,
http://www.badpets.net/Thesis
12. Swift, A. (2017). "Crime mapping data simulation",
https://app.box.com/s/a84w16x7hffljjvkhtlr72eisj4qiene
13. Viegas, José Manuel; Martinez, L. Miguel; Silva, Elisabete A. (January 2009). "Effects of the
Modifiable Areal Unit Problem on the Delineation of Traffic Analysis Zones". Environment
and Planning B: Planning and Design. 36 (4): 625–643. doi:10.1068/b34033 (https://doi.org/
10.1068%2Fb34033). S2CID 54840846 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5484084
6).

Sources
Arbia, Giuseppe (1988). Spatial data configuration in then statistical analysis of regional
economic and related problems. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
This article contains quotations from Modifiable areal unit problem (http://wiki.gis.co
m/wiki/index.php/Modifiable_areal_unit_problem) at the GIS Wiki, which is available under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) (https://creativecommons.org/lic
enses/by/3.0/) license.
Gehlke, C. E.; Biehl, Katherine (March 1934). "Certain effects of grouping upon the size of
the correlation coefficient in census tract material". Journal of the American Statistical
Association. 29 (185A): 169–170. doi:10.2307/2277827 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F227782
7). JSTOR 2277827 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2277827).
Openshaw, Stan (1984). The modifiable areal unit problem. Norwick: Geo Books.
ISBN 0860941345. OCLC 12052482 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/12052482).
Unwin, D. J. (1996). "GIS, spatial analysis and spatial statistics." Progress in Human
Geography. 20: 540–551.
Cressie, N. (1996). “Change of Support and the Modifiable Areal Unit Problem.”
“Geographical Systems“, 3:159–180.
Viegas, J., E.A. Silva, L. Martinez (2009a). “Effects of the Modifiable Areal Unit Problem on
the Delineation of Traffic Analysis Zones” “Environment and Planning B – Planning and
Design“, 36(4): 625–643.
Viegas, J., E.A. Silva, L. Martinez (2009a). “A traffic analysis zone definition: a new
methodology and algorithm” “Transportation“. 36 (5): 6“, 36 (5): 6 .

Further reading
Cressie, Noel A (1996). "Change of support and the modifiable areal unit problem".
Geographical Systems. 3 (2–3): 159–180.
Holt, David; Steel, David; Tranmer, Mark; Wrigley, Neil (July 1996). "Aggregation and
ecological effects in geographically based data" (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2
29876830). Geographical Analysis. 28 (3): 244–261. doi:10.1111/j.1538-
4632.1996.tb00933.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1538-4632.1996.tb00933.x).
Horner, Mark W.; Murray, Alan T. (January 2002). "Excess commuting and the modifiable
areal unit problem" (https://web.archive.org/web/20170422022227/https://sustainability.wate
r.ca.gov/documents/3380372/3384417/Excess+Commuting+and+the+Modifiable+Areal+Uni
t+Problem.pdf) (PDF). Urban Studies. 39 (1): 131–139. doi:10.1080/00420980220099113 (h
ttps://doi.org/10.1080%2F00420980220099113). S2CID 56418131 (https://api.semanticscho
 lar.org/CorpusID:56418131). Archived from the original (http://sustainability.water.ca.gov/doc
uments/3380372/3384417/Excess+Commuting+and+the+Modifiable+Areal+Unit+Problem.p
df) (PDF) on 2017-04-22. Retrieved 2015-07-05.
Kwan, Mei-Po (2012). "The uncertain geographic context problem" (http://meipokwan.org/Pa
per/Kwan_UGCoP_2012.pdf) (PDF). Annals of the Association of American Geographers.
102 (5): 958–968. doi:10.1080/00045608.2012.687349 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0004560
8.2012.687349). S2CID 52024592 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52024592).
Menon, Carlo (March 2012). "The bright side of MAUP: defining new measures of industrial
agglomeration" (http://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/6234148.pdf) (PDF). Papers in Regional
Science. 91 (1): 3–28. doi:10.1111/j.1435-5957.2011.00350.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1
435-5957.2011.00350.x).
Unwin, David J (December 1996). "GIS, spatial analysis and spatial statistics" (https://www.r
esearchgate.net/publication/237238258). Progress in Human Geography. 20 (4): 540–551.
doi:10.1177/030913259602000408 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F030913259602000408).
S2CID 129487607 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129487607).
Wong, David (2009). "The modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP)" (https://books.google.com/
books?id=phEgXfbCU_YC&pg=PA105). In Fotheringham, A Stewart; Rogerson, Peter
(eds.). The SAGE handbook of spatial analysis. Los Angeles: Sage. pp. 105–124.
ISBN 9781412910828. OCLC 85898184 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/85898184).
Wrigley, Neil (1995). "Revisiting the modifiable areal unit problem and the ecological
fallacy". In Cliff, Andrew D (ed.). Diffusing geography: essays for Peter Haggett. The Institute
of British Geographers special publications series. Vol. 31. Oxford; Cambridge,
Massachusetts: Blackwell. pp. 123–181. ISBN 0631195343. OCLC 30895028 (https://www.
worldcat.org/oclc/30895028).
Zhang, Ming; Kukadia, Nishant (January 2005). "Metrics of urban form and the modifiable
areal unit problem". Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation
Research Board. 1902: 71–79. doi:10.3141/1902-09 (https://doi.org/10.3141%2F1902-09).

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Modifiable_areal_unit_problem&oldid=1163407778"