CHAPTER 2

DATA MODEL
 Objectives
2

In this chapter, you will learn:

 Data models and the importance of data model

 Basic data-modeling building blocks

 Business rules and how they influence database

design
 How the major data models evolved

 How data models can be classified by level of

abstraction
 Data Models and Its Importance
3

 Data models
 Relatively
simple representations, usually graphical, of
more complex real-world data structures

 The Importance of Data Model

 Facilitateinteraction among the designer, the
applications programmer, and the end user
(communication tool)
 End-users have different views and needs for data

 Data model organizes data for various users

 Data Model Basic Building Blocks
4

 Entity

 Attribute

 Relationship

 Constraint
 Data Model Basic Building Blocks
5

 Entity :
 anything about which data are to be collected and stored
◼ person
◼ CUSTOMER, STUDENT, PATIENT
◼ place
◼ BLOCK, ROOM
◼ thing
◼ BOOK, CD, FURNITURE
◼ event
◼ WEDDING, MUSICAL CONCERT

 represents a particular type of object in the real world

 Data Model Basic Building Blocks
6

 Attribute :
 a characteristic of an entity
◼ CUST_ID, CUST_ADDRESS
Relationship :
 describes an association among entities
◼ One-to-many (1:M) relationship
◼ Many-to-many (M:N or M:M) relationship
◼ One-to-one (1:1) relationship
 Bidirectional
 Questions to identify the relationship type
◼ How many instances of B are related to one instance of A?
◼ How many instances of A are related to one instance of B?
 Data Model Basic Building Blocks
7

 Relationship : (cont.)
 One-to-many (1:M) relationship
PAINTER paints PAINTING
◼ Each painter may paints one or more painting
◼ Each painting must be painted by one and only one painter

 Many-to-many (M:N or M:M) relationship

STUDENT takes COURSE
◼ Each student may take one or more courses
◼ Each course can be taken by one or more students

 One-to-one (1:1) relationship

STAFF manages DEPARTMENT
◼ Each staff manage one and only one department
◼ Each department must be managed by one and only one staff
 Data Model Basic Building Blocks
8

 Constraint :
 a restriction placed on the data

 help to ensure data integrity

 normally expressed in a form of rules

◼ A student’s GPA must be between 0.00 and 4.00
◼ An employee’s salary must have values that are between 6,000 and
350,000.
◼ Each class must have one and only one teacher.

How do you properly identify entities, attributes, relationship

and constraints? → clearly identify business rules.
 Business Rules
9

Brief, precise, and unambiguous descriptions of a

policies, procedures, or principles within a specific
organization

Description of operations that help to create and

enforce actions within that organization’s environment
 Examples of Business Rules
10

 A customer may generate many invoices

 An invoice is generated by only one customer
 A training session cannot be scheduled for fewer
than 10 employees or for more than 30
employees

Entity? Relationship? Constraint?

 Source of Business Rules
11

 Company managers
 Policy makers
 Department managers
 Written documentation
◼ Procedures
◼ Standards
◼ Operations manuals
 Direct interviews with end users
 Business Rules
12

 Must be rendered in writing

 Must be kept up to date

 Must be easy to understand and widely disseminated

 Describe characteristics of the data as viewed by the

company
 The Importance of Business Rules
13

 Standardize company’s view of data

 Constitute a communications tool between users and
designers
 Allow designer to understand the nature, role, and scope of
data
 Allow designer to understand business processes
 Allow designer to develop appropriate relationship
participation rules and constraints
 Promote creation of an accurate data model
 Translating Business Rules into data model
component
14

 Business rules can generate Entities, Relationships & Constraints

 Noun → Entity
A customer may generate one or more invoices

 Verb → Relationships among entities

A customer may generate one or more invoices

 Relationships are bi-directional

A customer may generate one or more invoices
1:M
An invoice is generated by one and only one customer
 The Evolution of Data Models
15
The Hierarchical Model

❑ Developed in 1960s

❑ To manage large amounts of data for complex manufacturing

projects

❑ Basic logical structure: upside-down tree

❑ The hierarchical structure contains levels, or segments

❑ Depicts a set of one-to-many (1:M) relationships between a

parent and its children segments
 Each parent can have many children
 Each child has only one parent
Nik Ruslawati-Uitm Perak
 The Hierarchical Model
17
 The Hierarchical Model
18
 The Hierarchical Model
19
 The Hierarchical Model
20

 Advantage  Disadvantages
 Many of the hierarchical  Complex to implement
data model’s features  Difficult to manage
formed the foundation
 Lacks structural
for current data models
independence
 Implementation
limitations
 Lack of standards
 The Network Model
21

 The network model was created to represent

complex data relationships more effectively than
the hierarchical model
 Improves database performance
 Imposes a database standard

 Resembles hierarchical model

 However, record may have more than one parent
The Network Model

Nik Ruslawati-Uitm Perak

 The Network Model
23

 Resembles hierarchical model

 Collection of records in 1:M relationships
 Relationship is called Set
 Composed of at least two record types
◼ Owner
◼ Equivalent to the hierarchical model’s parent
◼ Member
◼ Equivalent to the hierarchical model’s child
 The Network Model
24

Concepts still used today:

 Schema

 Conceptual organization of entire database as viewed by the

database administrator
 Subschema
 Defines database portion “seen” by the application programs
that actually produce the desired information from data
contained within the database
 Data Management Language (DML)
 Defines the environment in which data can be managed
❑ Schema Data Definition Language (DDL)
 Enables the database administrator to define the schema
components
 The Network Model (cont’d.)
Nik
25
Ruslaw
ati-Uitm
Perak

 Disadvantages of the network model:

 Cumbersome

 Lack of ad hoc query capability placed burden on

programmers to generate code for reports
 Structural change in the database could produce havoc
in all application programs
 The Relational Model
26

 Developed by Codd (IBM) in 1970

 Considered ingenious but impractical in 1970
 Conceptually simple
 Computers lacked power to implement the relational model
 Today, microcomputers can run sophisticated relational
database software
 Implemented through Relational Database Management
System (RDBMS)
 Most important advantage: ability to hide the complexities
of the relational model from the user
 The Relational Model
27

 A relation can be think as a table

 Table
 Matrix consisting of a series of row/column intersections
 Related to each other through sharing of a common
attribute
 Row = Tuple

 Relational diagram
 Representation of relational database’s entities,
attributes within those entities, and relationships
between those entities
The Relational Model

Nik Ruslawati-Uitm Perak

The Relational Model

Nik Ruslawati-Uitm Perak

 The Relational Model
30

 Relational Table
 Stores a collection of related entities
◼ Resembles a file
◼ Different with file systems: structural independence
◼ Relational table is purely logical structure
 The Relational Model
31

 Rise to dominance because: its powerful and flexible query

language

 Structured Query Language (SQL) allows the user to specify

what must be done without specifying how it must be done

 SQL-based relational database application involves:

 User interface - Allows end user to interact with the data

 A collection of tables stored in the database – link using

common attributes
 SQL engine- Executes all queries
 The Entity Relationship Model (ERM)
32

 Widely accepted and adapted graphical tool for data

modeling

 Introduced by Chen in 1976

 Graphical representation of entities and their

relationships in a database structure

 Complement relational data model concept

 ERM represented in ERD (Entity Relationship Diagram)

 The Entity Relationship Model
33

 Entity
 Represented in ERD by rectangle

 Name – Noun (written in the center of the box)

 Capital letter

 Singular

STUDENT
STUDENT

Chen notation Crow’s foot notation

 The Entity Relationship Model
34

 Entity
 Entity is mapped to a relational table
 Entity instance (or occurrence) = row in table
 Entity set is collection of like entities = table
 Each entity is described by a set of attributes

 Relationship
 Relationship Types (1:1, 1:M, M:N) = Connectivity
 Name → Verb
The Entity Relationship Model

connectivity

relationship name

Nik Ruslawati-Uitm Perak

Nik Ruslawati-Uitm Perak
 The Object Oriented Model
37

 Modeled both data and their relationships in a

single structure known as an object

 Object-oriented data model (OODM) is the basis

for the object-oriented database management
system (OODBMS)

 OODM is said to be a semantic data model

 The Object Oriented Model
38

 Object is an abstraction of a real-world entity

 Attributes describe the properties of an object
 Objects that share similar characteristics are
grouped in classes
 Class: Collection of similar objects with shared
structure and behavior organized in a class
hierarchy
 Class hierarchy: Resembles an upside-down tree in
which each class has only one parent
 The Object Oriented Model
39

 Classes are organized in a class hierarchy

 Inheritance is the ability of an object within the
class hierarchy to inherit the attributes and
methods of classes above it
 Unified Modeling Language (UML)
 Describessets of diagrams and symbols to graphically
model a system
The Object Oriented Model

Nik Ruslawati-Uitm Perak

 Other Models
41

 Extended Relational Data Model (ERDM)

 Semantic data model developed in response to
increasing complexity of applications
 DBMS based on the ERDM often described as an
object/relational database management system
(O/RDBMS)
 Primarily geared to business applications
 Emerging Data Models: Big Data and NoSQL
42

 Big Data
 New and better ways to manage large amounts of
Web-generated data and derive business insight from
it
 Provides high performance and scalability at a
reasonable cost
 Big data characteristic :
◼ Volume – the amounts of data being stored.
◼ Velocity –not only to the speed but also the process this
data quickly in order to generate information and insight.
◼ Variety – the data that being collected comes in multiple
different data formats
 Emerging Data Models: Big Data and NoSQL
(cont’d.)
43

 Sparse data
 Number of attributes is very large
 Number of actual data instances is low

 Big data technologies:

 Hadoop – java-based, open source, high speed, fault
tolerant distributed storage and computational
framework.
 Hadoop Distributed File System(HDFS) –highly
distributed, fault tolerant file storage system designed
to manage large amount of data at high speed.
 Emerging Data Models: Big Data and NoSQL
(cont’d.)
44

 Big data technologies:

 MapReduce – open source application programming
interface (API) that provides fast data analytic services.
 NoSQL – a large scale distributed database system
that store structure and unstructured data in efficient
ways.
 Emerging Data Models: Big Data and NoSQL
(cont’d.)
45

 NoSQL databases
 Not based on the relational model, hence the name
NoSQL
 Supports distributed database architectures

 Provides high scalability, high availability, and fault

tolerance
 Supports very large amounts of sparse data

 Geared toward performance rather than transaction

consistency
 Store data in key-value stores
Figure 2.5 - A Simple Key-Value
Representation

46
Nik Ruslawati-Uitm Perak
 Data Model Basic Terminology
Comparison

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certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website or school-approved learning management system for classroom use.
48
 Hierarchical Model
Advantages Disadvantages

▪ Promotes data sharing ▪ Requires knowledge of physical

▪ Parent/child relationship promotes data storage characteristics
conceptual simplicity and data ▪ Navigational system requires
integrity knowledge of hierarchical path
▪ Database security is provided and ▪ Changes in structure require
enforced by DBMS changes in all application
▪ Efficient with 1:M relationships programs
▪ Implementation limitations
▪ No data definition
▪ Lack of standards

©2017 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a
certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website or school-approved learning management system for classroom use.
49
 Network Model
Advantages Disadvantages

▪ Conceptual simplicity ▪ System complexity limits

▪ Handles more relationship types efficiency

▪ Data access is flexible ▪ Navigational system yields

complex implementation,
▪ Data owner/member relationship application development, and
promotes data integrity management
▪ Conformance to standards ▪ Structural changes require
▪ Includes data definition language changes in all application
(DDL) and data manipulation programs
language (DML)

©2017 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a
certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website or school-approved learning management system for classroom use.
50
 Relational Model
Advantages Disadvantages
▪ Structural independence is ▪ Requires substantial hardware and
promoted using independent
system software overhead
tables
▪ Tabular view improves ▪ Conceptual simplicity gives
conceptual simplicity untrained people the tools to use a
good system poorly
▪ Ad hoc query capability is based
on SQL ▪ May promote information
▪ Isolates the end user from problems
physical-level details
▪ Improves implementation and
management simplicity

©2017 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a
certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website or school-approved learning management system for classroom use.
51
 Entity Relationship Model
Advantages Disadvantages

▪ Visual modeling yields ▪ Limited constraint

conceptual simplicity representation
▪ Visual representation makes it ▪ Limited relationship
an effective communication representation
tool ▪ No data manipulation
▪ Is integrated with the dominant language
relational model ▪ Loss of information content
occurs when attributes are
removed from entities to avoid
crowded displays
©2017 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a
certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website or school-approved learning management system for classroom use.
52
 Object-Oriented Model
Advantages Disadvantages

▪ Semantic content is added ▪ Slow development of

standards caused vendors to
▪ Visual representation includes supply their own
semantic content enhancements
▪ Inheritance promotes data ▪ Compromised widely accepted
integrity standard
▪ Complex navigational system
▪ Learning curve is steep
▪ High system overhead slows
transactions

©2017 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a
certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website or school-approved learning management system for classroom use.
53
 NoSQL
Advantages Disadvantages

▪ High scalability, availability, and ▪ Complex programming is

fault tolerance are provided required
▪ Uses low-cost commodity ▪ There is no relationship support
hardware
▪ There is no transaction integrity
▪ Supports Big Data support
▪ Key-value model improves ▪ In terms of data consistency, it
storage efficiency provides an eventually consistent
model

©2017 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a
certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website or school-approved learning management system for classroom use.
54
 Data Models: A Summary
55

 Each new data model capitalized on the shortcomings of

previous models

 Common characteristics:
 Conceptual simplicity without compromising the semantic
completeness of the database
 Represent the real world as closely as possible
 Degrees of Data Abstraction
56

 Way of classifying data models

 Many processes begin at high level of abstraction

and proceed to an ever-increasing level of detail

 Designing a usable database follows the same

basic process
 Degrees of Data Abstraction
57

 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

Standards Planning and Requirements Committee
(SPARC)
 Defined a framework for data modeling based on
degrees of data abstraction(1970s):
◼ External
◼ Conceptual
◼ Internal
Degrees of Data Abstraction

Nik Ruslawati-Uitm Perak

 The External Model
59

 End users’ view of the data environment

 Requires that the modeler subdivide set of
requirements and constraints into functional modules
that can be examined within the framework of their
external models
 ER diagrams are used to represent the external
views
 External schema: Specific representation of an
external view
 The External Model
60

 Advantages:
 Easy to identify specific data required to support
each business unit’s operations
 Facilitates designer’s job by providing feedback
about the model’s adequacy
 Creation of external models helps to ensure security
constraints in the database design
 Simplifies application program development
The External Model

Nik Ruslawati-Uitm Perak

 The Conceptual Model
62

 Represents global view of the entire database

by the entire organization
 Conceptual schema : Basis for identification and
high-level description of the main data objects.
 Logical design: Task of creating a conceptual
data model
 Most widely used conceptual model is the entity
relationship (ER) model
The Conceptual Model

Nik Ruslawati-Uitm Perak

 The Conceptual Model
64

 Provides a relatively easily understood macro level view of

data environment
 Independent of both software and hardware
 Does not depend on the DBMS software used to implement the
model
 Does not depend on the hardware used in the implementation
of the model
 Changes in either hardware or DBMS software have no effect
on the database design at the conceptual level
 The Internal Model
65

 Representation of the database as “seen” by the

DBMS.
 Maps the conceptual model to the DBMS
 Internal schema depicts a specific representation
of an internal model
 Software dependent and hardware independent
 Logical independence: Changing internal model
without affecting the conceptual model
The Internal Model

Nik Ruslawati-Uitm Perak

 The Physical Model
67

 Operates at lowest level of abstraction, describing

the way data are saved on storage media such as
disks or tapes
 Software and hardware dependent
 Requires that database designers have a detailed
knowledge of the hardware and software used to
implement database design
 Physical independence: Changes in physical model
do not affect internal model
The Physical Model

Nik Ruslawati-Uitm Perak

 Summary
69

 A data model is a (relatively) simple abstraction

of a complex real-world data environment
 Basic data modeling components are:
 Entities

 Attributes

 Relationships

 Constraints
 Summary
70

 Hierarchical model
 Depicts a set of one-to-many (1:M) relationships between a
parent and its children segments

 Network data model

 Uses sets to represent 1:M relationships between record types

 Relational model
 Current database implementation standard
 ER model is a popular graphical tool for data modeling that
complements the relational model
 Summary
71

 Object is basic modeling structure of object oriented data

model

 The relational model has adopted many object-oriented

extensions to become the extended relational data model
(ERDM)

 Data modeling requirements are a function of different data

views (global vs. local) and level of data abstraction
72

Write the business rules that are reflected in the ERD

73

Convert to simple ERD using crows foot.

 One publisher can publish one or more books.
 Each book is published by one publisher.
 A publisher can submit many contracts.
 Each contract is submitted by one publisher.
 One author can sign many contracts.
 Each contract is signed by one author.
 One author can write many books.
 Each book is written by one author.
 Exercise
74

a) Identify each relationship type and write all the business

rules.
b) Draw the basic crows foot ERD
75

Convert to simple ERD using crows foot.

1. Each sales representatives writes one or more invoices

Each invoice is written by one sales representative
2. Each sales representative is assigned to one and only one
department; Each department has one or more sales
representatives
3. Each customer can generate one or more invoices
Each invoice is generated by one customer