UNIT 4

FUNDAMENTALS OF
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

PRUDHVI KIRAN P
Assistant Professor, CSE - IoT Dept.
R. V. R. & J. C. College of Engineering
UNIT - 4 [ 12 periods ]

Planning: Overview

An Example Domain - The Blocks World, Components of Planning Systems, Goal Stack
Planning, Non-linear Planning using constraint posting, Hierarchical planning, Reactive
systems.

Expert Systems:

Representing and using domain knowledge, Expert system shells, Explanation, Knowledge
Acquisition.

SUBJECT CODE - 315

CLASS DETAILS - MECH V SEM - OCTOBER 2022
FACULTY DETAILS - PRUDHVI KIRAN P, Asst. Prof., CSE (IoT), RVR&JC College of Engineering
QUESTION BANK - AI – UNIT 4 [Assignment Questions - 2, 9, 10]
1. What is Blocks World in AI? Demonstrate with example.
2. What are the components of Planning System? Explain each component in detail.
3. What is Goal Stack Planning in AI? Demonstrate with example scenario.
4. Define Linear and Non-Linear planning in detail. Mention your opinion on which planning
methodology is the best, with valid reasons/examples.
5. What are the issues with Linear Planning? Explain Non-Linear Constraint Posting scenario.
6. Discuss Hierarchal Planning in detail with 2 example scenarios.
7. What are Reactive Systems? How are they different from the complicated AI systems?
8. Define Expert System. Mention various ways to represent the Domain Knowledge in
Expert Systems; mentioning one example for each representation methodology?
9. Draw and explain the Expert System Shell in detail.
10. What are Knowledge Acquisitions and Explanation Subsystems in Expert Systems?
END
4.1 Planning Overview
TOPIC 1
An Example Domain - The Blocks shorturl.at/kpDL9
World Planning
TOPIC 2
Components of Planning https://cutt.ly/c8wntAz
Systems
TOPIC 3
https://cutt.ly/r8wnfj4
Goal Stack Planning
TOPIC 4
https://cutt.ly/X8wnmYC
Hierarchical planning
TOPIC 5
https://t.ly/8y5f
Reactive systems

USEFULL VIDEOS ABOUT BLOCKS WORLD PLANNING

https://youtu.be/-NrzPWUnYIE
https://youtu.be/Xi0uaEwCzNs
4.2 Expert Systems Q. No. 7,8,9,10

EXPERT SYSTEMS
 An expert system is a computer program that is designed to solve complex problems and to
provide decision-making ability like a human expert. It performs this by extracting knowledge
from its knowledge base using the reasoning and inference rules according to the user queries.
These systems are designed for a specific domain, such as medicine, science, etc.
 The performance of an expert system is based on the expert's knowledge stored in its knowledge
base. The more knowledge stored in the expert system’s knowledge base, the more that system
improves its performance. One of the common examples of an ES is a suggestion of spelling
errors while typing in the Google search box. Below are some popular examples of the Expert
System:
1. DENDRAL: It was an artificial intelligence project that was made as a chemical analysis expert
system. It was used in organic chemistry to detect unknown organic molecules.
2. MYCIN: It was one of the earliest backward chaining expert systems that was designed to find
the bacteria causing infections like bacteraemia and meningitis. It was also used for the
recommendation of antibiotics and the diagnosis of blood clotting diseases.
3. PXDES: It is an expert system that is used to determine the type and level of lung cancer. To
determine the disease, it takes a picture from the upper body, which looks like the shadow.
This shadow identifies the type and degree of harm.
4. CaDeT: The CaDet expert system is a diagnostic support system that can detect cancer at early
stages.
An expert system mainly consists of three
components:
• Interface/User Interface
• Inference Engine
• Knowledge Base
 With the help of a user interface, the expert
system interacts with the user, takes queries as
an input in a readable format, and passes it to
the inference engine. After getting the
response from the inference engine, it displays
the output to the user.
 The inference engine is known as the brain of the expert system as it is the main processing
unit of the system. It applies inference rules to the knowledge base to derive a conclusion or
deduce new information. It helps in deriving an error-free solution of queries asked by the
user. Inference engine uses the below modes to derive the solutions:
1. Forward Chaining: It starts from the known facts and rules, and applies the inference rules to
add their conclusion to the known facts.
2. Backward Chaining: It is a backward reasoning method that starts from the goal and works
backward to prove the known facts.
 The knowledgebase is a type of storage that stores knowledge acquired from the different
experts of the particular domain. It is considered as big storage of knowledge. The more the
knowledge base, the more precise will be the Expert System.
1. Factual Knowledge: The knowledge which is based on facts and accepted by knowledge
engineers comes under factual knowledge.
2. Heuristic Knowledge: This knowledge is based on practice, the ability to guess, evaluation,
and experience
REPRESENTING AND USING DOMAIN KNOWLEDGE
 Expert system is built around a knowledge base. Expert system contains a formal
representation of the information provided by the human (domain expert), which may be in
the form of problem-solving rules, procedures, or data, intrinsic to the domain.
 Transferring all these knowledge from the human expert to a computer is often the most
difficult part of building an expert system. We have to make sure that, the knowledge acquired
from the human expert must be encoded in such a way that it remains a faithful
representation of what the expert knows, and it can be manipulated by a computer.
 Various knowledge representation methods are available to take up this task of incorporating
information into the system. It is necessary to make use of one or more of these methods.
Three common methods of knowledge representation evolved over the years are discussed
below;
1. IF-THEN rules
2. Semantic Networks and
3. Frames.
1. IF - THEN Rules
 Human experts usually tend to think along;
Condition Action or Situation Conclusion
 Rules "if-then" are predominant form of encoding knowledge in expert systems. These are of
the form:
If a1 , a2 , . . . . . , an | Then b1 , b2 , . . . . . , bn
Where, each ai is a condition or situation, and each bi is an action which leads to a
final conclusion.
 The aim of these Rule Based Expert System is to take knowledge from a human expert and
convert this into a number of hardcoded rules to apply to the input data.
 These systems should be applied to smaller problems, as the more complex a system is, the
more rules that are required to describe it, and thus increased difficulty to model for all
possible outcomes.
 Realtime Examples; IF the ‘traffic light’ is ‘green’, THEN the action is go IF the ‘traffic light’ is
‘red’ THEN the action is stop.
2. Semantic Networks
 In Semantic networks, the expert knowledge is
represented in the form of graphical networks
where nodes representing objects and arcs
describing the relationship between those
objects with labels, IS-A and HAS.
 This kind of relationship establishes an
inheritance by hierarchy in the network, with
the objects lower down in the network
inheriting properties from the objects higher
up.
 Semantic networks can categorize the object in
different forms and can also link those objects
with another objects. Semantic networks are
easy to understand and can be easily extended.
 Semantic networks take more computational
time as we need to traverse the complete
network tree to answer some questions. SEMANTIC NET REPRESENTATION OF
OBJECT - CAR
3. Frames
 In this technique, knowledge is decomposed
and represented in highly modular pieces
called frames. A frame is a record like structure
which consist of Concepts, Situations,
Attributes of concepts, Relationships between
concepts, and procedures to handle
relationships as well as attribute values.
 Each Concept may be represented as a
separate frame. The attributes, the
relationships between concepts, and the
procedures are allotted to slots in a frame. The
contents of a slot may be of any data type -
numbers, strings, functions or procedures, I.e.
These slots may be of any type and sizes.
 Frames may be linked to other frames,
providing inheritance facility too. TWO FRAMES, THEIR SLOTS AND THE SLOTS
FILLED WITH DATA TYPE ARE SHOWN.
 EXPERT SYSTEM SHELLS
 Expert system shells are toolkits that can be used to develop expert systems. They consist of
some built expert system components with an empty knowledge base and it is associated with a
prescribed method for building applications by configuring and instantiating these
components and knowledge base.
 It can also be defined as a software package that facilitates the building of knowledge-based
expert systems by providing a knowledge representation scheme and an inference engine.
 The generic components of a shell are knowledge acquisition, the knowledgebase, Inference
Mechanism, explanation and the user interface are shown below. All these components will be
configured as per the requirement.
EXPERT SYSTEM SHELL
Knowledge
Knowledge Inference
EXPERT Base, Explanation User Interface USER
Acquisition Mechanism
Facts, Heuristics
SUB SYSTEM KNOWLEDGE REASONING SUB SYSTEM

KNOWLEDGE ENGINEER SOFTWARE ENGINEER

Knowledge Acquisition subsystem
A subsystem to help experts in build knowledge bases. Knowledge engineer acquires knowledge
from Experts and Scholars in various ways, like, recording, observing & interviewing. After
acquiring, that knowledge/data will be categorised in a meaningful way (If-Then rules, Frames,
etc.) and represented in a faithful manner. To do this, knowledge engineer should have empathy,
quick learning and case analysing skills. However, collecting knowledge, needed to solve problems
and build the knowledge base, is the biggest bottleneck in building expert systems.
Knowledgebase
Knowledge base is a store of factual and heuristic knowledge which will be used by inference
engine during decision making. At any point of time, knowledge base should have quality,
completeness and accuracy. Knowledge engineer monitors the development of knowledgebase.
Inference Mechanism/Inference Engine
The Inference Engine acquires and manipulates the knowledge from the knowledge base to arrive
at a particular solution. Use of efficient procedures and rules by the Inference Engine is essential in
deducting a correct, flawless solution. Simply, Inference Mechanism is a domain-independent
algorithm that is used to derive conclusions or perform actions using the knowledge base.
Explanation
Explanation subsystem explains the system's actions, i.e. it shows why and how it reached the
conclusion. Content of explanation is, System Goals, Rules being used, Existing problem solving
scenarios, etc. The explanation can range from how the final or intermediate solutions were
arrived.
User Interface
A user interface is the method by which the expert system interacts with a user. These can be
through dialog boxes, command prompts, forms, or other input methods. Some expert systems
interact with other computer applications, and do not interact directly with a human.

ROLES IN THE SHELL

Various roles in the Expert System Shell are the Expert, who is the source of knowledge and the
Knowledge Engineer, who gathers the knowledge from the expert and represents it in a proper
manner, so that the inference mechanism can use it and the Software Engineer who designs the
user Interface in a productive manner and finally the User/End User, who uses the Expert System
Shell in their domain specific application.
EXPLANATION & KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION
 Expert System users will not simply satisfy with the decision they received from the Expert
System. They only get satisfied when they get proper explanation of reasoning process used by
the expert system, to achieve that particular decision. So explanation part is very important for
Expert System.
 Explanation is a subsystem of the Expert System Shell, that explains the system’s actions. The
explanation can range from how the final or intermediate solutions were arrived.
 Along with the explanation capabilities, the expert system should also have ability to acquire
new knowledge and perform modifications to the old knowledge, this refers to knowledge
acquisition. It is extremely important that knowledge base of expert system should be as
complete and as accurate as possible.
 One way for knowledge acquisition is to interact with the human expert and another way is to
have the program learn expert behaviour from raw data.
 Thus, in order for an expert system to be effective tool, people must be able to interact with it
easily. To facility this interaction, the expert system must have good Explanation and Knowledge
Acquisition capabilities.