IOT

Unit 1

Define and explain the Internet of Things.

The components of Internet of things are:-
• Physical Object.
• Sensors.
• Actuators.
• Connectivity
• User Interface
1) Physical Object
➢ Physical objects embedded with electronics, software, sensors and network connectivity
which enables these objects to collect and exchange data and play a remarkable role in
many domains including transportation, healthcare, industrial automation, etc.
2) Sensors
➢ Sensors work to gather minute data from the surrounding environment.
➢ They are sometimes also known as ‘detectors, as the primary function of sensors
is to
detect.
➢ This allows an IoT device to capture relevant data for real-time or post-processing.
➢ This piece of hardware can measure absolutely anything i.e. smoke, motion and even
blood pressure
3) Actuators
➢ Actuators work opposite to that of sensors.
➢ While sensors sense; actuators act.
➢ They receive a signal or a command and on that basis they perform an action.
➢ They are as crucial as sensors as once the sensors have detected a change in the
environment, an actuators is required to make something happen based on trigger.
➢ E.g. actuator controls the heating and cooling in a smart air conditioner.
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4) Connectivity
➢ The sensors/devices can be connected to cloud through a variety of methods including:
cellular, satellite, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, low-power wide-area networks, or connecting
directly to the internet via Ethernet.
5) User Interface
➢ The user interface is the visible components that is easily accessible and in control of the
IoT user.
➢ This is where a user can control the system and set their preferences.
➢ The more user-friendly this component of the IoT ecosystem is, the easier is a user’s
interaction.
➢ A user may interact with the system via the device itself, or can be conducted remotely
via Smartphone.
Example: Smart Umbrella, WhereDial, etc.
• The Thing is present, physically in the real world, in your home, your work, your car, or
worn around your body.
• This means that it can receive inputs from your world and transform those into data
which is sent onto the Internet for collection and processing.
• So your chair might collect information about how often you sit on it and for how long.
• The presence of the Thing also means that it can produce outputs into your world with
what we call “actuators”.
• Some of these outputs could be triggered by data that has been collected and processed
on the Internet.
• So your chair might vibrate to tell you that you have received email. • We could
summarize these components in the following simple equation:
• Note that in all the cases we’ve looked at, the form of the object follows the function
of
the Thing:
• Your chair is designed to sit on, the sewing machine to sew at, and so on.
• The fact of also being connected to the Internet and having general-purpose computing
capabilities doesn’t necessarily have an impact on the form of the object at all.

Write a note on Calm and Ambient Technology. (5)

• The IoT has its roots in the work done by Mark Weiser at Xerox PARC in the year 1990s.
• His work didn’t assume that there would be network connectivity but was
concerned with
what happen when computing power becomes cheap enough that it can be embedded in
to all manners of everyday objects.
• He coined the term ubiquitous computing or ubicomp. Ubicomp is ambient technology.
• Calm and Ambient technology means technology which acts in background, not
something to which we actively pay attention i.e. Ambient noise in background
recording.
• The term Calm technology means system that doesn’t seek your attention.
Example: 1) Live Wire
➢ Live wire is one of the first IOT devices.
➢ Created by artist Natalie Jeremijenko.
➢ Live wire also known as Dangling String.
➢ It is a simple device: an electric motor connected to an eight-foot long piece of plastic
string.
➢ The power for the motor is provided by the data transmissions on the Ethernet network to
which it is connected, so it twitches whenever a packet of information is sent across the
network.
➢ Under normal, light network load, the string twitches occasionally.
➢ If the network is overloaded, the string whirls madly.
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Example: 2) Split-flap display
➢ Split-flap displays have been phased out in and are replaced by dot-matrix LED displays.
➢ The newer displays are much easier to update with new destinations.
➢ Split-flap displays are at airport and railway stations.
Example: 3) Air Tunes Wi-Fi speakers
➢ Which anyone play music through.
➢ Users will often wonder exactly what a particular track was but had no way of finding
out who was in charge of the music at that moment and what was playing right now.

What is DNS? How it works? (5)

• The Domain Name System (DNS) is the phonebook of the
internet. Humans access information online through domain
names, like nytimes.com or espn.com. Web browsers interact
through protocol (IP) addresses. DNS translates domain names
to IP addresses so browsers can load Internet resources
• Each device connected to the Internet has a unique IP address
which other machines use to find the device. DNS servers
eliminate the need for humans to memorize IP addresses such
as 192.168.1.1(in IPv4).
How does DNS work?
• The process of DNS resolution involves converting a hostname
(such as www.example.com) into a computer-friendly IP
address (such as 192.168.1.1). An IP address is given to each
device on the Internet, and that address is necessary to find the
appropriate Internet device - like a street address is used to find
a particular home. When a user wants to load a webpage, a
translation must occur between what a user types into their web
browser (example.com) and the machine-friendly address
necessary to locate the example.com webpage.
• In order to understand the process behind the DNS resolution,
it’s important to learn about the different hardware components
a DNS query must pass between. For the web browser, the
DNS lookup occurs “behind the scenes” and requires no
interaction from the user’s computer apart from the initial
request.
• There are 4 DNS servers involved in loading a webpage:
1. DNS precursor - The precursor can be thought of as a
librarian who is asked to go find a particular book
somewhere in a library. The DNS precursor is a server
designed to receive queries from client machines through
applications such as web browsers. Typically the
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precursor is then responsible for making additional
requests in order to satisfy the client’s DNS query.
2. Root name server - The root server is the first step in
translating (resolving) human-readable hostnames into IP
addresses. It can be thought of like an index in a library
that points to different racks of books - typically it serves
as a reference to other more specific locations.
3. TLD name server - The top-level domain server (TLD)
can be thought of as a specific rack of books in a library.
This name server is the next step in the search for a
specific IP address, and it hosts the last portion of a
hostname (In example.com, the TLD server is “com”).
4. Authoritative name server - This final name server can
be thought of as a dictionary on a rack of books, in which
a specific name can be translated into its definition. The
authoritative name server is the last stop in the name
server query. If the authoritative name server has access
to the requested record, it will return the IP address for
the requested hostname back to the DNS Re-cursor (the
librarian) that made the initial request.
“Any sufficiently advanced technology in indistinguishable from
magic”. Discuss. (5)
Arthur C. Clarke has claimed that “any sufficiently advanced technology is
indistinguishable
from magic,” and given that the Internet of Things commonly bestows semi-hidden
capabilities
onto everyday objects, maybe the enchanted objects of magic and fairy tale are a good
metaphor
to help people grasp the possibilities.
• Some Internet of Things projects draw their inspiration directly from magic.
• For example, John McKerrell’s WhereDial takes its lead from the clock in Harry
Potter
which tracked the location of the members of the Weasley family.
• The WhereDial, by comparison, has to rely on mere technology for its capabilities;
• however, with the GPS chipsets in smartphones and location check-in services like
FourSquare, it isn’t much of a leap to also own an ornament which updates to show
when
you are at work, or travelling, or at a restaurant.

The ambient orb is a “single-pixel display” that can show the status of a metric of its
user’s choosing—the price of a stock, the weather forecast etc.
• Ambient Devices then took the idea one step further and built an enchanted umbrella.
• It can read the weather forecast, and the handle glows gently if rain is expected, alerting
you to the fact that you may need to pick it up as you head out of the house.
• Everyday sort of magic that makes tasks a bit easier and lives a little more fun.
• Using our understanding of magic and fairy tales to help make sense of these strange new
gadgets.

Explain the working of IP Protocol.

The preceding scenario describes how the Internet Protocol (IP) works.
➢ Data is sent from one machine to another in a packet, with a destination address and a
source address in a standardised format (a “protocol”).
➢ Just like the original sender of the message in the example, the sending machine
doesn’t always know the best route to the destination in advance.
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➢ Most of the time, the packets of data have to go through a number of intermediary
machines, called routers, to reach their destination.
➢ The underlying networks aren’t always the same: just as we used the phone, the
postal service, and delivery by hand, so data packets can be sent over wired or
wireless networks, through the phone system, or over satellite links.
➢ In our example, a postcard was placed in an envelope before getting passed onwards.
This happens with Internet packets, too.
➢ So, an IP packet is a block of data along with the same kind of information you would
write on a physical envelope: the name and address of the server, and so on.
➢ But if an IP packet ever gets transmitted across your local wired network via an
Ethernet cable—the cable that connects your home broadband router or your office
local area network (LAN) to a desktop PC—then the whole packet will get bundled
up into another type of envelope, an Ethernet Frame, which adds additional
information about how to complete the last few steps of its journey to your computer.
➢ Of course, it’s possible that your cousin Bob didn’t know about the London Hack
space and then maybe the message would have got stuck with him.
➢ You would have had no way to know whether it got there. This is how IP works.
There is no guarantee, and you can send only what will fit in a single packet.

Unit 2

What is sketching? Explain its role in Prototyping? (5m)

• Sketching enables you to brainstorm, explore multiple ideas,
define flows, and communicate with team members all while
being quick and cheap.
• Prototyping enables you to get out of the building quicker, talk
to users, validate assumptions, ensure expectations are meeting
with stakeholders needs, while spending as little time as possible
worrying about polish.
• There is a good chance that the first step we will take when
working on our prototype will be to jot down some ideas or
draw out some design ideas with pen and paper.
• That is an important first step in exploring our idea and one we
would like to extend beyond the strict definition to also include
sketching in hardware and software.
• What we mean by that is the process of exploring the problem
space: iterating through different approaches and ideas to work
out what works and what doesn’t.
• The focus isn’t on the fidelity of the prototype but rather on the
ease and speed with which we can try things out.
• For the physical design, that could mean digging out childhood
LEGO collection to prototype the mix of cogs and threedimensional
forms, or maybe attacking some foam core or
cardboard with a craft knife.
• Benefits of Sketching and Prototyping are:
➢ Valid assumption
➢ Discover problems early
➢ Brainstorm Ideas
➢ Design more Iterations
➢ Conduct early usability testing
➢ Cheaper and Faster to implement
➢ Shorten the feedback loop
➢ Help communication between team
"Open source has a competitive advantage". Discuss.
Open source allows computer source code to be shared and
modified free of charge by other users or organizations under a
licensing agreement.
• In other words, it is a piece of software which can evolve and be
iterated upon by other developers anywhere in the world.
• In case of open source, the software is evolved many times and
during this evolution, it takes many twists and turns and
becomes entirely different than its original version.
• For example: Android
• Using open source is often a no-risk way of getting software that
has been tested, improved and debugged by many eyes.
• Secondly, using open source aggressively gives your product the
chance to gain mindshare.
• Companies are increasingly adopting open source software as a
way to gain competitive advantage rather than just a costsavings
measure.
• Open source software has been used for basic infrastructure,
but organizations are now using it to build better software to
support core business activities, such as data management and
integration, application development etc.
• Open source becomes better and stronger the more we apply it,
contribute to it, and invest in its communities.
• So we must apply our knowledge and efforts to ensure that open
source can continue to prosper and serve as a source of
competitive advantage for businesses and developers well into
the future.
Generally, the key difference between open and closed depends on five factors.
• Cost.
• Service.
• Innovation.
• Usability.
• Security.
1) Cost.
➢ One of the main advantages of open source software is the cost because open source
software is free of cost.
➢ Close source, the cost can vary between a few thousand to a few hundred thousand
dollars.
2) Service
➢ Open source software relies on a loyal and engaged online user community to deliver
support via forums and blog, but this support often fails to deliver the high-level of
response.
➢ Services and support are probably the greatest advantages of using closed software
support is a key selling skills and one of the main reason people choose closed source
over open source software.
3) Innovation
➢ Open source software provides a large amount of flexibility and freedom to change the
software without restrictions.
➢ Close source software are not flexible and customization software only available for
specific users only.
4) Usability
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➢ Usability is the major area of criticism for open source software because it is not
reviewed by experts and caters to developers,
➢ For closed source usability is the high selling point due to expert testing for more targeted
audience. User manuals are proper and support service also available.
5) Security
➢ Security of open source is often a concern for large companies because software is not
always developed in a controlled environment hence; open source software is less secure.
➢ Close software is generally more secure because it developed in a controlled environment
and security is the first priority in closed source software.

Explain the following with respect to prototyping embedded devices:

Processor Speed, RAM, Networking, USB, Power Consumption and
Physical
Size and Form Factor.
1) Processor Speed
➢ The processor speed or clock speed of your processor tells you how fast it can process the
individual instructions in the machine code.
➢ You might also make a comparison based on million of instruction per second (MIPS).
➢ Hardware floating-point process make more time to process.
2) RAM
➢ RAM provides the networking memory for the system.
➢ If you have more RAM, you may able to do more things or more flexible.
➢ Amount of RAM vary from project to project.
3) Networking
➢ Wired Ethernet is often the simplest for the user.
➢ It is generally plug and play and it is the cheapest.
➢ WIFI is the most widely deployed to provide connection.
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4) USB
➢ For more powerful computer, tethering to it via USB can be easy way to provide power
and networking.
➢ So it is better that microcontrollers include support for USB, so no extra chip is not
required.
5) Power Consumption
➢ Faster processors are often more power hungry than slower ones.
➢ Power consumption may be an issue for portable devices.
➢ More powerful processor may not be a disadvantage in a low-power embedded device.
6) Physical Size and Form Factor
➢ The limiting factor in the size of a chip is the amount of space required for the entire
transistor and other component that make circuitry on the silicon.
➢ Number of IC’s legs on a board is the form factor.

How is development done for Arduino? Explain.

The Arduino is optimised for simplicity, and this is evident from the way it is packaged for
use.
Using a single USB cable, you can not only power the board but also push your code onto it,
and
(if needed) communicate with it
for example, for debugging or to use the computer to store data retrieved by the sensors
connected to the Arduino.
1) Integrated Development Environment
• You usually develop against the Arduino using the integrated development environment
(IDE) that the team supply at http://arduino.cc.
• Although this is a fully functional IDE, based on the one used for the Processing
language (http://processing.org/), it is very simple to use.
• Most Arduino projects consist of a single file of code, so you can think of the IDE mostly
as a simple file editor.
• The controls that you use the most are those to check the code (by compiling it) or to
push code to the board.
2) Pushing Code
• Connecting to the board should be relatively straightforward via a USB cable.
• When your setup is correct, the process of pushing code is generally simple: first, the
code is checked and compiled, with any compilation errors reported to you.
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• If the code compiles successfully, it gets transferred to the Arduino and stored in its flash
memory. At this point, the Arduino reboots and starts running the new code.
3) Operating System
• The Arduino doesn’t, by default, run an OS as such, only the bootloader, which
simplifies
the code-pushing process described previously.
• When you switch on the board, it simply runs the code that you have compiled until the
board is switched off again (or the code crashes).
• It is, however, possible to upload an OS to the Arduino, usually a lightweight real-time
operating system (RTOS) such as FreeRTOS/DuinOS.
• The main advantage of one of these operating systems is their built-in support for
multitasking. However, for many purposes, you can achieve reasonable results with a
simpler task-dispatching library.
4) Language
• The language usually used for Arduino is a slightly modified dialect of C++ derived from
the Wiring platform.
• It includes some libraries used to read and write data from the I/O pins provided on the
Arduino and to do some basic handling for “interrupts” (a way of doing multitasking,
at a
very low level).
• This variant of C++ tries to be forgiving about the ordering of code; for example, it
allows you to call functions before they are defined.
5) Debugging
• Because C++ is a compiled language, a fair number of errors, such as bad syntax or
failure to declare variables, are caught at compilation time.
• Because this happens on your computer, you have ample opportunity to get detailed and
possibly helpful information from the compiler about what the problem is.

i) The Good Night lamp. ii) Botanicals iii) Baker treat (5)
i) The Good Night Lamp
• The idea of Good Night Lamp was initially brought up by
Alexandro Deschamps Soncino. He came up with an idea
of internet connected table or bedside lamp.
• A simple consumer device, this lamp would be paired with
another lamp anywhere in the world, allowing it to switch
the other lamp on or off, and vice versa.
• Because light is integrated into our daily routine, seeing
when our loved ones turn, for example, their bedside lamp
on or off gives us a calm and ambient view onto their lives.
• The product consists of a “big lamp” which is paired with
one or more “little lamps”. The big lamp has its own
switch and is designed to be used like a normal lamp. The
little lamps, however, don’t have switched but instead
reflect the state of the big lamp.
• Adrian and the rest of the team’s familiarity with Arduino
led to it being an obvious choice as the prototyping
platform. In addition, as the lamps are designed to be a
consumer product rather than a technical product, and are
targeted at a mass market, design, cost, and ease of use are
also important.
• The Arduino platform is simple enough that it is possible
to reduce costs and size substantially by choosing which
components you need in the production version.
• A key challenge in creating a mass-market connected
device is finding a convenient way for consumers, some of
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whom are non-technical, to connect the device to the
Internet. Even if the user has Wi-Fi installed, entering
authentication details for your home network on a device
that has no keyboard or screen presents challenges.
• As well as looking into options for the best solution for
this issue, the Good Night Lamp teams are also building a
version which connects over the mobile phone networks
via GSM or 3G. This option fits in with the team’s vision
of connecting people via a “physical social network”,
even if they are not otherwise connected to the Internet.
ii) Botanicals
• Botanicals are collaboration between technologists and
designers that consists of monitoring kits to place in plant
pots.
• The Botanicals kits then contact the owner if the plant’s
soil gets too dry. The project write-up humorously refers
to this as “an effort to promote successful inter-species
understanding” and as a way of translating between a
plant’s communication protocols to human protocols,
such as telephone, email, or twitter.
• The original project used stack Arduino controllers,
although the kits available for sale today use the AT mega
168 microcontroller with a custom board, which remains
Arduino-compatible, and the programming is all done
using the Arduino IDE. To match the form factor of the
leaf-shaped printed circuit board, the device uses a Wiz
Net Ethernet chip instead of the larger Arduino Ethernet
Shield.
iii) Baker treat
• The Baker Tweet is effectively a physical client for
Twitter designed for use in bakery.
• A baker may want to let customers know that a certain
product has just come out of the ovens-fresh bread, hot
muffins, cupcakes laden with icing-yet the environment
he would want to tweet from contains hot ovens, flour
dust, and sticky dough and batter, all of which would
pay havoc with the electronics, keyboards, and screen of
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a computer, tablet, or phone.
• Staff of design agency Poke in London wanted to know
when their local bakery had just produced a fresh batch
of their favorite bread and cake, so they designed a proof
of concept to make it possible.
• Because Baker Tweet communicates using Wi-Fi,
bakeries, typically not built to accommodate Ethernet
cables, can install it. Baker Tweet exposes the
functionality of Twitter in a “bakery-proof” box with
more robust electronics than a general-purpose computer,
and a simplified interface that can be used by fingers
covered in flour and dough.
• It was designed with an Arduino, an Ethernet Shield, and
a Wi-Fi adapter. As well as the Arduino simply
controlling a third-party service, it is also hooked up to a
custom service which allows the baker to configure the
messages to be sent.
Unit 3
Explain the different methods used for 3D printing.
The 3D printer also known as additive method.
❖ The term additive manufacturing is used because all the various processes which can be
used to produce the output start with nothing and add material to build up the resulting
model.
❖ This is in contrast to subtractive manufacturing techniques such as laser cutting and CNC
milling, where you start with more material and cut away the parts you don’t need.
❖ Various processes are used for building up the physical model, which affect what
materials that printer can use, among other things.
❖ However, all of them take a three-dimensional computer model as the input.
❖ The software slices the computer model into many layers, each a fraction of a millimetre
thick, and the physical version is built up layer by layer.
❖ One of the great draws of 3D printing is how it can produce items which wouldn’t
be
possible with traditional techniques.
❖ For example, because you can print interlocking rings without any joins, you are able to
use the metal 3D printers to print entire sheets of chain-mail which come out of the
printer already connected together.
Types of 3D printing.
1) Fused filament fabrication (FFF):
➢ Also known as fused deposition modeling (FDM), this is the type of 3D printer
you’re
most likely to see at a maker event.
➢ It works by extruding a fine filament of material (usually plastic) from a heated nozzle.
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➢ The resulting models are quite robust, as they’re made from standard plastic.
However,
the surface can have a visible ridging from the thickness of the filament.
2) Laser sintering:
➢ This process is sometimes called selective laser sintering (SLS), electron beam melting
(EBM), or direct metal laser sintering (DMLS).
➢ It is used in more industrial machines but can print any material which comes in
powdered form and which can be melted by a laser.
3) Powder bed:
➢ Like laser sintering, the powder-bed printers start with a raw material in a powder form,
but rather than fusing it together with a laser, the binder is more like a glue which is
dispensed by a print head similar to one in an inkjet printer.
4) Laminated object manufacturing (LOM):
➢ This is another method which can produce full-colour prints.
➢ LOM uses traditional paper printing as part of the process
5) Stereolithography and digital light processing:
➢ Stereolithography is possibly the oldest 3D printing technique and has a lot in common
with digital light processing, which is enjoying a huge surge in popularity and
experimentation at the time of this writing.
➢ Both approaches build their models from a vat of liquid polymer resin which is cured by
exposure to ultraviolet light.

Write note on LASER cutting.

Three-dimensional printers can produce more complicated parts, but the simpler design
(for many shapes, breaking it into a sequence of two-dimensional planes is easier than
designing in three dimensions), greater range of materials which can be cut, and faster
speed make the laser cutter a versatile piece of kit.
❖ Laser cutters range from desktop models to industrial units which can take a full 8' by 4'
sheet in one pass.
❖ Most of the laser cutter is given over to the bed; this is a flat area that holds the material
to be cut.
❖ The bed contains a two-axis mechanism with mirrors and a lens to direct the laser beam
to the correct location and focus it onto the material being cut.
❖ The computer controls the two-axis positioning mechanism and the power of the laser
beam. This means that not only can the machine easily cut all manner of intricate
patterns, but it can also lower the power of the laser so that it doesn’t cut all the way
through.
❖ At a sufficiently low power, this feature enables you to etch additional detail into the
surface of the piece.
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❖ You can also etch things at different power levels to achieve different depths of etching,
but whilst the levels will be visibly different, it isn’t precise enough to choose a set
fraction of a millimetre depth.
When choosing a laser cutter, you should consider two main features:
➢ The size of the bed: This is the place where the sheet of material sits while it’s
being cut,
so a larger bed can cut larger items. You don’t need to think just about the biggest
item
you might create; a larger bed allows you to buy material in bigger sheets (which is more
ost effective), and if you move to small-scale production, it would let you cut multiple
units in one pass.
➢ The power of the laser: More powerful lasers can cut through thicker material. For
example, the laser cutter at our workplace has a 40W laser, which can cut up to 10mmthick
acrylic. Moving a few models up in the same range, to one with a 60W laser, would
allow us to cut 25mm thick acrylic.

Explain the term Scraping.

Screen scraping is the process of collecting screen display data from one application and
translating it so that another application can display it.
➢ This is normally done to capture data from a legacy application in order to display it
using a more modern user interface.
➢ Screen scraping usually refers to a legitimate technique used to translate screen data from
one application to another.
The screen scraping application must usually do both of the following:
• Capture screen input and pass it on to the legacy application for processing
• Return data from the application to the user and display it properly on the user's screen
Following are few examples of Screen Scrapping :
➢ Adrian has scraped the Ship AIS system to get data about ships on the river, and this
information is then tweeted.
➢ The Public Whip website is made possible by using a scraper to read the Hansard
transcripts of UK government sessions .With this, it can produce both human- and
machine-readable feeds.
➢ ScraperWiki has an excellent platform for writing scrapers, in a number of dynamic
programming languages, which collate data into database tables. Effectively, it provides
infrastructure for “Mechanize” scripts that you could run on your own computer or
server
but allows you to outsource the boring, repetitive parts to ScraperWiki.

Most of the companies have sample of relevant data but they

don’t have knowledge to make it available as API's.
• From Facebook example you understand that the computer is
only supposed to run the browser and navigate it through UI
elements which can be delicate but making computer do more
work is not impossible.
• This is known as "screen - scrapping"
• Screen-scrapping is not useful for website as it may break the
terms and conditions that a website can follow.
• For example the Google won't allow to screen scrap its search
bar but will provide a API for the same. Even if you don't
follow the legal rules the basic terms and conditions that are put
by the company like Google should be followed else the
company will exclude you from all other services that is
provides that me lead to in convenience.
• Rest of the data is protected with various security techniques
like copyright, authenticating users to database rights and many
more.
• There are always alternatives for all the information that is
available. For example you can use Microsoft Outlook rather
than using Gmail or you can use OpenStreetMap rather than
using Google Maps.
Explain POLLING and COMET.
1) POLLING
Polling is not a hardware mechanism; it’s a protocol in which CPU steadily checks
whether the
device needs attention.
If you want the device or another client to respond immediately, how do you do that?
You don’t
know when the event you want to respond to will happen, so you can’t make the
request to
coincide with the data becoming available.
Consider these two cases:
• The WhereDial should start to turn to “Work” the moment that the user has checked
into
his office.
• The moment that the task timer starts, the client on the user’s computer should
respond,
offering the opportunity to type a description of the task.
Polling is not a hardware mechanism; it’s a protocol in which CPU steadily checks
whether the
device needs attention.
If you want the device or another client to respond immediately, how do you do that?
You don’t
know when the event you want to respond to will happen, so you can’t make the
request to
coincide with the data becoming available. Consider these two cases:
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• The WhereDial should start to turn to “Work” the moment that the user has checked
into
his office.
• The moment that the task timer starts, the client on the user’s computer should
respond,
offering the opportunity to type a description of the task.
The traditional way of handling this situation using HTTP API requests was to make requests
at
regular intervals. This is called polling.
You might make a call every minute to check whether new data is available for you.
However, this means that you can’t start to respond until the poll returns. So this
might mean a
delay of (in this example) one minute plus the time to establish the HTTP connection.
You could make this quicker, polling every 10 seconds, for example. But this would put load
on
the following:
• The server: If the device takes off, and there are thousands of devices, each of them
polling regularly, you will have to scale up to that load.
• The client: This is especially important if, as per the earlier Arduino example, the
microcontroller blocks during each connect.

2) COMET
Comet is an umbrella name for a set of technologies developed to get around the
inefficiencies of
polling. As with many technologies, many of them were developed before the “brand”
of Comet
was invented; however, having a name to express the ideas is useful to help discuss and
exchange ideas and push the technology forward.
• Long Polling (Unidirectional) The first important development was “long polling”,
which
starts off with the client making a polling request as usual.
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• However, unlike a normal poll request, in which the server immediately responds with an
answer, even if that answer is “nothing to report”, the long poll waits until there is
something to say.
• This means that the server must regularly send a keep-alive to the client to prevent the
Internet of Things device or web page from concluding that the server has simply timed
out.
• Long polling would be ideal for the case of WhereDial: the dial requests to know when
the next change of a user’s location will be.
• As soon as WhereDial receives the request, it moves the dial and issues a new long poll
request. Of course, if the connection drops (for example, if the server stops sending keepalive
messages), the client can also make a new request.
• However, it isn’t ideal for the task timer, with which you may want to send messages
from the timer quickly, as well as receive them from the server.
• Although you can send a message, you have to establish a connection to do so. Hence,
you can think of long polling as unidirectional.

Write a short note on Message Queuing Telemetry Transport Protocol.

❖ MQTT is one of the most commonly used protocols in IoT projects.
❖ It stands for Message Queuing Telemetry Transport.
❖ In addition, it is designed as a lightweight messaging protocol that uses publish/subscribe
operations to exchange data between clients and the server.
❖ Furthermore, its small size, low power usage, minimized data packets and ease of
implementation make the protocol ideal of the “machine-to-machine” or “Internet of
Things” world.
MQTT server is called a broker and the clients are simply the connected devices.
• When a device (a client) wants to send data to the broker, we call this operation a
“publish”.
• When a device (a client) wants to receive data from the broker, we call this operation a
“subscribe”.
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MQTT has unique features you can hardly find in other protocols, like:
• It’s a lightweight protocol: So, it’s easy to implement in software and fast in data
transmission.
• It’s based on a messaging technique: Of course, you know how fast your
messenger/WhatsApp message delivery is. Likewise, the MQTT protocol.
• Minimized data packets: Hence, low network usage.
• Low power usage: As a result, it saves the connected device’s battery.
• It’s real time: That’s is specifically what makes it perfect for IoT applications.

MQTT has unique features you can hardly find in other protocols, like:
• It’s a lightweight protocol: So, it’s easy to implement in software and fast in data
transmission.
• It’s based on a messaging technique: Of course, you know how fast your
messenger/WhatsApp message delivery is. Likewise, the MQTT protocol.
• Minimized data packets: Hence, low network usage.
• Low power usage: As a result, it saves the connected device’s battery.
• It’s real time: That’s is specifically what makes it perfect for IoT applications.

What is milling? Explain.

Milling is the process of machining using rotary cutters to
remove material by advancing a cutter into a work piece.
• This may be done varying direction on one or several axes,
cutter head speed, and pressure.
• Milling covers a wide variety of different operations and
machines, on scales from small individual parts to large,
heavy-duty gang milling operations.
• It is one of the most commonly used processes for machining
custom parts to precise tolerances.
• Milling can be done with a wide range of machine tools.
• The original class of machine tools for milling was the milling
machine (often called a mill).
• After the advent of computer numerical control (CNC) in the
1960s, milling machines evolved into machining centers:
milling machines augmented by automatic tool changers, tool
magazines or carousels, CNC capability, coolant systems, and
enclosures.
• Milling centers are generally classified as vertical machining
centers (VMCs) or horizontal machining centers (HMCs).
• The integration of milling into turning environments, and vice
versa, began with live tooling for lathes and the occasional
use of mills for turning operations.
• This led to a new class of machine tools, multitasking
machines (MTMs), which are purpose built to facilitate
milling and turning within the same work envelope.
Milling Process:
• Milling is a cutting process that uses a milling cutter to
remove material from the surface of a work piece.
• The milling cutter is a rotary cutting tool often with multiple
cutting points.
• As opposed to drilling, where the tool is advanced along its
rotation axis, the cutter in milling is usually moved
perpendicular to its axis so that cutting occurs on the
circumference of the cutter.
• As the milling cutter enters the work piece, the cutting edges
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(flutes or teeth) of the tool repeatedly cut into and exit from
the material, shaving off from the work piece with each pass.
The cutting action is shear deformation; material is pushed
off the work piece in tiny clumps that hang together to a
greater or lesser extent (depending on the material) to form
chips.
• This makes metal cutting somewhat different from slicing
softer materials with a blade.

Unit 4
Explain different types of memory.
When you don’t have a lot of memory to play with, you need to be careful as to how
you
use it.
➢ This is especially the case when you have no way to indicate that message to the user.
➢ The computer user presented with one too many “low memory” warning dialog
boxes.
➢ On the other hand, an embedded platform with no screen or other indicators will usually
continue blindly until it runs out of memory completely.
➢ Even while you are developing software for a constrained device, trying to debug these
issues can be difficult.
➢ Something that worked perfectly a minute ago now stops.

Types of memory
ROM (Read-only Memory):
• ROM is non-volatile memory so always retains its data.
• Read-only memory is used to store the hard-coded information
of chips and can only be read afterwards.
• It is used to store only the executable program code and any data
which is fixed and never changes.
• ROM's are the least flexible memory.
• Creating memory with ROM is the cheapest way.
• It is less flexible from flash memory.
• ROM needs power to store information and no data lose happen
whenever the power failure occurs.
Flash:
• Flash is a semi-permanent type of memory which provides all
the advantages of ROM.
• Flash doesn't need power to store information, so its contents
can survive after the circuit being unplugged.
• The content of flash can be rewritten a maximum number of
times.
• The reading speed of information is not much different as of
speed of RAM or ROM.
• In flash writing process takes few processor cycles, which
means it's best to store the program executable data or
important data that has been gathered.
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RAM (Random-access Memory):
• RAM is also called as read write memory or the main memory
or the primary memory.
• RAM is volatile memory as the data loses when power is
turned off.
• Random-access memory mostly used for its speed to access the
data.
• RAM requires power to retain its contents.
• RAM is used as working memory for the systems, the place
where the things are stored while being processed.

Write a short note on Libraries for embedded systems.

When developing software for server or desktop machine, you are accustomed to having a
huge
array of possible libraries and framework to make your life easier.
To make software development easier we can make use of built in libraries given to us by the
programming languages.
Here are few libraries that are available:
1. lwIP: LightWeight IP, is a full TCP/IP stack which runs in low-resource conditions. It
requires only tens of kilobytes of RAM and around 40KB of ROM/flash.
2. uIP: It can run on systems with only a couple of kilobytes of RAM.
3. uClibc: It is similar version of the standard GNU C library (glibc) targeted at embedded
Linux
systems.
4. Atomthreads: It is a lightweight real-time scheduler for embedded systems, used for
multitasking.
5. BusyBox: It is not really a library, it is only collection of a host of UNIX utilities into a
single,
small executable and a common and useful package to provide a simple shell environment
and
commands on your system.

Define business model .Explain different factors in the

definition.
Business model define as a “hypothesis about what customers want, how they want it,
and how
an enterprise can organize to best meet those needs, get paid for doing so, and
make a profit”.
This definition brings together a number of factors:
• A group of people (customers)
• The needs of those customers
• A thing that your business can do to meet those needs
• Organisational practices that help to achieve this goal—and to be able to carry on doing
so, sustainably
• A success criterion, such as making a profit
The model is also useful if you want to get other people involved. This could be an employee
or
a business partner or an investor. In each of these cases, the other parties will want to know
that
the business has potential, has been thought out, and is likely to survive and perhaps even go
places. With a new business startup, you have no track record of success to point to.
1. Make things, sell things: It is the simplest business model of Internet of Things. However,
there are many small projects that choose option of selling their product in kit form which
requires some additional assembly work. As these kind of kit products are aimed for specific
customers and not of general people, the administrative burden reduces. Thus, limiting to the
sell
of specific product also limits the revenue generation.
2. Subscription: Now-a-days maximum number of things are available on subscription form.
It
helps in maintaining the rapidly growing demand of the customers efficiently. As the price in
this
model is fixed, the customers are known what services they are availing and how does that fit
into their budget. Subscription helps in recurring sales, thus, it is easy to determine the
revenue
generation which in turn helps to maintain the resources and inventories and manage the
growth
of the business. For example, Netflix, HotStar, etc.
3. Customisation: Mass Production helped in development of business and generation
revenue.
But there are many premium customers who demand for customization of the product they
buy.
Thus, option for customization may also lead to the rise of new business models. When it
comes
to achieve both mass production and customisation, it becomes difficult as it is time
consuming
and more number of resources are utilised in completing the customer demand. Thus, it can
be
limited by allowing customization in a fixed boundary. For eg. Let us consider a company
called
makieMe that produces customised dolls. This company has its own website wherein, the
customer and customize their doll by changing the wigs, scarves, dresses and make your doll
unique. All these changes are done in a fixed boundary.

Discuss the business model canvas for Internet of Things.

The Business Model looks like a nine-point checklist. Each point of the checklist is described
below:
1. Revenue Streams: This point describes how the company generates its revenue.
2. Value Propositions: It describes about what value the company brings to the customers.
3. Customer Segment: It describes about the targeted customers to whom the product needs
to
be delivered.
4. Customer Relationship: It discusses about how the company retains its relationship with
its
customers. Though it is beneficial from the business point of view but is costly to maintain
such
communities which connect the company to its customers.
5. Channels: It tells about by what means does the company reaches out to its customer.
6. Key Activities: It describes about the activities that needs to be carried out in order to
make
the company successful.
7. Key Resources: It describes about how the company gets its resources for fulfilling the
customer demands.
8. Key Partners: Every new company invest money to do the key activities themselves but at
same time for its product to be launched successfully in the market, it requires key partners
who
can do some of these key activities in a much better manner as they are experienced in that
particular activity and that they have their own business model for it.
9. Cost Structure: In Cost structure, one has to discuss about what cost does the company
incur?
i.e. Whether the product is cost driven (selling large number of products at cheaper rate) or
value
driven (selling limited number of products but at a higher rate).

What is venture capital? How can one exit?

Every Start-up requires funding at some or other point of time.
Getting funding for a project from an external investor presents its own work and risks.
This funding process goes in 3 rounds, i.e. Friends, Family, and Fools (FFF) rounds, Angels
round, and Venture Capital round.
Friends, Family, and Fools (FFF) Rounds:
➢ It is the most straight forward round, you try to get funds from family members or best
friends and even local business pitch into it.
➢ This round totally depends on how strong your relationship is with the person you have
approach for funding.
Angels Round:
➢ This is the next round for raising funds.
➢ The angels here are the entrepreneurs who are willing to invest in the start-ups.
➢ These entrepreneurs invest in such start-ups because of their similar background and
experience in this filed.
Ventures Capital Round
➢ Venture capital provides large amount of funds only if angels have already invested in
your company and have gained profit out of it.
➢ Unlike angels, venture capital round would also demand to be board members and even a
significant amount of equity.
Government Funding
➢ Governments typically want to promote industry and technological development in their
country, and they may provide funds to help achieve particular aims.
➢ Although governments can and do set up their own venture capital funds or collaborate
with existing funds in various ways, they generally manage the majority of their funds
differently.
➢ For one thing, they also want to fund existing companies to do new research and
innovation.
◾ Outputs:
➢ This metric may simply be a test that you are managing the money well or may be related
to the goals that the body itself wishes to promote.
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➢ You might be required to write regular reports or pass certain defined milestones on
schedule.
➢ If your funding is given in stages, the later payments may be conditional on successful
delivery of previous outputs.
Crowd Funding:
➢ As the name suggests, it is getting funds from many people at a time.
➢ We can think of crowd funding as the long tail of funding projects.
➢ Getting many people to contribute to a project isn’t exactly a new phenomenon.
➢ Over millennia many civic and religious monuments and constructions have been funded
at least partly by the public.
➢ However, such projects have been mostly sponsored and given focus by some influential
person or body.
➢ The main options for crowd funding are Kick-starter (www.kickstarter.com) and
Indiegogo (www.indiegogo.com).

Venture capital is finance that investors provide to startup

companies and small businesses that are believed to have longterm
growth potential. However, it does not always take just a
monetary form, it can be provided in the form of technical or
managerial expertise.
• Venture capital means risk capital. The risk visualized may be
very high, may be so high as to result in loss or very loss so as
to result in high gains.
• The main objective of venture capital is not to gain interest but
capital gain.
• The venture capital investment is made when a venture
capitalist buys shares of such a company and becomes a
financial partner in the business.
• The Venture capital typically comes from institutional investors
and high net worth individuals and is pooled together by
dedicated investment firms.
• It is the money provided by an external investor to finance a
new, growing, or troubled business.
• Advantages of Venture capital investing:
➢ It provides large sum of equity finance
➢ Economic growth
➢ It is able to bring wealth and expertise to your company
➢ It also has wide network of contacts
➢ It provides additional funds
• Disadvantages of venture capital investing:
➢ You must generate the cash needed to make the agreed
payments of capital, interest and dividends. This can
create great financial pressure.
➢ You will have to agree to certain restrictions as part of the
deal, such as the amount you are paid and your
involvement with other businesses and you will usually
need your investors consent to major decisions.
How can one exit?
• An exit does not mean that you have to leave the company. In
fact, in many cases, the exit terms may require that you stay
for a maximum of one to three years after acquisition in order
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to ensure continuity and value for the buyer. An exit strategy is
a “method by which a venture capitalist or business owner
intends to get out of an investment that he or she made”.
Because your investors will want a return, your long-term goal
can’t just be to make your company successful but to do it in
such a way as to pay back the investment.
Typically, there are only two exits:
● You get bought by a bigger a company:
➢ In this case, the buyer buys out the investors that is, the
buyer pays the investors value of their percentage equity
of their perceived valuation of the worth of the company.
➢ Founding members of the company often transfer to the
purchasing company, as they constitute one of the
company’s principal resources.
● You do an IPO(Initial Public Offering)-that is, float on the
stock market:
➢ This involves new shares being issued and sold to the
stock market. Although this option “dilutes” the value of
the shares already issued, the existing holders are able to
the sell their shares on the market too, to get back their
investment, or to retain the shares if they believe that the
shares will grow in value.

Unit 5

Discuss the different environmental issues in Internet of Things.

Creating the object has a carbon cost, which may come from the
raw materials used, the processes used to shape them into the
shell, the packing materials, and the energy required to ship them
from the manufacturing plant to the customer.
● It’s easier than ever to add up the cost of these emissions: for
example, using the ameeConnect API we can find emissions data
and carbon costs for the life-cycle, use of different plastics, we
might use for 3D printing or injection molding. Calculating the
energy costs for manufacture is harder.
● The electronics contained in a thing have their own
environmental cost. Buying PCBs locally or from a foreign
manufacturer affects the carbon cost of shipping the completed
units.
● Considering the potential cost savings, even a responsible
manufacturer may find it reasonable to offset the extra carbon
emissions. If our product needs to conform to RoHS legislation,
then every single component that could be extracted from it must
be RoHS compliant.
● In the digital world, moving data rather than physical objects is
faster, is safer, and has a lower environmental cost. Of course,
“data” doesn’t exist in the abstract. The stone tablets,
parchment
scrolls, and libraries of paper books or microfiche that have
historically been used to store analogue data always had their
own environmental cost.
● Now, running the Internet has a cost: the electricity to run the
routers and the DNS lookups, plus establishing the
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infrastructure—laying cabling across the sea, setting up
microwave or satellite links, and so on.
● As well as the cost of transferring the data across the Internet,
running our own web server uses power. Many server hosting
specialists now offer carbon-neutral hosting
● Solutions like Instrumenting production lines, home energy
usage, transport costs, building energy efficiency, and all other
sources of efficiency might seem extreme, but it may be a vital,
imperative task. Projects such as a carbon score for every
company in the UK will help change attitudes, perhaps simply by
gamifying the process of improving one’s emissions, but also by
having an objective measure that could, in future, be as important
to a company’s success as its credit score.
Let us focus on the classic environmental concerns about the production and running of the
Thing.
Physical Thing:
➢ Whenever any product is developed it will include cost of different components which
includes the raw materials, the processes used to shape, the packing materials, and the
shipping required to ship them from the manufacturing plant to the customer. The cost
also includes different plastics used for 3D printing.
➢ While developing any new product, make sure environmental ethics are followed like
waste disposal/recycling.
Human Cost:
➢ It is also important to consider the human cost, the communications, transport, and
logistics required are certainly a part of the technology.
➢ The combination of technical expertise and relatively low labour costs, has reduced
overall manufacturing cost.
➢ The advances in operator-less manufacturing tools such as 3D printers and laser cutters
are, however, enabling small-scale industry to return to the First World
Electronics:
➢ The electronics contained in a Thing have their own environmental cost.
➢ Ranging from PCB to advance tools like CNC milling, laser cutter, 3D printer etc.
Shipping the raw material from mine to refinery to manufacturer has its own cost too.
Internet Service:
➢ This is one of the main component of IoT, running the Internet has a cost: the electricity
to run the routers and the DNS lookups, plus establishing the
Infrastructure:
➢ Laying cabling across the sea, setting up microwave or satellite links, and so on. As
well as the cost of transferring the data across the Internet, running your own web server
uses power.
Solutions: The main aim for IoT will be high speed internet with lot of low powered
intelligent
sensors and that too focusing the implementation with least cost.

Explain the important guidelines to deal with issue of security in

Internet of Things.
Following are some of the more important guidelines:
• Make sure that your servers are kept up-to-date with the latest security patches, are
hardened with the appropriate firewalls, and detect and mitigate against password
hacking attempts and root kit attacks.
• User passwords should never be stored in plain text. If your database were ever
compromised, an attacker could easily log in as any user. As we touched upon in the
sidebar on “Hashes”, passwords should be encrypted with a secure algorithm which
is
not known to be trivially cracked, and “salted” for additional security.
• Never simply trust user input. Check that anything that is entered into a web application
fits the type of data you expect, and refuse or clean anything which doesn’t. Although
you may think input from your connected devices would be okay (because you wrote the
code), it is possible that it has been compromised or an attacker may be “spoofing”
it. In
particular, be wary of passing user input to your database without checking it (otherwise,
you risk an SQL injection attack were it to include SQL commands), or including
unfiltered user input in your HTML pages, as this could allow a cross-site scripting
(XSS) attack. Strip out all HTML tags (or allow only a limited selection of acceptable
ones for formatting) or escape the output.
• Be aware of cross-site request forgery (CSRF) attacks from other malicious or
compromised websites. For example, if one of your users browses a bad site which uses
JavaScript to open http://some. example.com/heating?switch=off on your site, and the
user is already logged in, he may come home to a cold house.
The Internet, as a massive open publishing platform, has been a disruptive force as regards
the
concept of privacy.
Everything you write might be visible to anyone online: from minutiae about what you ate for
breakfast to blog posts about your work, from articles about your hobbies to Facebook posts
about your parties with friends.
There is a value in making such data public: the story told on the Internet becomes your
persona
and defines you in respect of your friends, family, peers, and potential employers.
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A common argument is “if you’ve got nothing to hide, then you’ve got nothing to
fear.” There is
some element of truth in this, but it omits certain important details, some of which may not
apply
to you, but apply to someone:
• You may not want your data being visible to an abusive ex-spouse.
• You might be at risk of assassination by criminal, terrorist, or state organizations.
• You might belong to a group which is targeted by your state (religion, sexuality, political
party, journalists).
More prosaically, you change and your persona changes. Yet your past misdemeanours
(drunken
photos, political statements) may be used against you in the future.
Even innocuous photos can leak data. With GPS coordinates (produced by many cameras and
most smartphones) embedded into the picture’s EXIF metadata, an analysis of your
Flickr/Twitpic/Instagram feed can easily let an attacker infer where your house, your work, or
even your children’s school is.
Even if you stripped out the data, photo-processing technology enables searching of similar
photos, which may include these coordinates or other clues.
Similar issues exist with sports-tracking data, whether produced by an actual Thing, such as
Nike+ or a GPS watch, or a pseudo-Thing, like the RunKeeper app on your smartphone.
This data is incredibly useful to keep track of your progress, and sharing your running maps,
speed, heartbeat, and the like with friends may be motivating.
But again, it may be trivial for an attacker to infer where your house is (probably near where
you
start and finish your run) and get information about the times of day that you are likely to be
out
of the house.

Discuss the main goal of Open Internet of Things definition.

The Open IoT Assembly 2012 culminated in the drafting of the “Open Internet of
Things
Definition”.
An emergent document, created after two days of open discussion, it seeks to define and
codify
the points of interest around the technology of the Internet of Things and to underscore its
potential to “deliver value, meaning, insight, and fun”.
A particularly interesting consensus in the definition was that, even though the Data Licensor
(usually the person who has set up the sensor or paid for that data) should quite reasonably
own
the data from that sensor, some rights should also apply to individuals whose data is recorded
(the Data Subjects).
They must be granted licence to any data that regards them and should be allowed to license
the
anonymised aggregate data for their own purposes.
We can summarize the main goals of the definition as follows:
Accessibility of data:
➢ As a stated goal, all open data feeds should have an API which is free to use, both
monetarily and unrestricted by proprietary technologies with no alternative open source
implementation.
Preservation of privacy:
➢ The Data Subjects should know what data will be collected about them and be able to
decide to consent or not to that data collection.
➢ This is a very strong provision (and most likely unworkable for data which is inherently
anonymous in the first instance) but one which would provide real individual protection
if it were widely followed.
➢ As with any information gathering, “reasonable efforts” should be made to retain
privacy
and confidentiality.
Transparency of process:
➢ Data Subjects should be made aware of their rights.
➢ For example, the fact that the data has a licence—and that they are able to grant or
withdraw consent. In addition, where the data is collected from a public space, the public
should get a right to participate in decision making and governance of that data.
➢ We could imagine that planning-permission notices might be posted, as they are in the
UK for building developments.
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The importance placed by these principles on data is unsurprising: the Internet of Things
brings
the gathering and collation of data into the everyday world and has real consequences on
individual privacy and power.

Discuss the advantage and disadvantages of technology.

Advantages of Technology:
➢ Improves communication: Many businesses are using various
business communication technologies to change the way their
employees interact and communicate while at work.
➢ Encourages Innovation and Creativity: Workers can use
different business technologies to create innovative business
ideas which can be used in business growth and expansion.
➢ Improves on Human Resource Management: It improves on
the process of screening, recruiting and hiring new employees.
Many human resource managers are using internet to advertise
job openings
➢ Saves Time: Technology can be used to automate various tasks
at work, this automation will guarantee efficiency and will also
increase on production at work.
Disadvantages of Technology:
➢ Causes Distraction at Work: Their so many ways technology
can distract employees at work. The use of social networks at
work can cause so much distraction and it affects the
productivity of employees.
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➢ High Maintenance costs: It is expensive to buy technology, but
it is also costly to maintain it.
➢ Makes employees lazy: Since most tasks are automated by
technology, many employees become lazy at work, technology
kills their creativity and skills. Affects Workplace
Relationships: Employees communicate via cell phones, text
messages, email or virtual video conferencing tools. This type
of communication technology eliminates face-to-face
communication.

What is the importance of Certification for IoT devices? Explain. Importance

of Certificate for IoT devices are:-
❖ These regulations are there for good reason.
❖ They make the products you use day in, day out, safer for you to use; make sure that they
work properly with complementary products from other suppliers; and ensure that one
product doesn’t emit lots of unwanted electromagnetic radiation and interfere with the
correct operation of other devices nearby.
❖ The regulations that your device needs to pass vary depending on its exact functionality,
target market (consumer, industrial, and so on), and the countries in which you expect to
sell it.
❖ The best approach is to work with a local testing facility.
❖ They not only are able to perform the tests for you but also are able to advise on which
sets of regulations your device falls under and how they vary from country to country.
❖ Such a testing facility subjects your device to lots of tests.
❖ Testers check over the materials specifications to ensure you’re not using paint
containing lead; zap it with an 8KV static shock of electricity to see how it copes; subject
it to probing with a hot wire—heated to 500 degrees Celsius—to check that it doesn’t go
up in flames; and much more.
❖ Of particular interest is the electromagnetic compatibility, or EMC, testing.
❖ This tests both how susceptible your device is to interference from other electronic
devices, power surges on the main’s electricity supply, and so on, and how much
electromagnetic interference your product itself emits.
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❖ Electromagnetic interference is the “electrical noise” generated by the changing
electrical currents in circuitry.
❖ When generated intentionally, it can be very useful: radio and television broadcasts use
the phenomenon to transmit a signal across great distances, as do mobile phone networks
and any other radio communication systems such as WiFi and ZigBee.
❖ The problem arises when a circuit emits a sufficiently strong signal unintentionally which
disrupts the desired radio frequencies.
❖ In addition to the test report, you need to gather together PCB layouts, assembly
certificates, the certificates for any precertified modules that you have used, and
datasheets for critical components.
❖ This information is all held in a safe place by the manufacturer (that is, you) in case the
authorities need to inspect it.
❖ The location of the technical file is mentioned on the declaration of conformity, which is
where you publicly declare to which directives in the regulations your device conforms.
❖ In Europe, you must also register for the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment
Directive (WEEE Directive).
❖ It doesn’t cover any of the technical aspects of products but is aimed instead at
reducing
the amount of electronic waste that goes to landfill.
❖ Each country in the EU has set up a scheme for producers and retailers of electronic and
electrical products to encourage more recycling of said items and to contribute towards
the cost of doing so.