UNIT 5

TRANSDUCERS AND DATA

ACQUISITION SYSTEMS
 Instrumentation
 A measurement refers to the transduction of the process
parameter into some corresponding analog of the
parameter.
 An electronics instrumentation system consists of input
device, a signal processing amplifier and an output device
which together used to perform a measurement.

Signal conditioner
Control Process Measurement
element
Actuator

Controller
Final control
element
Set point

Process
 TRANSDUCERS
 Transducer: A device that performs the initial
measurement and energy conversion of a
process parameter into analogous (electrical)
information. Non electrical quantity is converted
into an electrical form by a transducer.
 Parts: sensing element and transduction element

Non-Electrical Sensing Sensor Transduction Electrical

signal element response element signal
0 V or 5 V or
4 mA 20 mA

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 Classification of Transducers
 Classification based upon transduction principle

 As primary and secondary transducers

 As passive and active transducer.

 As analog and digital transducer.

 As transducers and inverse transducers.

 Classification based upon principle
of transduction
 Resistive
 Inductive
 Capacitive

Eg piezoelectric, thermoelectric, magneto

restrictive, electro kinetic and optical
Capacitive Transducer

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Inductive Transducer

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Resistive Transducer

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 Active Transducer
 Also known as self generating type,
develop their own voltage or current
proportional to the quantity being
measured.
 Velocity , temperature , light intensity and
force can be transduced with the help of
active transducer
 Thermoelectric, Piezoelectric,
Electromagnetic, Photo voltaic
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 Passive Transducer
 Also known as
externally
powered
transducers, i.e.,
derive the power
required for energy
conversion from an
external power
source.
 They depend upon
the change in an
electrical parameter.
 Piezoelectric
The measurand is converted into a change in
electrostatic charge ‘q’ or voltage ‘V’ generated
by crystals when mechanically stressed.

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 Electro magnetic
•The measurand is
converted into an EMF
induced in a conductor by
change in the magnetic
flux in the absence of
excitation.

•The relative motion

between a magnet or a
piece of magnetic material
and an electromagnet
brings out the change in
the magnetic flux.

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 Thermoelectric (Thermocouple)
• A thermocouple consists of a pair of dissimilar metal wires joined together at one
end, forming a hot junction and terminated at the other end as cold junction.
•When heat is applied to hot junction, a temperature difference exists between hot
junction and cold junction, causing generation of emf.

• The magnitude of emf depends on the material used for the wires and
temperature difference between the two junctions.

• The 2 dissimilar metals form an electric circuit and a current flows as a result of
the generated emf.

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 Photovoltaic & Photoconductive
transducer
 The photoelectric transducer absorbs the radiation
of light which falls on their semiconductor material.
 The absorption of light energizes the electrons of
the material, and hence the electrons start moving.
The mobility of electrons produces one of the three
effects.
 The resistance of the material changes.
 The output current of the semiconductor
changes.
 The output voltage of the semiconductor
changes.

 The measurand is converted as emf when a junction

of dissimilar materials are illuminated.
 The measurand is converted into a change in
resistance (conductance of a semiconductor
material) for a change in the illumination of a
material .

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 Differences between active and
passive transducers
Active Passive

Generates EMF for any change in input Internal parameters (R,L,C) changes
for change in input signal

Self excited & Draws energy from Needs external source and draws
measuring source energy from it.

Simple design with low resolution Complicated design with high

resolution

Examples: electromagnetic, Examples : LVDT, Strain gauge,

piezoelectric, photovoltaic thermistor, etc

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 Analog and Digital Transducer.
 Analog Transducers : It converts the input
quantity into an analog output which is a
continuous function of time.
 LVDT, Thermocouple, strain gauge,
thermistor
 Digital Transducer: It converts input
quantity into an electrical output in the form of
pulses which forms a unique code.
 Unique code is generated for each discrete value
sensed.
 Encoders, digital resolvers and tachometers, hall
effect sensors, limit switches.
 Transducers and Inverse
Transducers
 Transducer: Non electrical to electrical
quantity.
 Microphone converts sound into electrical
signal

 Inverse transducer: Electrical quantity

into non electrical quantity.
 Loudspeaker converts electrical into sound
signal
 Primary and secondary transducer
 The transducer consists the
mechanical as well as the
electrical devices. The mechanical
devices of the transducer change
the physical input quantities into
a mechanical signal. This
mechanical device is known as
the primary transducers.

 The secondary transducer

converts the mechanical signal
into an electrical signal. The
magnitude of the output signal
depends on the input mechanical
signal.
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 Advantages of electrical
transducers
 Electrical signal obtained from electrical transducer can be easily
processed (mainly amplified) and brought to a level suitable for output
device which may be an indicator or recorder.

 The electrical systems can be controlled with a very small level of power.

 The electrical output can be easily used, transmitted, and processed for
the purpose of measurement.

 With the use of better materials, improved technology and circuitry, the
range of accuracy and stability have been increased for electrical
transducers.

 With the advent of IC technology, the electronic systems have become

extremely small in size, requiring small space for their operation.

 No moving mechanical parts are involved in the electrical systems.

Therefore there is no question of mechanical wear and tear and no 19
possibility of mechanical failure.
 Disadvantages of electrical
transducer
 The electrical transducer is sometimes less reliable than
mechanical type because of the ageing and drift of the active
components.

 The sensing elements and the associated signal processing

circuitry are comparatively expensive.

 Using negative feedback technique, the accuracy of measurement

and the stability of the system are improved, but all at the expense
of increased circuit complexity, more space, and obviously, more
cost.

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 Characteristics of Transducer
 Input Characteristics
 Transfer Characteristics
 Output Characteristics.
 Input Characteristics
 Type of Input :The type of input, which can be any
physical quantity, is generally determined in advance.
 A physical quantity may be measured by the use of a number of
transducer.
 However, the choice of a particular transducer that is selected
for the purpose, depends upon the useful range of input
quantity over which the transducer can be used.

 Operating Range : It is a decisive factor in the selection

of a transducer for a particular application
 The upper limit is decided by the transducer capabilities while
the lower limit of the range is normally determined by the
transducer error or by the unavoidable noise originating in the
transducer.
 In fact, the transducer should maintain a good resolution
throughout its operating range.
 Input Characteristics

 Loading effect
 The transducer, that is selected for a
particular application should ideally extract
no force, power or energy from the
quantity under measurement in order that
is measured accurately.
 Transfer Characteristics
1. Transfer function
2. Error
3. Response of transducer to environmental
influences
 Transfer function.
 The transfer function of a transducer defines a
relationship between the input quantity and the
output. The transfer function is
q0  f (qi )
Sensitivity: It is not constant but is dependent
upon the upon quantity qi.
dqo
S
dqi
Scale Factor: Inverse of sensitivity 1 dqo

S dqi
 Transfer Characteristics: Error
 The error in transducer occur because they
do not follow, the input output relationship.
 Example: Instead of qo, if the output as qo’,
then the error of the instrument is

  qo  q0
,
 Three components of error
 Scale error
 Zero error
 Sensitivity error
 Non conformity
 Hysteresis

 Dynamic error
 Error on account of noise and drift.
 Zero error

Practical
Curve

Output
Theoretical
Curve.

Input

 Output deviates from the correct value

by a constant factor over the entire
range of the transducer.
 Sensitivity Error
Practical

Curve

Output Theoretical
Curve

Input

 Observed output deviates from the correct

value by a constant value.
 Non conformity
Practical
Curve

Output 
Theorectical
Curve

Input

 Transfer function deviates from the

theoretical transfer function for almost
every input.
 Hysteresis

Decreasing input

Output
Increasing input

Input
 Transfer Characteristics:
Response of transducer to environmental
influences
 It should not be subjected to any disturbances
like stray electromagnetic and electrostatic
fields, mechanical shocks and vibrations,
temperature changes, pressure and humidity
changes, changes in supply voltage and
improper mechanical mountings.
 If transducers are subjected to these
environmental disturbances, precautions are
taken, to get an error-free result.
 Output Characteristics
Type of Electrical Output
 The type of output which may be a voltage, current ,
impedance or a time function of these amplitudes.
 These output quantities may or may not be acceptable to
the latter stages of the instrumentation system.
 They may have to be manipulated i.e. their magnitudes
changed or they may have to be changed in their format
by signal conditioning equipment so as to make them
drive the subsequent stages of the instrumentation
system.
 Output Characteristics
 Output Impedance
 Since zero output impedance is not possible , it should be kept
as low as possible, since it determines the amount of power
that can be transferred to the succeeding stages of the
instrumentation system.
 The output impedance determines the amount of power that
can be transferred to the succeeding stages of the
instrumentation system for a given output signal level.
 If the output impedance is low compared to the forward
impedance of the system, the transducer has the characteristics of
a constant voltage source (provided the output of the transducer is
a voltage), while in case the forward impedance is high as
compared with the output impedance of transducer, it behaves as
constant current source.
 When the output impedance of the transducer is equal to that of
the following stages of the instrumentation system, matching
takes place and the maximum power is transferred from the
transducer to the succeeding stages.
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 Output Characteristics
 Useful Range
 The output range of a transducer is limited at the
lower end by noise signal which may shroud the
desired input signal. The upper limit is set by the
maximum input level. The output range can be
increased, in some cases, by the inclusion of an
amplifier in the transducer.
 However, the inclusion of an amplifier also increases
the noise level and therefore in such situations, the
amplifier may not be of any use at all.

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