EEO 401

Digital Signal Processing

Prof. Mark Fowler

Note Set #2
• DT Signals and Systems – Review
• Reading Assignment: Sect 2.1 & 2.2 of Proakis & Manolakis

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 Discrete-Time (D-T) Signals
A discrete time signal is a sequence of numbers indexed by integers
Example: x[n] n = …, - 3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …

Brackets indicate discrete-time signal. A stem plot emphasizes that the

Use parentheses to indicate a C-T signal. signal does not exist
(Proakis & Manolakis don’t do this!) in-between integer n values

Remember: for our point of view, x[n]

D-T signals are needed to allow us
to process signals (i.e. information) n
using D-T systems rather than only
Continuous-Time systems
Sometimes we violate this
See the book’s description three and plot with line segments
alternative ways to represent a DT signal: connecting the dots.
• Functional Representation
• Tabular Representation
use ↑ to indicate which sample
• Sequence Representation
is at the time origin (n = 0) 2/25
Infinite Duration & Finite Duration D-T Signals
Most general case: the number of non-zero values in the signal is infinite.
“Infinite Duration” “Goes on forever”

“Doubly Infinite” {
x[n ] =  , 4, 2,0,1,3,7,12,5.3, 2.1,
↑
}
“Singly Infinite” {
x[n ] = 7,12,5.3, 2.1,
↑
} This means x[n ] = 0 ∀n < 0

{
x[n ] =  , 4, 2,0,1,3,7
↑
} This means x[n ] = 0 ∀n > 0

Special case: the number of non-zero values in the signal is finite.

“Finite Duration” “Starts and Stops”

{
x[n ] = 7,12,5.3, 2.1
↑
}  0 ∀n < 0
This means x[n ] = 
 0 ∀n > 3

This is “a finite-duration sequence of length 4”

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Some Elementary DT Signals
Most real-world signals are quite complicated looking… but there are some
simple signals that are good for learning but also do show up sometimes in the
real world!

“Unit Sample Sequence” Also called “Unit Impulse”

or “Delta Function”
1, n = 0
δ [ n] =  or “Delta Sequence”
0, n ≠ 0

Two Important Properties

∞

∑ δ [n ] = 1
n = −∞

∑ x[n]δ [n − n ] = x[n ]
n = −∞
0 0

Sifting Property
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“Unit Step Sequence”

0, n < 0
u[n ] = 
1, n ≥ 0

“Unit Ramp Sequence”

ur [n ] or r[n ]
0, n < 0
ur [ n ] = 
 n, n ≥ 0

ur [n ] = nu[n ]

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 “Real Exponential Signal”

x[n ] = a n ∀n , a ∈ 

Decays if |a| < 1 Explodes if |a| > 1

Monotonic
if a > 0

Oscillates
if a < 0

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 “Complex Exponential Signal”
Includes Complex Sinusoids (r = 1)

x[n ] = a n ∀n , a ∈ 
Im
r
=a re jθ , r > 0 θ
Re

( re )= r n ( cos(θ n ) + j sin(θ n ) )
jθ n
x[n=
] a= n
r n e jθ=
n

Radius r controls “decay rate”

• r < 1 (inside UC) decays Im{a}
• r > 1 (outside UC) “explodes”
Unit Circle
Angle θ controls “oscillation rate”
• θ = 0 (on positive Re) no oscillation Re{a}
• θ ≠ 0 (off positive Re) oscillation

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Classification of DT Signals
Many times what we can or can not do with a signal depends on some
characteristic of that signal. Thus, it is helpful to classify DT signals into
some typical subsets to help keep track of all this…

Some Categories of DT Signals

• Infinite Duration vs Finite Duration
• We’ve seen that one already!
• Energy Signals vs. Power Signals
• We’ll discuss that next
• Periodic Signals vs. Aperiodic Signals
• You should recall this from Signals & Systems (see our textbook)
• Symmetric (even) Signals vs. Antisymmtric (odd) Signals

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Energy Signals vs. Power Signals
Physically, defining power and energy for DT signals is not that well
defined… after all these are just a stream of numbers in a computer!
However, we can still do this from a mathematical sense that mimics the
definitions used for physical CT signals.
∞
E= ∑
2
Energy of DT Signal: x[n ]
n = −∞

Obviously, E > 0 for any non-zero signal!

But, since we are adding (possibly) infinitely many positive values it is
possible that for some signals the value of E is infinite.
This leads to our first classification:
A signal is said to be an Energy Signal if its energy is finite (i.e., 0 < E < ∞)
Clearly for this to happen we need |x[n]| to decay “fast enough” as n → ±∞

Examples of Energy Signals Examples of Non-Energy Signals

1. Any finite-duration signal 1. Sinusoid
2. Decaying exponential: a n , with a < 1 2. Unit Step
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For those signals that are NOT energy signals we can characterize their Power

Drawing from the physical idea that power is the rate of doing work (i.e., the
amount of energy consumed/delivered per unit time) we can define similar
ideas for DT signals.
N
Energy of DT Signal over finite interval of “length” 2N+1: E N = ∑
2
x[n ]
n= − N

N
EN 1
= = ∑
2
Then… Power of a DT Signal is: P lim lim x[ n ]
N →∞ 2 N + 1 N →∞ 2 N + 1
n= − N

Energy per 2N+1 samples

Note that what you get for P depends on a “race” between EN and 2N+1:
• If EN grows but eventually “levels out” (then x[n] is an energy signal)
we get that P = 0. So only energy signals have P = 0.
• If EN grows and never levels out, but does not grow faster than 2N+1
then P is finite and nonzero. Not an energy signal, called power signal.
• If EN grows and never levels out, but does grow faster than 2N+1 then P
is infinite. Neither energy nor power signal. 10/25
 Classification of Signals on Energy & Power
N
EN
EN = ∑ E = lim E N P = lim
2
x[n ] N →∞ N →∞ 2 N + 1
n= − N

Energy Signal EN → E < ∞ P=0

Power Signal EN → ∞ 0<P<∞
but not faster than 2N+1
Neither EN → ∞ P→ ∞
but faster than 2N+1

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Symmetric (Even) vs. Anti-Symmetric (Odd)
A DT signal is symmetric (even symmetric) if x[−n ] =x[n ]
x(t)
Illustrated here
using CT because it
is easier to draw!
-to to t

Same value for all to

A DT signal is anti-symmetric (odd symmetric) if x[−n ] =− x[n ]

x(t)
Note what happens at
n = 0…
t x[ −0] =− x[0]
-to to
⇒ x[0] = − x[0]
That can only be true
Negative values for all to if x[0] = 0!!! 12/25
Why do we care about symmetry??? Because in Fourier analysis of signals
we are decomposing a signal into sines (odd) and cosines (even) and it turns
out that if the signal is even (odd) then we can build it using only cosines
(sines).
So if there is some form of symmetry we can exploit it to make our analysis
job easier!!

Even we have a general signal we can sometimes make use of the

simplifications that come from symmetry:

Any signal x[n] can be broken into a sum of an even part % odd part like this
=
x[n ] xe [n ] + xo [n ]
1 1
xe=
[n ] [ x[n ] + x[−n ]] xo=
[n ] [ x[n ] − x[−n ]]
2 2

Clearly, these two add to x[n]… and it is easy to verify they are even and odd.
13/25
 Simple Manipulation of DT Signals
Time Shift
A given signal x[n] is shifted in time by
replacing n by n – k, where k is an integer.

Don’t forget there is a

negative already in there!!

• If k is positive then the shift is to the

right… which is a “delay”

• If k is negative then the shift is to the

left… which is an “advance”

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 Time Reversal

A given signal x[n] is reversed in time by

replacing n by –n.

• Time reversal just “anchors” the

signal at n = 0 and flips it

• Flipping and shifting can be

combined… Careful here: Do the
shift first then the flip.
x[n ] → 
x +
[n2] →  −
x[n +
2]
Shift left by 2 Flip the shifted signal
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Time Scaling

A given signal x[n] is scaled in time by

replacing n by µn, where µ must be an integer.
y[n ] = x[ µ n ]
An easy way to help visualize this is to let m = µn, let n run through the
integers and find the resulting values of m… those are the indices of the
samples you’ll have “keep”
You can see why this process is
also called “Down Sampling”!
n: 0 1 2 3 …
m: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 …
µ=3 x[m]

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 m

y[n] Note

-2 -1 0 1 2 n 16/25
 Then…. We re-imagine the new signal on the same axis as the original:

x[n]

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 n

y[n]

-2 -1 0 1 2 n

Addition, Multiplication & Amplitude Scaling

Adding two sequences, multiplying two sequences, or multiplying a sequence

by a number are defined in the obvious way.

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Input-Output Description of Systems
Systems, by their very nature, simply map each given input sequence into
a corresponding output sequence.
Thus… the simplest viewpoint of describing (or modeling) systems is to
provide a mathematical description of how the system creates the output
from the input.
Some Examples:
“Unit Delay System” y[=
n ] x[n − 1]
1
“Moving Average Filter” y[n=] [ x[n] + x[n − 1] + x[n − 2]]
3
n
“Accumulator” y[ n ] = ∑ x[k ]
k = −∞

Note that we can re-write the Accumulator as y[n ]= y[n − 1] + x[n ]

which describes the system using a recursive equation (an example of the
general class of difference equations).
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 Difference Equations
A general Nth order Difference Equations looks like this:

y[n ] + a1 y[n − 1] + ... + a N y[n − N ] = b0 x[n ] + b1 x[n − 1] + ... + bM x[n − M ]

The difference between these two index

Most “Advanced” Least “Advanced”
Output Sample Output Sample values is the “order” of the difference eq.
Here we have: n – (n – N) = N
N M
Can Write As: y[n ] + ∑ ai y[n − i ] = ∑ bi x[n − i ]
i =1 i =0

Now… isolating the y[n] term gives the “Recursive Form”:

N M Given the input values and
y[n] = −∑ ai y[n − i ] + ∑ bi x[n − i ] N “initial” output values we
i =1 i =0
can solve this recursively.

“current” output Some “past” current & past

value to be output values, input values
computed with values already “received”
already known 19/25
Block Diagrams for DT Systems
We use a few simple blocks to allow us to “build” representations of DT
systems:
• Adder – adds two signals
• Constant Multiplier – multiplies signal by a constant
• Signals Multiplier – multiplies one signal by the other
• Unit Delay – Outputs a one-sample delayed version of its input
• Unit Advance – Outputs a one-sample advanced version of its input

Example: System described by Difference Equation

=
y[n ] 0.25 y[n − 1] + 0.5 x[n ] + 0.5 x[n − 1]
x[n–1]

y[n–1]
Can move multipliers
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to a single one here
 Classification of DT Systems
Static (memoryless) vs. Dynamic (has memory)
Static system’s output at any time n depends at most on the input sample at
that instant… but no input samples from past or future.
Otherwise it is a Dynamic system. Because its Caution… If it depends on past
output depends on past input sample values output samples then it also
depends on past input samples!
the system in essence must have some sort of
“memory” to store these past value.
If you never need more than N < ∞ past input values... then it is Finite Memory.
If you need past inputs infinitely far into the past… then it is Infinite Memory.

Static Dynamic Finite,

y[n ] = ax[n ] y[n ] = x[n ] + 3x[n − 1]

Fixed
Memory
n

∑ x[n − k ]
Finite,
=
y[n ] nx[n ] + bx [n ]3
=
y[ n ] Growing
k =0 Memory
∞
=
y[ n ] ∑ x[n − k ]
k =0
Infinite
Memory 21/25
Time-Invariant vs. Time-Variant Systems
A Time-Invariant system is one for which the structure of its Input-Output
relationship does not change with time.

That means that if you put a signal in later, the output will be the same shape
just will come out later. Shown here for CT…
DT is similar!

x(t) y(t)
system
x(t-t0) y(t-t0)
x(t) y(t)
t t

x(t-t0) y(t-t0)
t t
t0 t0

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Linear vs. Non-Linear Systems A system that is Linear
A system is linear if superposition holds: & Time-Invariant is
called an LTI System
x1(t) y1(t)
Linear System

x2(t) y2(t)
Linear System

x(t) = a1 x1(t)+ a2 x2(t) y(t) = a1 y1(t)+ a2 y2(t)

Linear System

x1(t) y1(t)
Non-Linear

x2(t) y2(t)
Non-Linear

x(t) = a1 x1(t)+ a2 x2(t) y(t) ≠ a1 y1(t)+ a2 y2(t)

Non-Linear
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 Causal vs. Non-Causal
A causal (or non-anticipatory) system’s output at a time t1 does not depend on values
of the input x(t) for t > t1

The “future input” cannot impact the “now output”

⇒ A Causal system (with zero initial conditions) cannot have a non-

zero output until a non-zero input is applied.

Causal System Non-Causal System

Input Input

t t

Output Output

t t

“Real-time” systems must be causal…. But time-signals recorded processed

off-line can in essence be non-causal. Images can be processed “non-causally”.
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 Stable vs. Unstable
A system is said to be bounded input – bounded output stable if and only if every
bounded input produces a bounded output.
A bounded signal means that there exists some finite number Mx such that the signal’s
absolute value never exceeds it.
x[n ] ≤ M x < ∞ ∀n

Example of an Unstable System n

The “accumulator” is an unstable system y[ n ] = ∑ x[k ]

k = −∞

Note: to prove that it is unstable we need only find one bounded input that
gives an unbounded output. If the input is the unit step u[n], which is a
bounded input, then the output equals
n
y[n=
] ∑=1
k =0
( n + 1)

which grows without bound so the output is unbounded.

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