PART II

BELIEFS

12. MUMMIFICATION

In Predynastic times, the deceased were laid to rest in shallow

pits. The corpse was set on its left side, in a crouched position, with a
few helpful belongings such as pottery jars filled with food and drink.
The head was turned to face west toward the land of the dead and the
setting sun; this was thought to be conducive to resurrection and re-
birth. Often, the body was wrapped in a blanket of reed matting or ani-
mal skins, and later by life-sized baskets. Those with adequate means
were buried in wooden coffins and provided with all the possessions
they would require in the next world.
During the 1st Dynasty, the deceased were deposited in dwelling
houses for the souls, or funerary compartments, called mastabas. This
word translates into “bench,” in modern Arabic, and the compartments
resembled the low benches that are found outside modern Egyptian
homes. Mastabas were low and rectangular in shape, topped with a
white painted or mud brick structure that protected the body and the
possessions for use in the afterlife. Mastabas were the basis for the
pyramids of the 3rd and 4th Dynasties.
During Predynastic times, bodies were buried in sand; it was dis-
covered that the body could be naturally preserved as a result of the
exceptionally arid conditions. Building on that idea, mummification

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became customary during the 2nd Dynasty (although evidence exists of

earlier mummification). Several corpses with their heads, arms and
hands bandaged in linen wrappings have been found buried under reed
matting dated c. 3500 BC. The ancient Egyptians believed that as long
as the body remained intact, the soul could live eternally; thus it was
imperative that the body be preserved and free from damage and decay.

With all due respect

Three options were at the disposal of the deceased’s family, de-

pending on their financial means. The economy plan required only a
day or two to complete. The moderate plan took 30 days — the process
of mummifying a relative and the cost of the funerary mask set the aver-
age Egyptian back about four months’ wages. The luxury plan was
completed within 70 days. Much more than mummification was per-
formed during this period. The sarcophagus, carved out of stone during
the Middle Kingdom, and the tomb, had to elaborately prepared to re-
ceive the body. The word “sarcophagus” stems from the Greek words
“sark” (flesh) and “phagus” (eating). Sarcophagi — which contained
the bodies of the deceased — were perceived by the Greeks as “flesh-
eating” boxes. Preparing funerary items were an important occupation
for artisans, craftsmen, and woodworkers as well as tomb builders. In
addition, priests and scribes were kept busy preparing the funerary
texts to be placed with the deceased.
The 70-day process, accessible only to those at the top of the fi-
nancial scale, began with the cleansing of the body. The brain matter
was first softened with a corrosive liquid injected into the brain cavity.
Then the brain was removed, with a hooked instrument inserted
through a nostril. There is evidence that the brain was sometimes re-
moved through a hole made at the base of the skull. This organ was
considered insignificant waste matter, conducive to moisture and de-
cay, and therefore it was discarded; then the brain cavity was filled
with resins. Next, the internal organs, likewise subject to rapid decay,
were removed. A 3 ½” abdominal incision was carved into the left side
of the body with a sharp knife of flint or Ethiopian obsidian.
The liver, stomach, lungs and intestines were removed and placed

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individually in what the Greeks called Canopic Jars. One theory holds
that this name is derived from the village of Canopus (Abu-Qir), situ-
ated at the Nile Delta near Alexandria. In this town, human-headed jars
were worshipped during the Late Period as the personification of
Ausar. Greek legend has it that the jars were named after Canopus, fleet
commander of Spartan King Menelaus of Alexandria, who started the
Trojan War. Canopus died in Egypt and a city was named after him.
Canopus subsequently came to be worshipped in the Delta region, dur-
ing the late Period, in a form resembling a human-headed jar. The
Canopic Jars were made of clay, wood, alabaster, limestone or faience,
and were inscribed with spells believed to magically re-unite the body
with its organs in the afterlife.
Among Tutankhamen’s treasures, a miniature shrine serving as a
Canopic chest containing four cylindrical compartments, carved out of
a single block of alabaster, was found. The four protective goddesses,
Auset, Nebet-Het, Selket and Nit, are carved into each corner to guard
the king’s mummifed viscera.
Each Canopic jar was designed with a lid or stopper in the form of
the head of one of the four mesu heru, or the “four sons of Heru.” Imset,
represented with a human head, held the liver. Hapy, in his ape-head
form, protected the lungs. The falcon-head Qebehsenuf guarded the
intestines and Duamutef, the jackal-headed god, preserved the stom-
ach. In turn, the sons of Heru were guarded by the four protective god-
desses.
By the 22nd Dynasty, the jars became purely symbolic as the or-
gans were removed, wrapped in linen and placed back inside the body
cavity. The heart, or “seed of intelligence” or “source of life,” as it was
called, was usually left in the body, as it was the heart that spoke on
behalf of the deceased at the Judgment Hall.
The next step was to remove all moisture from the body. Linen-
wrapped packets of natron were placed inside the body cavities and
more packets and natron in its loose form surrounded the body. This
“divine salt,” as it was called, acted as highly effective drying agent. Na-
tron also doubled as an antiseptic, being a natural purifier. After forty
days in this natron bath, the body became a hard shell, no longer sus-
ceptible to moisture and decay. Natron is a carbonate of sodium that

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occurs naturally in salt lakes and other deposits.

When the corpse had dried out, the natron packs were removed
and the body was washed with palm wine or the healing, sacred waters
of the Nile. Next, it was treated with special oils and scented resins
such as myrrh and cassia. These resins were also stuffed into the body
cavities, along with sawdust and wads of linen soaked in resins and
oils, in order to preserve the shape of the body.
Once the body was sewn up again, the wrapping process began.
Hundreds of yards of linen were used, and as the body was being
wrapped, priests recited spells and prayers. The wrapping process took
about 14 days; each finger and toe was individually wrapped in layers of
fine white linen coated in mummiya, (the Persian-Arabic term meaning
bitumen or tar) before the entire hand or foot was wrapped. The word
“mummy” comes from mummiya, a black adhesive resin used in wrap-
ping the mummy. Mummiya was found in the Near East and was
thought to possess special healing powers.
The mummies of pharaohs were positioned with the hands
crossed over the chest, as sign of kingship. Amulets such as the eye of
Heru, the girdle of Auset or the scarab, the sacred beetle, were inserted
in between the bandages in specific designated positions. The scarab, a
powerful amulet, was placed over the heart of the mummy with a spell
inscribed upon it to prevent the heart form symbolically incriminating
or betraying its owner. Prayers and spells were sometimes inscribed on
the linen itself, as well. Often, the heart was replaced entirely with a
large scarab amulet to facilitate rebirth. The heart scarab amulet was
made out of lapis lazuli, carnelian or other semi-precious stone. Over
140 amulets were found within the bandages of King Tutankhamen’s
mummy, which was wrapped in 13 layers of the finest linen.
At this stage, the cosmetician painted the face, adding color to the
lips, eyes, cheeks, nails, palms and soles. Artificial eyes were often in-
serted in the eye sockets, if the family could afford such extravagance.
For those who could afford them, a funerary mask and wig were added
to assist the soul in easily recognizing its physical body.
The shrouded mummy was then deposited in two nested coffins
of cedar or other fine wood. The outer case protected the first coffin
and the body. The coffins were decorated with scenes of the deceased’s

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life and deeds, providing a pictorial biography. Finally, the body and
the double casket were placed inside the sarcophagus, its place of eter-
nal rest. Eyes were painted on the outside of the sarcophagus so that
the deceased would be able to look out. When the entire process was
completed, the priests, relatives, friends and mourners transported the
coffin to its burial site.
Tomb walls were illustrated with scenes of the deceased person’s
family as well as the activities that he or she had been enjoyed during
this life and looked forward to in the next. Inside the tomb, the physi-
cal body was preserved, protected and surrounded by articles provided
for use in the afterlife — the same items needed while living on earth.
Among the possessions one would take to his tomb were clothing,
wigs, professional tools, weapons, writing material, games, jewelry and
nourishment for the Ka or “double.” Miniature models, such as that of a
boat, were often used; they took up less space and were less costly to
manufacture, while symbolically serving their purpose as well as the
authentic item.
The dead were also provided with cosmetics, perfumes, oils, jars,
chests, utensils, linen, furniture, pets, amulets, and servants in the form
of Ushabti or Shawabti. The Egyptian word for “answer” was useb.
Ushabtis, or “answerers,” were little figures or model servants, male
and female, carved out of stone, wood, metal or faience that first ap-
peared during the New Kingdom. Ushabtis were intended to perform
the work and chores assigned to the deceased by the gods; the dead
would be buried with all the Ushabtis he was expected to need to per-
form the cosmic duties that the gods might request in return for protec-
tion and immortality. The standard number provided for a wealthy man
was 365, one for each day of the year, plus 36 overseers (one for each
decan, or group of ten). King Tutankhamen was buried with 413
Ushabtis made of wood, limestone and alabaster, and no fewer than
700 Ushabtis, inscribed with the VI Chapter of the Book of the Dead,
were found in the tomb of Seti I. Ushabtis were often inscribed with a
spell on the back of the figure; this was supposed to be read in order to
activate the servant. Often, they were simply inscribed with the name
of the deceased.

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With no respect whatsoever

In the modern era, “mummy abuse” has been rampant. By the 11th
century, Egyptian mummies were being ground into powder and sold
as Mummia Vera; this was marketed as an aphrodisiac and a medicine.
The great Persian physician Avicenna prescribed Mummia for just about
every illness. By the 16th century, Mummia Vera had become highly
sought after and was sold in apothecaries throughout Europe well into
the 17th century.
From medicine to amusement — early in the 19th century, it be-
came fashionable to hold dinner parties in Europe where guests were
entertained by the unwrapping of an authentic Egyptian mummy. Later
in the 19th century, Arabs were selling powdered mummy mixed with
butter as a salve to heal bruises.
In perhaps the grossest abuse of all, during the American Civil
War, a paper manufacturer named Isaac Augustus Stanwood had the
ghastly idea of importing Egyptian mummies to mitigate the critical
shortage of rags needed for making paper. He imported huge quantities
of mummies, for their linen bandaging; they were unwrapped, and the
bandages were reduced to pulp. Soon, U.S. citizens came to expect
their meat to be wrapped in brown paper — as it still is, at many
butcher shops today. This process cost Stanwood less than half the
price of purchasing rags in America.
He was forced to cease this operation when cholera broke out,
claiming the lives of many workers employed in his paper mill — a
curse, for disturbing the Egyptian deities?

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