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124 views36 pagesB R Gupta. Reactive Power Control
Uploaded by
Pe KaCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
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/ 36
Find
when
ector
Load Frequency and MVAR Voltage Control 813
25.24 ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN ENERGY
MANAGEMENT
Proper and efficient energy management requires lot of data and information about operating
conditions . Computers are extensively used for this purpose. The major areas in which computers
can help are as under:
25.24.1 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System (SCADA)
This system has a master station which communicates with remote terminal units (RTU). These
units send the status and measurements to master station which sends the control commands.
‘Tasks of SCADA are:
Data acquisition : To provide data, measurements and status information to operator.
Plotting : To plot different measurements in real time regime.
Supervisory control : To control circuit breakers remotely.
‘Alarms : To send alarm signals as regards undesirable operating conditions.
Logging : To log all informations, alarms ete.
Load Shedding : To provide automatic and manual load shedding in emergent conditions so
as to maintain system synchronism and stability.
25.24.2 Power Plant Maintenance
All the required information a8 regarding maintenance schedules, maintenance costs, availability
of spares and material and equipment performance can be easily stored and called back
immediately when required. This data base is essential for proper plant maintenance.
25.24.3 Automatic Generation Control (AGC)
AGC helps in proper system operation. The generation is matched against demand and units
operated as per economic dispatch. Load frequency control is used for matching real power with
demand. Power allocation between different generating units is done as per equal incremental
costs criterion. Purchase and sale of power to neighbouring systems is decided in real time so
that the system operates optimally.
AGC also looks after automatic dispatch including the effect of transmission losses, The
generation from different units is optimised taking into account their incremental costs and
location (the location affects the transmission loss).
25.24.4 Fuel Management
Cost of fuel is a major part of generation cost of thermal and gas turbine plants. Proper fuel
management requires information about load forecast, generation scheduling, fuel costs,
transportation cost, fuel contracts, fuel usage, etc, All this information is stored in the computer
and recalled when required.
25.24.5 Load Management
Load management is essential for proper and economic operation of a system. All utilities
employ one or more load management techniques to flaten the load curve. SCADA provides,
on line real time information about loads on different feeders and positions of sectionalising
switches, circuit configurations, voltage levels, TOD tariff rates and uses this information to
control consumer loads. 814 Power System Analysis and Design
25.24.6 Security Control
Security control system has the following functions :
1. To determine system state.
2, To prepare list of contingencies along with action to be taken in each contingency.
3, To determine preventive actions so as to avoid contingencies.
25.24.7 Distribution Automation System
With computerised control, the operator has all the information as regards voltage profile,
currents power factors etc. This information is obtained through telemetry from all the RTUS.
‘The operator can issue instructions based on this information, for optimising power flows,
switch in/out shunt capacitors, change transformer tappings ete All these actions result in better
service to consumers, improve voltage at consumer premesis, improve reliability, reduce losses.
Distribution automation is being used in all advanced countries and has been made possible only
because of information technology.
25.24.8 Metering and Billing
Intelligent metering to detect theft and tampering is possible only because of information
technology, Computerised billing when combined with intelligent metering leads to neat and
transparent accounts and elimination of human error, Spot billing is also possible. Information
like average clecticity use, history of payments, change in customer's electricity use with season
ae readily available. Faster credit control and better financial management is possible
25.25 DEFINITICN OF REACTIVE POWER
Reactive powers an important quantity in ac networks. To define reactive power let us consivet
series R — L circuit excited by a single phase ac source. Let ibe the instantaneous current and
+e the voltage drop across inductance. The product of and v, is 9, and is found as under.
V, sin a w= (25.44)
1, sin (a ~ 6) 25.45)
where 0 is the power factor angle and equals tan' (X7R)
di
siv,=i( Lo
g=ivy { }
= [I_ sin (ot 8)] [OL I, c0s (ot - 6)]
B
Jn OF sn 2 (wt 8)
2
or q=P ob sin2 (1-9) (25.46)
‘The average of @ over one eycle is zero. During certain part of cycle energy is supplied by
the source to the inductance (and stored in the magnetic field). During the remaining part of the
cycle this energy is returmed tothe source. The amplitude ofthis double frequency sine wave of
Fg, (25.46) is Pal or FE X,, This known as reactive power (symbol Q) and has the units of vars
(volt—ampere reactive). Bigger units for Q are k var and M vat. Thus
Q=PX,= PZ sin O= VIsin @ wu (25.47)
or
or
25.4
Weh:
behav
R-C
leads
sign.”
thece
with ¢
same
Fig
soure
Th tion
tion
son
siuer
and
5.44)
3.45)
5.46)
ed by
of the
ave of
ff vars
25.47)
Load Frequency and MVAR Voltage Control 815
The reactive power does not contribute anything as far as work done or energy transferred
from source to the device is concemed, Yet it contributes to the loading of the equipment. The
loading of equipment is proportional to J and hence proportional to apparent power /V. The
reactive power is a component of apparent power.
Ina single phase circuit, the complex power S is
S=VPF=(VZO) (1Z-O*=(VZO) (128)
or S=P+jQ=VIZ0
or S=Vicos0+ jVI sind ww: (25.48)
P =Re{S]= VIcos0 .. (25.49)
Q= Im[S} = VIsind ..- (25.50)
In a3 phase circuit
P= 3V n.,Tyyq 008 0= V3V, 1; 0088 w= (25:51)
Q= BV ye Tae Si O= N3V; 1, sind wu (25.52)
25.26 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REACTIVE POWER
We have seen the reactive power associated with an inductor in section 6.1. An RC circuit also
behaves ina similar way. But one fundamental difference exists between an R—L circuit and an
R—C circuit. The current in an R — L circuit lags the voltage but the current in an R~ C circuit
leads the voltage. The reactive power associated with an inductor in /2X, and is assigned positive
sign. The reactive power associated with a capacitor is 2X. and is assigned negative sign. Thus
the complex power associated with an R~L circuit is P+jQ while the complex power associated
with an RC circuit is P —jQ. For both the positive and negative reactive power, the units are the
same vars, kvars and Mvars.
Fig, 25.17 shows a 3 phase ac system feeding a network. The network may also have active
sources in addition to passive elements.
4
3 ph t
phase \
AC aa aC
System I, Network:
*
Fig. 25.17 3 Phase AC System feeding an ac network.
The significance of positive and negative P and Q is as under.
P positive AC system supplies real (active power) to network.
P. negative AC network supplies real (active) power to 3 phase AC system.
© positive AC system supplies lagging reactive power to AC network. The
network consists of elements which are predominantly inductive.
Q negative AC system supplies leading reactive power to AC network. The
network consists of elements which are predominantly capacitive.
In other words the acmnetwork is generating positive reactive power
and supplying it to the 3 phase ac system. 816 Power System Analysis and Design
25.27 SYSTEM LOSSES DUE TO REACTIVE POWER FLOW
‘As seen in section 25.25 the real power in a 3 phase ac system is V3 Y, J, cos@. Therefore,
current /, (for a certain value of P) is
=.
V3 ¥, cos
As seen in Eq, (25.53) the circuit current J, is minimum if cos 6 is unity. As power factor
= (25.53)
cos Obecomes less than 1, the circuit current , increases. The system losses are 312R where R
is the resistance. At unity power factor the losses are minimum. As power factor cos @ becomes
less than 1, the losses increase. If cos @ is 0.5 the current increases to twice the value of the
current at unity power factor. Since losses are proportional to square of current, the losses at 0.5
power factor are four times the losses at unity power factor, Fig. 25.18 shows the increase in
losses due to decrease in power factor. When power factor is unity, the losses are minimum.
When p.f.is 0.5, the current (for the same active power P) becomes double and losses become
four times. When p,f-is 0.25, the current is four times and losses are 16 times. Jn actual practice
the p.f. jg around 0.8 and losses are about 56% higher than the losses at unity power factor.
l=
‘The system has to transmit reactive power due to the fact that most loads operate at lagging
power factor.
8
ge °
gle
Ne
3
;
1} ++» pt.
0.25 0s 075 10
Fig. 25.18 Effect of power factor on losses.
25.28 REACTIVE POWER REQUIREMENTS DURING PEAK AND
OFF-PEAK HOURS
We have discussed the variable load problem in earlier chapters. Only the real power (MW)
demand was considered there, In power system operation the variable load problem becomes all
the more complex because the reactive power requirements are likely to be different at different
times of the day and in different seasons. The reactive power requirements have to be met to
keep the system voltages at proper levels.
‘A typical power system is shown in Fig. 25.19. The power system operates at different
voltage levels viz. 400 kV, 220 kV, 132 KV, 66 kV, 33 KV and 11 kV. Large, modern and. efficient
‘generators are connected to 400 and 220 KV buses. Smaller, olders and less efficient generators
ate connected to 132 and 66 kV buses. The 33 and 11 kV voltage levels represent distribution
netw
diffe
Du
the lag
the off
geners
to ado
taps o1 esall
ferent
aet to
icient
ators
sution
Load Frequency and MVAR Voltage Control. 817
networks, Some times some local generators are also connected to 33 and 11 kV buses. The
different voltage levels are interconnected through transformers and distribution networks.
During peak load hours it may be necessary to run almost all the available generating units
to meet the system requirements, During off peak hours the less efficient plants would be shut,
down so that generation cost is kept to the minimum, quipped with automatic
Yoliage regulator so thatthe voltage at different buses is kept within limits at all system loading
gondii
“Most loads need lagging reactive power to supply the magnetising current of transformers,
induction motors ete. As the active power requirements increase the reactive power requirements
also increase, Moreover the reactive power requirements are latger in strmmer than i
any moment of time the var demand on the network is closely related in magnitude and loc
to the voltage at consumer terminals.
At times of peak load the vars absorbed by the series inductance of lines are larger than
vars generated by s by shunt capacitance of lines. In an extreme case it may be n
the import vars at both ends (ie., the delivered oad is at leading power
order to reduce the voltage drop. In addition the consumers demands for lagging vars mu:
be met. It is therefore necessary that generators deliver enough vars to the system to meet
the requirements. Since the generator rated power factor is around 0.8 lagging, there is a
limit to the maximum vars which the generators can deliver to the system. This
the use of shunt capacitors and synchronous condensers for generating lagging vars.
iz
20~ 100 MVA,
20-100 MVA
33K
é
‘AVR AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR dauTO
‘AAUXILIARIES @ TWO WINDING TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER
¢ CCONSUMERS
why
| Fig. 25.19 A typical power system.
During off peak period the line generates lagging vars (i, absorbs leading vars). Generally
the lagging vars produced by the lines are many times that absorbed by the consumers under
the off peak conditions. Therefore the remaining lagging vars must be absorbed by running the
lors under-excited. Sometimes even this may not be sufficient and it may be necessary
to adopt additional means like switching out unnecessary lines (especially cables), staggering
taps on paralleled transformers and installation of shunt reactors. Generally it has been found ES Se 52
818 Power System Analysis and Design
that balance between generation and absorption of reactive power during off peak hours is more
difficult than during peak load hours, :
We have discussed the problem of maintaining balance between total system generation and
system load plus transmission losses. The other problem in power system is to maintain balance
between production and absorption of logging vars. Having identified the problem of vars balance
wwe proceed to discuss the sources of vars and their use in power systems.
25.29 LINE VOLTAGE REGULATION AND COMPENSATION
The voltage, relative to nominal voltage, at the different busses of the power system is known
as voltage profile, Most of the equipments, especially at 400 kV level and above are operated
close-to the present limits of design. In view of this the modern power systems are operated
with a voltage profile of 45%.
If follows that the transmission lines have to transfer power with a voltage drop of less than
10%, The major cause of voltage drop in the line is the flow of reactive power. Moreover reactive
currents cause PR losses in the system but produce no revenue,
‘Most loads absorb positive (i-e., lagging) vars to supply the magnetizing current of transformers,
inductign motors, etc. At any moment the maximum vars which can be transferred over the lines
are fixed by the voltage profile. If follows that at times of peak loads the vars demanded by the
Toads greatly exceeds the vars which can be transmitted over the lines from the consideration of
voltage drop. Therefore, additional equipment is necessary y to generate lagging vars to meet the
Teactive power requirement of the consumers. not done, the system vol voltage: at some of
the busses is likely to become lower than the nominal voltage.
The shunt capacitance of the line absorbs leading vars (ie. generates lagging vars). At the
time of light loads the lagging vars produced by the lines are much larger than that required by
consumers loads. These surplus lagging vars must be absorbed by additional equipment to keep
the voltage profile within limits. If this is not done the system voltage at some of the busses is
likely to become higher than the nominal voltage.
From the above discussion it follows, that it is necessary to provide additional equipment,
called reactive power compensating equipment to generate or absorb vars. A shunt connected
inductance absorbs lagging vars while a shunt capacitor generates lagging vars (by absorb
Ieading vars). Specially designed synchronous machines called synchronous compensators (or
phase modifiers) can generate or absorb vars.
Applications of compensation equipment in a system has the following effects:
1. Reduction in reactive component of circuit current.
Maintenance of voltage profile within limits.
. Reduction of copper losses in the system due to reduction of current.
. Reduction in investment in the system per kW of load supplied.
Decrease in kVA loading of generators and circuits. This decrease in kVA loading may
relieve an overload condition or release capacity for additional load growth.
Improvement in power factor of generators.
7. Reduction in kVA demand charges for large consumers.
25.30 SOURCES OF REACTIVE POWER (VARS)
waRen
2
The different sources of reactive power (vars) are
1. Synchronous machines
25.
(a) :
Fig.:
state
react
Fig
tis
E,und
of the
The ——
Load Frequency and MVAR Voltage Control 819
« 2. Shunt static capacitors/shunt compensation
3. Series capacitors/Series compensation
id 4, Synchronous condensers
? 5. Shunt Reactors
7 6, Facts Controllers
25.31 VAR GENERATION BY SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES’
eA (a) Synchronous Generators
ad Fig. 25.20 shows the equivalent circuit of cylindrical rotor synchronous generator under steady
ed state conditions, £ is the induced emf, R is armature winding resistance, X, is synchronous
reactance (per phase) and / is current per phase. 5
an RL_al=. XG
= YANG
8, E v
tes
he
of
te Fig. 25.20 Equivalent circuit of cylindrical rotor alternator.
of
E=V+I(R+jX) (25.54)
Fig. 25.21. shows the phasor diagram at lagging and leading power factor conditions.
E
om 1K
ing if
(a) (0)
Fig. 25.21 Phasor diagram of cylindrical rotor alternator at
(a) lagging power factor (b) leading power factor.
Itis seen that the excitation £ under lagging power factor condition is more than ¥ where as
det leading power factor condition is ess than V. This phasor diagram shows thatexcitation
ie alternator has a strong influence on the power factor of the machine.
The conclusions are
1. Atunity power factor the generator is delivering only active power and zero reactive
power. However at power factor other than unity, the alternator delivers active power
as well as reactive power.
2.--As the power factor departs more and more from unity, the amount of active power
decreases and the amount of reactive power increases. The following table shows the
MW and Mvar available from a 100 MVA alternator at different power factors.
nay 820 Power System Analysis and Design
Power factor 1 09 O08 07 05
MW 100 = 90's sis
Mvar 0 43 60 7086S
Itis seens{tom the above table that an alternator can be a big source of vars supply. However it
red that as the vars output of an altemator increases, the MW output decreases.
‘tive power output means that more generators would be needed to meet the
veri of the consumers. As such it is not advisable to use the generator as sources
of vars, Generally the generator is rated at 0.8 pf. and the power factor should be kept as near
to 0.8 as possible, The adjustment of power factor can be done by controlling the excitation of
chine,
3. At lagging power factor i.e. when the generator is overexcited (E> V) the generator
supplies lagging vars. At leading power factor i.e. when the generator is under excited
(E< P), the generator supplies leading vars. However the ability of generator to supply
leading vars is very limited due to stability considerations.
(b) Synchronous Motor
The voltage equation for a synchronous motor is
V=E+IR+jIX, w+ (25.55)
Fig. 25.22 shows the phasor diagram under lagging and leading power factor conditions.
v
AA iA
@)
Fig. 25.22 Phasor diagram of Synchronous Motor or
(@) lagging power factor (b) leading power factor.
Itis seen from Fig. 25.22 that
1. When the motor is under excited i.e. power factor is lagging the motor absorbs lagging
| vars (from the mains) and delivers leading vars.
2. When the motor is overexcited (i.e. F > V) the power factor is leading i.e. the motor
absorbs leading vars (from the mains) and delivers lagging vars.
| 3. Synchronous motor can be made to deliver lagging or leading vars to the system as per
the system requirement. This can be easily done by controlling the excitation,
| 4, Synchronous motors which do not supply any mechanical load and are used for supply
of vars are known as synchronous condensers.
25.32. AUTOMATIC EXCITATION CONTROL (IEEE Type) ~
‘The reactive power balance is maintained through an automatic control of excitation of the
alternators. As discussed in sections 6.10 the reactive power balance affects the bus voltage
magnit
and bri
and coi
may be
to the
Acont
The
action 0 —————
53)
otor
:per
oply
the
tage
Load Frequency and MVAR Voltage Control 824
magnitude. The automatic voltage regulators sense the change in the alternator terminal voltage
and bring it back to the rated value by adjusting the alternator excitation.
The output voltage of alternator obtained through a potential transformer is rectified, filtered
and compared with a reference voltage V,, The voltage error signal is fed to an amplifier (which
‘may be an amplidyne, a magnetic amplifier or a transistor amplifier). The amplifier output is fed
to the exciter field circuit and controls the exciter field current through a buck or boost action.
Accontrol of exciter field current meaus a control of excitation current of alternator,
Bee
Ls
REGULATOR |V, [se |
INPUT FILTER
4 Ke K, KM
Test, yr sty i¥sTy Vest, wa
vy POWER EXCITER | ALTERNATOR:
Ky
sra0usNe
TRANSFORMER
Fig. 25.23 Block diagram of automatic excitation control for alternators.
The block diagram of the automatic excitation control system is shown in Fig. 25.23. The
action of the different components is as under;
1. Regulator input fiter. The generator output voltage V,, obtained through a potential
transformer is rectified and filtered. The regulator input filter can be represented by a
time constant [. For most systems 7, is very small and can be neglected.
2. Power amplifier. The response of the power amplifier is characterised by a gain K, and
time constant 7, Ifthe amplifier is an amplidyne, 7, may be around 0.2 seconds but if
it is a transistor amplifier, the time constant would be less than 20 milli-seconds.
3. Voltage limiter. To ensure that the alternator does not lose synchronism with the system,
it is necessary to limit the amplifier voltage such that
Vein SV $ Vas
“4, Exeiter. For a d.c. exciter, the response is characterised by a gain K, and time constant
T, The exciter output voltage is a non-linear function. of the exciter field current due to
the saturation of the magnetic circuit. The effect of saturation is represented by subtract-
ing a signal Ry A, (R, is excite field resistance and AJ, represents the incremental
change in exciter field current) from the voltage V,
5. Stabilizing transformer. To improve the overall response, a stabilizing loop (which
consists of a transformer) is added to the control circuit. The stabilizing transformer
feeds back a fraction of the derivative (hence s in the numerator of the transfer function
of stabilizing transformer) of exciter output to the amplifier.
6. To complete the contro! circuit, the transfer function of the alternator field has to be
added to the block diagram. For open circuit conditions the alternator field response
can be represented by a gain K,and time constant J), 822 Power System Analysis and Design
25.33 RESPONSE OF AUTOMATIC EXCITATION CONTROL
SYSTEM
25.33.1 Static Response
To analysis the performance of the automate excitation system the block diagram of Fig. 25.23
in be simplified by neglecting the time constant of the regulator input filter and the effect of
voltage limiter and stabilising transformer. This is shown in Fig. 25.24 (a). The different blocks
ean be combined together as shown in Fig. 25.24 (b) and the equivalent transfer function is
shown in Fig. 25.24 (c),
AMV
& & k,l
trstal Lies} Lies
Aly] | 7 ~ =
vl Power Exciter Alternator
ampiter field
WV MI WV we |_ IV!
+ Sis) 7 Tea [
; ()
(b)
Fig. 25.24 Automatic Excitation System of Alternator (a) Block diagram
(0) After combining blocks (c) Equivalent transfer function
Itis seen from Fig. 25.24 (a and 8) that
K (Kk
Gs) = (K.) (Ke) (ky)
(491, (4st) 457)
K
= ww (25.56) i
7 H) (457) (45%) +57) 05.56) |
Where K is the open loop gain and is equal to K,K,K,
The automatic excitation system must
1, Keep the terminal voltage | V| constant (ie. within specified limits)
2. Should respond quiekly whenever | ’| tends to change.
3. Should be stable.
Since the terminal voltage | /| cannot be held absolutely constant the only possibility is that
the error Ae should should be less than a certain percentage x of AlV/,,. Writing the constant
values with subscript 0 we get
Ae, AIM yo AIV b
SS) saturated Tem Cove
ole Sh saa
| T lege conection Copact lf
(a)
Without
eran sae
bat v { apactor
series
capacitor
Leading Lagging Loading Lagging
Mvar Mvar var Mar
) ©
Fig, 25.25 Self saturated shunt reactor (a) connection diagram (b) characteristics without shunt
capacitor (c) characteristics with shunt capacitor.
(a) Self Saturated Reactor (SR) (Fig. 25.25a) The variable element is an iron-cored reactor
in the saturated region and a capacitor bank is in parallel, It does not require any
control system and automatically adjusts its loading to that required by ‘the system. To match its
characteristics to the system tequirement, it may be necessary to reduce the slope reactance of
the saturated reactor by connecting a slope correction capacitor in series. The saturated reactor,
being of transformer type construction, has a very high short time overload capability and is,
therefore, very suitable for holding down system dynamic over voltage such as those resulting
from load rejection.
The saturated reactor is a self regulating devoice that responds only to changes in its
terminal voltage. The voltage regulation characteristics is dependent on the nat riatural saturation
characteristic of the iron core reactor, the existence and rating of a series: ‘capacitor for saturation
slope compensation and the existence and rating of shunt capacitor. Fig, 25.25(6) shows the
characteristics without the shunt capacitor and Fig. 25.25(c) shiows the characteristics with the
shunt capacitor. 826 Power System Analysis and Design
‘The saturated reactors for ratings upto 132 kV can be directly connected to the bus bar.
However an intermediate transformer is needed for higher voltages.
(6) Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR)-Fixed Capacitor (FC) The TCR-FC system, shown
in Fig 25.26(a), provides continuously controllable lagging to leading vars through thyristor
contro! of reactor current, Leading vars are supplied by two or more fixed capacitor banks. The
TCR is generally rated larger than the total of fixed capacitance so that net lagging vars can also
‘be supplied. The variation of current through the reactor is obtained by phase control of back to
back pairs of thyristor valves connected in series with reactor. The thyristor valves are similar to
those used in HVDC systems. Arranging the TCR and coupling transformer secondary in delta
serves to cancel third harmonics. Most designs use 6 pulse valves and, hence, produce substantial
fifth and seventh harmonics. The small reactors usually included in the fixed capacitor branches
tune these branches as filters for the fifth and seventh harmonics.
™ v
wae
b> Q(a) = |B, ~ By(a)\v*
Q, = [By mar ~ BelV2
BL max> Be
Qe, rated o Q. rated
By = susceptance of capacitor
B,(a) = susceptance of reactor at firing angle a.
@ o
Fig. 25.26 Thytistor controlled reactor (TCR) and fixed capacitor (FC) for shunt compensation
(a) connection diagram (b) characteristics
The reactive power output versus terminal §—.—— =
voltage steady state characteristics is shown in We ~o_
Fig. 25.26(6). The steady state relationship between TOT
the output vars and the applied voltage can be linear
over the desired voltage band of regulation, The
slope of the characteristics in the regulation interval a 7
is determined by the control of the firing angle.
Outside the regulation interval, the characteristic
is the same as that of a capacitor (low voltage) or
an inductor (high voltage).
(c) Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC): paneee E
Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR) The TSCTCR
compensator is shown in Fig. 25.27. It consists of
a thyristor controlled reactor bark (or banks) and
n capacitor banks each in series with a solid state "8 95.27, and initconiclal
(thyristor) switch. The number n of capacitor banks ne tS
is deten
compen
series w
practice
capable
Similarl
thyristor
of capac
leading
TCR-F(
are: imp
scheme
Inad
filters, a
25.35
Series ¢
consists
25.35
The tise
capabili
Wi
Where
Tfas
and the
Fron
higher t
The
systems ———
Load Frequency and MVAR Voltage Control 827
bar. is determined from practical considerations which include operating voltage evel, maximum
compensation requirement, current rating of solid state switches, etc. The solid state switch in
series with the reactor bank is composed of reverse parallel connected thyristor pair (in actual
‘own 4 . i
‘stor practice many such pairs are ‘connected in series to provide enough voltage rating) and is
The capable of continuously controlling the current in the reactor from zero to maximum rated value.
Similarly, the switch in series with each capacitor bank consists of reverse parallel connected
also thyristor pais, The switches in capacitor banks allow the switching in of the required number
ckto of capacitor banks in discrete steps. Thus, TSC-TCR scheme has the capability to provide the
larto Jeading and lagging vars both independently and rapidly, The characteristic is similar to that of |
delta TCR-FC scheme Fig, 25.26(6). The advantages of TSC-TCR scheme over the TCR-FC scheme
intial ares improved performance during large system disturbances and lower losses. However, this
aches scheme is about 15 - 20%, more costly as ‘compared to TCR-FC scheme.
In addition to the switched capacitors, a small number of fixed capacitors, serving as tuned
filters are also included inthis scheme, as shown in Fig. 25.27,
25.35 SERIES COMPENSATION
Series compensation is another powerful tool to improve the performance of EHV lines. It
consists of capacitors connected in series with the line at suitable locations.
25.35.1 Advantage of Series Compensation
‘The use of series compensation leads to a number of advantages as regards power transfer
capability, volage regulation, etc. These can be summarized as under:
ey (a) Increase in Transmission Capacity: The power transfer P, over a line is given by
WallFe sin 5 .- (05.64)
i
Where V, 2 6= sending end voltage
an ¥, Z0=receiving end voltage
j X, = inductive reactance ofthe line
o |
7 | {6= phase angle between V, and ¥,
i Ifa series capacitor having capacitance X. is inserted, the net series reactance becomes X, —X,
and the power transfer P, is given by
Pi,= LAMPE sin 5 a» (25.65)
Xe
From Eqs. (25.68) and (25.65) i is seen that forthe same magnitudes of V,¥, and 6, P, is
higher than P,. The increase in power transfer is given by
BR 1
oo (25.66)
7 oe een =
actor Te factor K equals 57° andis known a depres of compensation Studies on transmission
systems have revealed that in view of line cost, the effect of lines operating in parallel and 828 Power System Analysis and Design
problems of system protection, the economic degree of compensation lies in the range of 40%
to 70%.
(6) Improvement of System Stability: From Eqs. (25.64) and (25.65) itis seen that for the same
amount of power transfer and the sanje values of V, and V,, the phase angle 6 in the case of series
‘compensated lines is-less than that for the uncompensated line. It is known that a lower angle
6 means better system stability. Solffe other methods for improvement of system stability are
also used. These include reducing thie reactance of generators and transformers, use of bundled
conductors and increasing the number of circuits in parallel. Series'compensation generally
offers the most economic solution with respect to both the steady state and the transient stability.
(0) Load Division between Parallel Circuits: The reduction of series reactance by series
compensation makes it a useful tool to balance the loading in parallel circuits. When a system
is to be strengthened by the addition of a new line or when one of the existing circuits is to be
adjusted for parallel operation in order to achieve maximum power transfer and minimize losses,
series compensation can be used to a great advantage. It has been reported that in Sweden, the
cost of the first series compensation in the 420 kV system was entirely recovered due to the
decreased losses in the 220 kV system operating in parallel with the 420 kV system.
25.35.2 Location of Series Capacitors
The choice of the location of series capacitors depends on many technical and economic
considerations. In each case, a special system study concerning load flow, stability, transient
overvoltages, protection requirements, system voltage profile, etc., is necessary before the
optimum location can be chosen. Three commonly used locations are:
(a) Location along the Line: In this method the capacitor bank is located at the middle of
the line (if the installation consists of one bank) or at one third distance along the line (if the
installation consists of two banks). This location has the advantages of better voltage profile
along the line, lesser short circuit current through the capacitor in the event of a fault and simpler
protection of the capacitor. The capacitor stations are generally unattanded. This location is
popular in Sweden, Canada, South Africa, etc,
(® Location at One or Both Ends of Line section on the Line Sides in the Switching
‘Station: The main advantage of this location is that the capacitor installation is near the manned
substations, However, this location requires more advanced line protection. For the same degree
of compensation, more installed M-var capacity is needed than for the location along the line,
This location is widely used in USA.
(c) Location between Bus Bars within the Switching Station: The advantage of this location
is that the capacitor installation is concentrated at a few accessible places within the switching
station. However this location requires a rather complicated and expensive switching arrangement
within the substation. This location has been used in the erstwhile Soviet Union and Argentina,
25.35.3 Problems Associated with Series Compensation
The use of series compensation introduces a few problems too. Some of these are:
(@) Sub-synchronous Resonance: The series capacitor introduces a sub-synchronous fre-
quency (proportional to the square root of the compensation) in the system. In some
cases this frequency may interact with weak steam turbine generator shafts and give
tise to high torsional stresses. In hydro-turbine generators the risk of sub-synchronous
resonance is small because the torsional frequencies are about 10 Hz or even less.
«
In
the 4(
25.3
Durin
excee.
of the
reacto
SVS."
Avar rn:
@
®
25.3
When
conden
Asy
not sup
neces: << =
nic
ent
2 of,
the
file
oler
nis
fre-
nous
Load Frequency and MVAR Voltage Control. 829
(0) Ferroresonance: When an unloaded ora lightly loaded transformer is energized through
a series compensation line, ferroresonance may occur, The frequency of oscillation is
an integral multiple of the system frequency. This can be suppressed by using shunt
resistors across the capacitors or by short circuiting the capacitor temporarily through
an isolator or a by pass breaker. ;
Line Protection: Series compensation can lead to mal-operation of the distance relay of
the line protection ifthe degree of compensation and capacitor location are not proper.
To ensure correct operation of the distance protection the series compensation is limited
to about 40% (when the installation is located at the middle of the line) and 30% per
bank (when the installations are located at one-third and two-third distances along the
line).
(d) High Recovery Voltage: Series capacitors produce high recovery voltages across the
circuit breaker contacts
In spite of the above problems series compensation is very widely used for EHV systems in
the 400 ~ 500 KV range in many countries of the world.
25.36 SHUNT REACTOR
During light load or no load conditions the voltage at the receiving end of the line may even
exceed the sending end voltage. This is due to the charging current drawn by the shunt capacitance
of the line, To limit this voltage rise shunt reactors have to be used. It is necessary thatthe shunt
reactor is switched on only during light or no load conditions. Shunt reactor is also a part of
SVS. The specification for a shunt reactor include type (indoor or outdoor), reactance in ohms,
‘var rating, rated voltage, rated current and frequency.
Reactors are mostly air cored. They are built in two types: dry type and oil immersed
(a). dry type reactor: The windings of a dry type reactor are embedded in vertical supports
of specially treated concrete. The winding is bolted to concrete base which is insulated
from ground by porcelain footings. The conductors are insulated with fie proof asbestos
braid.
©
(b) oil immersed reactor: The windings are similar to those used for transformers, A non
magnetic shield prevents the flux from entering the steel tank where it can cause losses
and heating. The oil helps in cooling and insulation. An oil immersed reactor has @
smaller size (for the same rating) higher thermal capacity and fewer chances of flashover
as compared to dry type. They are built for both outdoor and indoor use.
25.37 SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSERS
When the kVAR requirement is small, it can be met through static capacitors. However when
requirement exceeds 10,000 KVAR it is generally more economical to use the synchronous
condensers,
Asynchronous condenser is essentially an over excited synchronous motor. Generally it does
not supply any active mechanical power. The excitation of the machine is varied to provide the
necessary amount of the leading KVAR. The advantages and disadvantages of using synchronous
condensers as compared to static capacitors are as under:
1. Asynchronous condenser can supply VAR equal to its rating and absorb KVAR upto
50 per cent of its capacity. Thus a synchronous condenser of certain KVAR is equal to
a static capacitor of that kVAR and a shunt reactor of 50 per cent KVAR. 830 Power System Analysis and Design
2,
10.
iL.
12,
By the use of synchronous condenser a finer control is possible than by the use of static
capacitors.
A synchronous condenser can be overloaded for short periods but a static capacitor
cannot be overloaded,
Amomentary drop in voltage causes the synchronous condenser to supply greater VAR,
to the system whereas in the case of static capacitor, the KVAR supplied is reduced.
‘The inertia of the synchronous condenser improves the system stability and: reduces ca
effect of sudden changes in load. ge
The power loss ina synchronous condenser is much greater than tht in a capacitor
For small KVAR requirements, static capacitors are preferable and economical. For
requirements above 10,000 KVAR or so synchronous dondensers are more economical.
Static capacitor installations can bejdistributed in the system. Thus capacitors can be
located near the loads and are more effective. However small size synchronous condens-
ers are very uneconomical. As such the synchronous condensers have to be installed at
one point only.
The rating of a static capacitor bank can be changed very easily as per requirements.
Capacitor units can be added to the bank or taken away from it. This is not possible
with synchronous condensers.
Installation of a static capacitor bank is easy.
A failure of one unit of capacitor bank affects that unit only. The remaining units con-
tinue to do their job. However failure of a synchronous condenser means loss of total
condenser capacity. On the other hand the failure rate of a synchronoous condenser is,
very small as compared to the failure rate of a capacitor bank.
Synchronous condenser adds to the short circuit currents in the system and increases
the circuit breaker ratings.
Synchronous condensers are mostly used by utilities at large sub-stations to improve the power
factor and voltage regulation, Machines upto 100 MVAR ratings or even higher have been used.
The field current is regulated automatically to give a desired voltage level. A typical instance
is of 150 MW to be transmitted over a distance of 240 km. If the receiving end power factor
is 0.85, the sending end power factor is 0,68 and sending end voltage 1.5 times receiving end
voltage. Addition of 75 MVAR synchronous condenser at receiving end improves the sending
end power factor to 0.88 and reduces the voltage drop in transmission line by 50 per cent. In
addition the synchronous condenser reduces the switching surges due to the sudden connection
or disconnection of the line to the system.
25.38 COMPARISON OF SERIES AND SHUNT COMPENSATION
25.38.1 Advantags of Series Compensat
1
2
3.
(SVS)
Series compensation is some what cheaper than SVS
Losses in series compensation are lower than in SVS
Series compensation lowers the critical or collapse voltage. Thus chances of voltage
collapse are reduced.
Series compansation can help in load division in parallel circuits.
Series capacitors are generally self regulatory and require little or no control equipment.
Series compensation improves system stability (both steady state and transient state)
eee
2
25
25.
it
adva
A3]
load
volta
equi
Solu
@
Us Load Frequency and MVAR Voltage Control. 834
25.38.2 Disadvantages of Series Compensation
1. Series compensation is effective only during heavy loads, During light load conditions
shunt compensation has to be provided.
2. Whenever an outage occurs on a line with series compensation, the series compensation
has to be removed. This may cause overloading of other parallel lines.
3. Ifseries compensation is to be added to an existing system it is generally necessary to
have it on all lines in parallel
4. System outages may cause high voltage on one side of series capacitors.
5. Additional expenses are needed to solve the problems of sub-synchronous resonance,
line protection etc,
25.38.3 Advantages of SVS
1. SVS provides a better control of voltage profile
2. Its effective even in off peak conditions.
3. SVS provides fast control over temporary overvoltages
25.38.4 Disadvantages of SVS
1. It is more expensive than series compensation scheme.
2. Its overload capability is limited.
3. Toreduce the overall cost, it is preferable to use mechanically switched capacitor banks
in addition to SVS.
It is prudent to have a combination of both the series and shunt compensation for best overall.
advantages.
Seine ena
‘A3 phase long line has constant A = 0.98.23° and B= 110 275° ohm per phase, (a) If the
load is 50 MVA, 0.8 power factor lagging, find the capacity of shunt compensation equipment if
voltages at the two ends of the line are 132 kV each (b) Find the capacity of shunt compensation
equipment ifthe voltages at the two ends are to be maintained at 132 kV under no load condition.
Solution
(a) Using Eq. (4.742)
503 09 = B22 a (8-6)- pasa east
or 40 = 158.4 cos (8-5) 47.97
or (B- 5) =56.26"
Using Eq, (4.74)
Be sn in(56.26°)- pes Coe)" sin(75°-3°)
15.91 MVar
Thus for the given operating conditions, a leading Mvar of 15.91 must be drawn from the
line along with real power of 40 MW. Since the load requires 50 * 0.6 i.e., 30 MVar lagging, 832. Power System Analysis and Design
the static capacitors must deliver (30 + 15.91) ie,, 45.91 MVar lagging (or absorb 45.91 MVar
leading). The capacity of shunt compensation equipment is, therefore, 45.91 MVar.
(6) Using Eq. (4.74)
oe ~ 132x132
110
0 = 158.4 cos (B -8)-47.97
(B- 8) =72.37°
0.98 (132)
110
cos(B-65) cos (75° - 3°)
or
or j
Using Eq, (4.746)
132x132
110
=3.33 MVar
Thus under no load condition the line delivers 3.33 MVar at the receiving end, This reactive
power must be absorbed by shunt reactor atthe receiving end. Thus the capacity of shunt reactor,
for no load condition, is 3.33 MVar,
25.39 VOLTAGE CONTROL USING TAP CHANGING TRANS-
FORMERS
Another method of voltage control is through the use of tap changing transformers. Almost all
transformers are provided with taps on the winding for adjusting the ratio of transformation. Taps
are usually provided on the high voltage winding to enable a fine control of voltage. Generally the
tap changing can be done only when the transformer is in de-energised state, However in some
cases tap changing is also possible when the transformer is energised and such transformers are
known as tap changing under load (TCUL) transformers. These transformers make it possible
to maintain a constant voltage level on important busses in the system.
oy?
sin 72.37) - 2250
sin (72°)
—,
OA
Fig. 25.28 Voltage control of a line using tap changing transformer.
Fig, 25.28 shows a line, with impedance R + jX having tap changing transformers at its two
ends. Let ¢, and ¢, be the fractions of the nominal transformation i.e., tap ratio/nominal ratio
e.g. a transformer with nominal ratio 11/33 kV when tapped to convert 11 kV to 36 kV has
1, = 36/33 = 1.09. V, and V, are the nominal voltages at the sending end and receiving end
respectively. When taps are used, the actual sending end and receiving end voltages would be t, V,
and f, V,, The product t,t, is generally made unity so that overall voltage level remains in the same
order and the minimum range of taps is used. The tap ratios ¢, and , can be determined as under:
1V, = tV_ + IZ = 1,0, + IRoos0+ IX sin® (25.67)
Where 8s the power factor angle of load and equals tan” (Q/P)
Since
Subsi
or
or
For ¢
Eq, (25.
A220kK
has ano.
20+) 6
product
Solutio:
Using
or
25.40
Tap ‘chan
capacitor LE ————
“|.
Load Frequency and MVAR Voltage Control 833
7 since 1cosd=—P- and Isind=——, we get
1h
xo
=1¥; — wo (25.68)
Why, (25.68)
Substituting 1,= It, in Eq. (25.68)
+ 1]
: {ARP + XO) ]
i 7
Vy, GRP + XQ)
or a
h We
ve 0 wre)
or Ce — .. (25.69)
i | WV,
For complete compensation V, = ¥, and f, can be found from Eq. (25.69). ¢ = Ir, In
Eq, (25.69) all quantities are in per phase.
. eae
A220 kV line has tap changing transformers at both ends. The transformer at the sending end
aps
the tas a nominal ratio 11/220 KV and that atthe receiving end 220/11 kv. The line impedance is
me 20 + 60 ohm andthe load atthe receiving end is 100 MVA, 0.8 power factor lagging. If the
are product ofthe two off-nominal tap settings is 1, find the tp settings t0 give 11 KV at load bus.
ible Solution
pa 100x08x10" 9667x108 W
6
= 100x06200 = 20x10" Vars,
= 220 19? =127.02x10? V
Using Eq. (25.69)
_20%26.67x10° saransit) “4
(127.02x10°)°
1
1, = 1,058 ands, =--=0.95
25.40 COMBINED USE OF TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMERS
AND REACTIVE POWER INJECTION
‘Tap changing transformers can also be used in conjunction with var injection using static
5.67)
capacitors or synchronous condensers. Fig. 25.29(a) shows the usual configuration where the
RGR EBS
g 834 Power System Analysis and Design
static var system is connected to the tertiary of the transformer. The equivalent circuit is
shown in Fig. 25.29(b). The three winding transformer can be represented by three reactances
P, s
vb
+
STATIC var Ly,
SYSTEM t J
Q,
STATIC var
SYSTEM
Fig. 25.29
connected in star (resistances have been neglected), The reactance of the line between V, and
transformer or Y, and transformer can be combined with reactances X, and X, respectively. If
the transformer is at the receiving end of the line, the reactance X, would be small as compared
toX, and can, therefore, be neglected, V, is the line to neutral voltage of the star point. The power
flow from primary to secondary is P+/O. The active power of static var equipment is assumed
to be zero and its reactive power is Q, per phase
2
V,=V, +IX, sind=V, + (25.70)
For given values of V,,A, and Q, the value of V, can be determined. Generally the value of
Vis determined for more than one condition of system operation and transformation ratio and
tap settings are chosen to give satisfactory voltage level at full load as well as at no load.
A three winding transformer is rated at 132/33/11 KV. The MVA ratings of the three windings
are 75, 50 and 25 MVA respectively. The reactance of primary is 0.12 p.u. on 132 kV, 75 MVA
base. A static var compensating equipment is connected to the tertiary winding. Neglecting
losses find the tap settings to give satisfactory operation under the following two conditions:
(@ Load of 60 MW, 50 Mvar with primary and secondary voltage limits of 125 and 33 kV.
The static var system is disconnected.
(0) No load condition, SVS absorbing 25 Mvar and primary and secondary voltage limits
140 kV and 33 kV.
Solution
Since X, is given in pu, all calculations will be done in pu. Base kV = 132, Base MVA = 75
(a) V, = 125/132 = 0.947 p.u.
50
= — = 0,667 pu.
Q= 7, =0.667 pu
Using Eq. (25.70)
oar = v, + 0120667
or
or
(b)
The
or
Trat
Trar
The
or 3.74
25.4)
A speci
transfo.
change
ofarel
transfo:
25.41
Fig. 25.
control
winding ——
Load Frequency and MVAR Voltage Control 835
or | ¥2-0.947¥, + 0.08 =0
or V, = 0.853 pu = 0,853 132 =112.6 kV.
® V, = 140/132 =1.06 pu
25
= ==0.333
O75 pu
Therefore 106= 7,420 a
or V, = 1,021 pau. = 134.77 kV
‘Transformation ratio under load condition = 112.6133 = 3.412
“Transformation ratio under no load condition = 134.77/33 = 4.084
‘The actual ratio can be taken as mean of the above two values ic. 3.748 varying by + 0.336
or 3.748 4 8.96%. Hence tap setting required is + 8.96%.
25.41 REGULATING TRANSFORMER
‘A special type of transformer designed for small adjustments of voltage is known as regulating
‘transformer, The MVA rating of regulating transformer is quite small and it can be used to
change the voltage at a point by a small amount. It can be brought into the circuit by the closure
of a telay whose operation can be controlled by system voltage or system current. A regulating
transformer can be used for voltage magnitude control or phase angle control.
Yon
he Van + AVan 9
REGULATING
= TRANSFORMER
Fig. 25.30 Regulating transformer for voltage magnitude control.
25.41.1 Regulating Transformer for Voltage Magnitude Control
Fig, 25.30 shows a typical arangement to use a regulating transformer for voltage magnitude
control in a3 phase circuit, A3 phase transformer provides an adjustable voltage to the primary
windings of the regulating transformer. The secondary windings of the regulating transformer 836 Power System Analysis and Design
are connected in series with the lines. Thus a voltage magnitude | A/’|is added to the voltage of
each phase. | AV | for each phase is in phase with the voltage of that phase. As mentioned earlier,
the changes in voltage magnitudes mainly affect the reactive power flow. Therefore this method
ccin be used to control the flosv of reactive power in the system.
25.41.2 Regulating Transformer for Voltage Phase Angle Control
Fig, 25.31 (a) shows the use ofa regulating transformer for phase angle control. The voltage added
to each phase voltage is displaced by +: 90° from it. As seen from Fig, 25.31 (6) this arrangement.
does not cause any change in the magnitude of phase voltages. However the phase angles are
changed and the change in phase angle is approximately proportional to the magnitude of added
voltage |AV |, As mentioned earlier the phase angles contro the flow of real power in the system,
Therefore this method can be used to control real power flow in the system.
ls Vin,
A 132 kV 3 phase line is fed through 11/32 kV transformer from a constant 11 kV
supply. At the load end the voltage is reduced by another transformer of nominal ratio
132/11 KV. The total impedance of the line and transformers at 132 KV is (25+ j 66) ohms, Both
transformers are equipped with tap changing facilities which are so arranged that the product
of two off-nominal settings is unity, Ifthe load on the system is 100 MW at 0.9 p.f. lagging
calculate the settiags of tap changes required to maintain the voltage at load bus bar at 11 kV.
Solution
Active Power per phase P = wx 106 =33.33x10° W
cos 0=0.9 tan 0=0.484
100 0,484.
=x
Reactive Power per phase Q = 10° =16.14x10° vars
Line reactance R = 25 ohms per phase
Line reactance X= 66 ohms per phase
or
or
25.
25.
The i
pows
contr
25.
Facts
St
and |
inth
25.
Fig.
one} see
d
t
e
d
L
meres
Load Frequency and MVAR Voltage Cohtrot 837
Using Eq, (25.69).
132 93 3
id 2x10) =76.21x10V
‘ 3
2{-RP+40|
L ah lh
. 2 25x 33.33 108 + 66%16.14x10°
" ‘ 76.21x76.21
or 2 (10.3268) =1 or 1, = 1.2188
25.42 FACTS CONTROLLERS
25.42.1 Advantages
‘The invention of fast switching devices i. thyristors and other similar components prompted
power system engineers to device Fact (Flexible AC Transmission) contollers for power system
vomtol Tn general the use of Facts Controllers leads to one or more of te following advantages,
Reduction of system losses
|. Optimal system operation
Control of power as per requirement
Increase in line capacity
Increase in transient stability limit
Flexibility in operation
Reduction of vars flow in lines thus allowing more active power flow over the lines
Improved voltage profile ofthe lines
Elimination of problems like voltage fluctuations, sub synchronous resonance ete.
een away ner
25.42.2 Types
Facts controllers can be divided into following types.
1. Series controllers
2. Shunt controllers
3. Combined series — series controllers
4, Combined series ~ shunt controllers
Static var system or SVS (also called static var compensator or SVC) isa facts controler
and has been disoussed in section 25.34. Some other important facts controllers are discussed
in the following section.
25.42.3 Static Phase Shifting Transformer (SPST)
Fig. 25.32 illustrat the principle of SPST. For the purpose of clarity it has been shown only for
one phase. The connections for the other two phases are similar. 838 Power System Analysis and Design
The primary of excitation transformer is fed from the system. The secondary of ET feeds
a converter: The converter feeds the primary of boost transformer. The secondary of boost
transformer is connected in series with the line.
R
Boost
Transformer
Excitation
Transformer vO)
‘Converter
Fig. 25.32 Static Phase Shifting Transformer.
Itis seen that by addition ofa voltage is series with the line (through the boost transformer).
the magnitude of line voltage as well as phase angle can be changed. The change of phase
angle is possible because the voltage V,, (i. ¥,~ V,) in the three phase system leads the phase
voltage V, by 90°. Similarly V,, leads V, and V,_ leads V, by 90°. The converter can control the
‘magnitude and polatity of the quadrature voltage injected into the line by the boost transformer.
Fig. 25.33 shows a single line diagram of the converter used in SPST. This converter may
consists of two 3 phase voltage source converters as shown. As in any converter configuration
the function of capacitor is to eliminate the harmonics.
7 beVe>|
‘ Line
conalean Leo Boost
Transformer
Excitation
Transformer
Voltage =" Voltage
source source
inverter 1} —L_ inverter 2
Fig. 25.33 Voltage Source Convertor for SPST.
Vis the initial line to neutral voltage of the line and Vis the ‘voltage injected into the line
through the boost transformer. The voltage V, is, in general, having a phase difference 20 with j
respect to V; ie. {
V,=V, 20
25.42.4 Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)
The function of STATCOM is similar to that of SVS (or SVC). It can inject lagging or leading
vars into the power system.
AS
power
obtain
As
conve
into th
voltag
vars ts
voltag
times
any re
Fig
Pe
oper:
Tl
25.
The
seri¢
thes
drog
des —s
Load Frequency and MVAR Voltage Control 839
A STATCOM issimilarto asynchronous condense. Ina synchronous condenser the reactive
is }
st. | __ power is generated by controlling the field current, However in a STATCOM the same result is
| ‘obtained by using voltage source converter.
‘Avsimple diagram of STATCOM is shown in Fig. 25.33. The de voltage of the battery 18
converted into ac voltage by the voltage source converter using GTO. This ac voltage is injected
into the line through the transformer. {f output voltage of of converter is more than line
voltage, the converter draws negative (Le. capacitive) reactive power and thus supplies lagging
vars to the system. This is needed during times of heavy loads. However if £,, is less than line
voltage, the converter absorbs lagging vars and thus generates leading vars. This is needed at
times of low load. If, is equal to line voltage, the STATCOM is floating i. it is not supplying
any reactive power to the system.
Fig, 25.35 shows the’ V — I characteristics of STATCOM
v — tine
POO
—|—.,
). Voltage
se ‘Source
Converter
Battery
Fig. 25.34 STATCOM. Fig. 25.35. V-i Characteristics of STATCOM,
Positive current F indicates inductive operation and negative current indicates capacitive
cperation, V, indicates floating condition
‘Though STATCOM does the function of synchronous condenser it has the following
advantages over synchronous condenser.
1. STATCOM has no rotating parts
2. STATCOM does not add to the short circuit current of the system.
3, STATCOM has very fast response.
i 4. STATCOM does not have the problem of loss of synchronism. ©
| 5, STATCOM requires less maintenance.
ae 25.42.5 Static Synchronous Series Compensator. (SSSC or S°C)
th
‘The effect of SSSC in electric power transmission is similar to that of series compensation, In
series compensation the series capacitor compensates the inductive reactance of the line, Ifline
serpent i the voltage across series capacitor is JX, where X. isthe capacitive reactant of
the series capacitor. Since the voltage drop across Line inductance, s+ 1K» the two voltage
drops cancel each other thus reducing the effect of ine inductance, Die to this the power transfer
1g capability of the line is increased.
Fig, 25.36 shows a simple diagram to illustrate the working of SSSC. The supply from a
de cabace is converted to ac by the converter. The ac is fed to the line through the coupling 840 Power System Analysis and Design
‘transformer. Thus a quadrative voltage is injected into the line. The voltage injected into the
line fags behind the line current by 90° thus providing series compensation. The voltage and
current for controlling the opcration of converter are derived from the system through PT and
CT as shown in Fig, 25.36.
Circuit Breaker
ct,
Line Line
Coupling Laveen AG ;
Transformer ram PT
Converter ——| Controi |,
Ly
Battery
Fig. 25.36 Static Synchronous Series Compensator,
25.42.6 Unified Power Flow Converter (UPFC)
Fig. 25.37 shows a schematic diagram of UPFC. It consists of two voltage source converters,
one shunt connected and the other series connected. When switches 1 and 2 are open the two
converters operate independently. VSCI along with its transformer operates as STATCOM and
VSC2 alone with its transformer operates as SSSC. It the switches are closed, real power cin be
exchanged between the converters, UPFC enables control of both real and reactive power flow
in the line. The word unified signifies that all parameters which affect power flow in the line
(Ge. voltage, phase angle, impedance) can be controlled, The de source for the two converters
'may be separate or common, The shunt converter provides the necessary power and also injects
reactive current atthe converter bus.
The concept of combining convertors can be extended to provide more flexibility ¢g, GUPFC
(generalised UPFC) has three converters, one shunt connected and two series connected. The
‘otal number of configurations, even while using two converters, can be upto 11 depending on
the requirement, UPFC can be connected either at the sending end ot receiving end of line.
Circuit breaker
a9 tT
Intermediate Intermediate
Transformer Transformer
Switch 1
Voltage “+1 vottage
Source | = = source
Converter2_ | —E | Converter 1
‘S88C Swich2 ~~ sTaTcom
Hg. 25.37 Schematic diagram of UPFC,
Find
chang
Solut
Two
capacit
no loac
Soluti:
Let]
Loac
Loac
Two ge
intercon
changes
and 302 Load Frequency and MVAR Voltage Control 841
_Example 25.29._
Find primary ALFC loop parameters for a control area from the following data
Total rated area capacity = 2000 MW
Normal operating load = 1000 MW
Inertia constant H = 5
Regulation = 2.4 Hz/p.u, MW
Assume that load frequency dependeney is linear and 1% change in frequency causes 1%
change in load. [RGPV Bhopal 2009}
Solution
0.01x1000
0.0150
20
= —— = 0.01 pu.
Sua pu. MW/Hz
=20MW/Hz
£ =100 Hepa Mw
7-24.
{D- 50x00
= 20 seconds
Two synchronous generators operate in parallel and supply a total load of 400 MW. Their
capacities are 200 MW and 500 MW and both have governor droop characteristics of 4% from
no load to full load. Find load taken by each machine and system frequency.
[RGPV Bhopal 2007]
Solution
Let load supplied by machine 1 be Z,. Then load supplied by machine 2 is (400 - L,) MW.
4 (400-1)
50~ 55 % 0.08 = 50~ a x 0.04
or L, = 114.3 MW
Load supplied by 200 MW generator = 114.3 MW
Load supplied by 500 MW generator = 400 ~ 114.3
= 285.7 MW
04x 114.3
fre =50- = 49.977 i
quency i iz
Two generating stations have full load capacity of 200 MW and 75 MW respectively. The
interconnector connecting the two stations has a generator of 25 MW full capacity. The percentage
changes of speeds of A, B, C are 5, 4 and 3 respectively. Loads at bus bars A and B are 75 MW
and 30 MW. Find load on set C and direction of flow of power. [RGPV Bhopal 2007] 842. Power System Analysis and Design
Solution
System is shown in Fig. 25.38.
® ©
75 MW © 30 MW
Fig. 25.38
All the three generators must operate at same speed so that frequency is same.
Let load on A= L,
load on B= L,
Total load = 75 + 30 = 105 MW
Load on C= 105~(L, +L,)
.05 .
Then 5-295 7, = 50-2% y,
200 8 aa
or 1,=2.133L, O) _——
Forace
Also 0.03[105~(L.+Z2)] _ 0.04 Ly ay The gen
25, 5 By how
Solutio
From Eqs. (i) and (if)
1, = 62.60 MW, L, = 29.35 MW
105 ~(L, +L,) = 13.05 MW
‘Thus station Cis generating 13.05 MW. Out of this power, station C is supplying (75 — 62.60)
ie, 12.40 MW to station bus at A and (13.05 ~ 12.40) ie, 0.65 MW to station bus B.
‘A230 KV line is fed by 33/230 kV transformer from 33 KV system. Fig. 25.39 shows the {Bxciny
configuration. The line impedance is 30 + j 80 ohms. Both transformers have tap changing FortheL
facilities and tappings are arranged so that two off nominal tap settings have a product of 1 MW and
System load is 150 MW at 0.9 p.£. find settings of tap changers to maintain the voltage of load
bus at 33 kV. [RGPY Bhopal 2007}
. 30 +} 80 ohm
OOF
thy
Fig. 25.39
Solution
Solution
= 50 10°W
150x108
3 60)
ging
of 1.
load
007)
Load Frequency and MVAR Voltage Control 843
tan ¢= tan (cos 0.9) = 0.484
se = 242% 10° Var
== x10" = 132.79 «10 V
B
3050 10° +80 24.2%10°
(132.79x10°),
i ail
Lu4, 1, : = 0.89767
For acertain turbine generator set R= 0.04 p.u. based on generator rating of 100 MVA and 60 Hz.
The generator frequency decreases by 0.02 Hz and the system adjusts to steady state operation,
| By-how much does the turbine power output increase [RGPY Bhopal 2006]
| Solution ,
j R= 0.04 p.u. = 0.04 x 60 = 2.4 Hz/p.u, MW
24
= = = 0.024 Ha/MW
0
I I
=-
