Unit – II: National Income Accounting

Concepts and measurement of National Income (numerical examples preferred); Circular flow of
income – Real and Nominal GDP –Implicit deflator. [L 6 / Marks:6]

Unit – III: Determination of Equilibrium Level of National Income

Simple Keynesian Model; Consumption, saving and investment functions – National income
determination; Investment multiplier, Government expenditure multiplier, Tax multiplier,
Balanced Budget multiplier. [L 10 / Marks:10]
Unit – IV: Commodity market and Money market equilibrium
Concept of demand for Money: Liquidity Preference Approach; Derivation of IS and LM curves
–Shifts of IS and LM curves-equilibrium in IS-LM model – Effectiveness of monetary and fiscal
policies. [L 10 / Marks:10]

Unit – V: Money, Inflation and Unemployment

Concept of supply of money; Measures of money supply – High powered money – Money
multiplier. Concept of Inflation – Demand-pull and Cost-push theories of inflation – Monetary
and fiscal policies to control inflation; Unemployment: Voluntary and Involuntary, Frictional and
Natural Rate of Unemployment (Concepts only). [L 12 / Marks:12]

Suggested Readings
• W. H. Branson, Macro Economic Theory and Policy
• Joydeb Sarkhel, Macro Economic Theory
• Mazumdar & Chatterjee, Macroeconomics & Advanced Business Mathematics, ABS
• Dornbusch, Fischer & Startz, Macroeconomics, TMH
• Samuelson & Nordhaus, Macroeconomics, McGraw Hill

Module II
Advanced Business Mathematics
Internal Assessment: 10 marks
Semester-end Examinations: 40 marks
Total 50 marks

1 Functions,Limit and Continuity: Definition of functions, Classification of functions,

Different types of functions(excluding trigonometrical functions), Elementary ideas of
limit and continuity through the use of simple algebraic functions. [ 8 L /8Marks]
2 Differentiation and Integration: Derivative and its meaning; Rules of differentiation;
Geometrical interpretation; Significance of derivative as rate measure; Second order
derivatives; Integration as anti-derivative process; Standard forms; Integration by
substitution. [ 8 L /8Marks]
3 Applications of Derivativeand Integration: Maximum and minimum values ; Cost
function ; Demand function ; Profit function; Increasing and decreasing functions ; Rate
measure, Applied problems on Average cost (AC), Average variable cost (AVC),
Marginal cost (MC), Marginal revenue (MR), Simple area calculation by integration
method. [ 8 L /8Marks]
 4 Determinants: Determinants upto third order, Elementary properties of determinants,
Minors and co-factors, Solution of a system of linear equations by Cramer's Rule (up to
three variables). [ 8 L /8Marks]
5 Matrix: Definition of matrix, Types of matrices, Operations on matrices (addition,
subtraction, multiplication), Adjoint of a matrix, Inverse of a matrix , Solution of a
system of linear equations by matrix inversion method (up to three variables).
[ 8 L /8Marks]

Suggested Readings

• Basic Mathematics and its Application in Economics – S. Baruah (Macmillan )

• Mathematics for Economics and Business – R. S. Bhardwaj (Excel Books)
• Mathematical Analysis for Economists - R. G. D. Allen(Macmillan)
• Mathematics for Management – M. Raghavachari ( Tata McGraw-Hill )
• Mathematics for Business, Economics and Social Science – F. S. Budnick(Tata McGraw Hill)
• Advanced Business Mathematics – J. Chakraborti ( Dey Book Concern)
• Advanced Business Mathematics – R K Ghosh & S Saha ( New Central Book Agency(P) Ltd
• Advanced Business Mathematics – Dr. Priyotosh Khan ( Elegant Publication)
• Advanced Business Mathematics – Dr. S N De (Chhaya Prakashani)
• Advanced Business Mathematics - N K Nag & S K Nag ( Kalyani Publishers)
• Advanced Business Mathematics – Dr. Ranjit Dhar (Dishari Prakashani)

DSE 5.2 A
CORPORATE ACCOUNTING
Full Marks – 100

Internal Assessment: 20 marks

Semester-end Examinations: 80 marks
Total 100 marks

Marks shown against the units indicate marks for Semester–end Examinations
s Introduction to

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES Matrices

Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Matrix
1.2.1 Types of Matrices
1.3 Matrix Algebra
1.3.1 Equality of Matrices
1.3.2 Addition and subtraction of two Matrices
1.3.3 Multiplication of Matrix by a scalar quantity
1.3.4 Multiplication of Two Matrices
1. 4 Transpose of a Matrix
1.4.1 Symmetric Matrices
1.4.2 Skew Symmetric Matrices
1.4.3 Orthogonal Matrices
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.6 Key Words
1.7 Some Useful Books
1.8 Answer or Hints to Check Your Progress
1.9 Exercises with Answer/Hints

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to understand:
i) Basic concept of matrix;
ii) Types of the matrices;
iii) Basic operations of matrix algebra; and
iv) Transpose of a matrix.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Matrix (matrices in plural) is an arrangement of numbers into rows and
columns. Because of its features of (i) compact notation for describing sets of
data and (ii)efficient methods for manipulating data sets, it becomes a handy
tool for finding solutions to problems which can be represented in linear
equation system. Needless to say, matrix algebra finds wide applications
covering the fields such as Engineering, Economics and Business, Sociology,
Statistics, Physics, Medicine and Information Technology. For a better
understanding of the applications, consider the following examples:
sociologists use matrices to study the dominance within a group;
demographers use these to study births and survivals, industries and
businesses take the help of matrices for fast and accurate in decision making
in the areas like evaluation of customers preferences to produce and sell.
Some use linear programming techniques that is based on matrix
formulations of data to maximise profit and thus plan production or 5
 Business Mathematics availability of raw materials. Use also is made of the matrices to arrive at a
decision on the location of business, marketing of the products or arranging
financial resources. Economists use matrices to examine Inter-Industry flows,
for studying game theory and to construct the system of social accounting.
Moreover, in medical studies, scientists use data in matrix form to determine
a statistically valid rate of efficacy of a drug before prescribing it in hospitals
and pharmacies. Many IT companies also use matrices as data structures to
track user information, perform search queries, and manage databases.

Check Your Progress 1

1) What is a matrix?
2) Why would industries and businesses use matrices?
3) Matrix formulation of data that is used in linear programming is used
for what purposes?

1.2 MATRIX
Definition: A matrix is defined as a rectangular array of numbers arranged in
rows and columns enclosed by a pair of brackets viz., [ ] or ( ) . For
example, the following array of numbers shows a matrix as

11 42 22 84

10 15 60 25

41 28 45 51

On the basis of number of rows and columns that a matrix has, we decide its
dimension or its order. By convention, rows are expressed first while
columnssecond in a matrix. Since the above matrix has 3 rows and 4
columns, we say that its dimension (or order) is 3 x 4,
The numbers that appear in the rows and columns are called elements of the
matrix. In the matrix above, the element in the first column of the first row is
11; the element in the second column of the first row is 42. Following the
same logic, we can identify the other elements.

A matrix is usually denoted by a capital letter and it’s elements by

corresponding small letters with two subscripts which indicate row and
column. For example, an element represented as a23 in a matrix, is read as its
to be position in 2nd row and 3rd column. Thus, a matrix having m rows and n
columns can be written as

��� ��� ��� . ���

� ��� ��� ��� . ��� �
� ��� ��
� = � ��� ��� ��� .
� . . . . . �
���� ��� ��� . ��� �

6
s The above matrix can also be written as Introduction to
Matrices
A = [aij}mxn where I = 1,2,3…m
J=1,2,3…..n
Indicating a m x n order matrix.

1.2.1 Types of Matrices

We will discuss the most commonly used matrices to be able to use these in
business related problems. Some other types will be taken up once we get
familiar with transpose of matrix.
1) Rows Matrix: A matrix which has only one row ora matrix of order 1
x n is called row matrix.
Example 1:
�−3 0 1�
2) Columns Matrix: A matrix which has only one column ora matrix of
order m x 1 is called column matrix.
Example2:

−2
0
� �
2
1
3) Rectangular Matrix: A matrix is said to be rectangular if the number
of rows is not equal to the number of columns.
Example 3:
3 7 9
� �
4 6 9
4) Square Matrix: A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the
number of columns is called square matrix i.e., the matrix of order m x
n is a square matrix, if m = n.
Example 4:
1 −2 1 −3
−3 0 5 1
� �
2 2 1 −2
1 1 −1 2
5) Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix in which all the elements except the
diagonal elements are zero is called diagonal matrix.
Square Matrix A = [aij] is a diagonal matrix if aij = 0 for all I≠j
Example5:
1 0 0 0
0 −3 0 0
� �
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 2
7
 Business Mathematics 6) Scalar Matrix: A diagonal matrix in which all the diagonal elements
are the same is called scalar matrix.
Example 6:
−3 0 0 0
0 −3 0 0
� �
0 0 −3 0
0 0 0 −3
7) Identity Matrix (Unit matrix):A scalar matrix in which all the
diagonal elements are one is called unit matrix or an identity matrix. An
identity matrix is denoted by capital letter I.
Example 7:
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
� �
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
8) Triangular Matrix: A square matrix is said to be triangular if all of its
elements above the main diagonal are zero (lower triangular
matrix) or all of its elements below the main diagonal are zero (upper
triangular matrix).
Example 8:
i) Lower Triangular Matrix
1 0 0 0
3 2 0 0
� �
5 −1 −1 0
−2 3 2 1

ii) Upper Triangular Matrix

1 3 1 −2
0 2 1 5
� �
0 0 −1 3
0 0 0 1

9) Null or Zero Matrix: A square matrix in which all the elements are
zero is called zero matrix or null matrix. It is denoted by capital
letter O.
Example 9:
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
� �
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

10) Symmetric Matrix: Square Matrix A = [aij] is a Symmetric Matrix if

aij = aji for all i&j. we will revisit this matrix after covering the
transpose of matrix in this unit.

8
s 1 3 5 Introduction to
Example10: �3 2 −1� Matrices

5 −1 −1

11) Sub Matrix: A matrix obtained by deleting some rows or columns or

both of a given matrix is called sub matrix of the given matrix.
Example 11:
1 3
1 5
Matrices �3 2 � and � � are the Sub matrix of
5 −1
5 −1
1 3 5
�3 2 −1�
5 −1 −1

Check Your Progress 2

1) What are diagonal elements of a matrix?
2) Find the elements a21, a34, a24 and a11 in the following matrix

−5 12 5 9
7 6 3 1
� �
3 2 0 5
8 7 −4 2
Also find diagonal elements.
3) Find x and y if
�+� 2 3 2
� � =� �
1 �−� 1 7
4) Classify the following matrices:
−5
1 0 0 1 0 0
7
(i)�0 1 0� (ii) �3 2 0 � (iii)� �
3
0 0 1 5 −1 −1
8

0 0 0 1 3 5
(iv)�7 6 3 1� (v)�0 0 0� (vi) �0 2 −1�
0 0 0 0 0 −1

8 0 0 0 1 3 5
0 8 0 0 1 3 5 3 2 −1
(vii)� � (viii)� � (ix)� �
0 0 8 0 5 −1 −1 5 −1 −1
0 0 0 8 2 1 3

1.3 MATRIX ALGEBRA

In this section we will discuss the basic operations of matrices. We start with
the idea of matrix equality before taking up the operations of addition and
multiplication. In matrix algebra, the elements are ordered numbers and
9
 Business Mathematics therefore operations on them have to be done in ordered manner. It may be
useful to note that while we deal with the main operations such as addition
and multiplication. Other operations viz., subtraction and division are derived
out of those.

1.3.1 Equality of Matrices

Two matrices are equal if the following three conditions are met:
i) Each matrix has the same number of rows.
ii) Each matrix has the same number of columns.
iii) Corresponding elements within each matrix are equal.
The above conditions simply require that matrices under consideration are
exactly the same.
Example 12:
Consider the two matrices given below:
2 � 2 3
�= � � and B =� �
� 3 4 3
If A = B,then x = 3 and y = 4, since corresponding elements of equal matrices
have to be equal.
Further, suppose that we are given a matrix as follows:
� � �
� = �� � ��. Then C is neither equal to A nor to B as C has three
columns. Consequently, matrix C is not equal to either A or B.

1.3.2 Addition and Subtraction of two Matrices

• Matrices can be added or subtracted if and only if they are of the same
order.
• The sum or difference of two (m x n) matrices is another (m x n) matrix
whose elements are the sum or difference of the corresponding
elements of the given matrices.
For two matrices A = [aij]m x n and B = [bij]m x n
A±B=C
where C = [cij]m x n and cij = aij ± bij for all i & j.
Example 13:
0 2 3 7 3 5
For A = � � and B=� �
2 1 4 5 −1 −3
Here
0 2 3 7 3 5
A+B= � � + � �
2 1 4 5 −1 −3

0+7 2+3 3+5 7 5 8

=� � = � �
2 + 5 1 + (−1) 4 + (−3) 7 0 1

10
s And Introduction to
Matrices
0 2 3 7 3 5
A - B =� � - � �
2 1 4 5 −1 −3
0−7 2−3 3−5 −7 −1 −2
=� � = � �
2 − 5 1 − (−1) 4 − (−3) −3 2 7
Negation of a Matrix: The negation of a Matrix A is denoted by –A which is
obtained by replacing all the elements of A by their negation. For example, if

1 3 5 −1 −3 −5
A=� � then –A = � �
5 −1 −1 −5 1 1
So, the subtraction of two matrices A and B can be expressed as the sum of A
and the negation of matrix B.
A – B = A + (-B)

1.3.3 Multiplication of Matrix by a Scalar Quantity

If a Matrix is multiplied by a scalar quantity, then all the elements are
multiplied by that quantity.
If a Matrix A = [aij]m x n is multiplied by some scalar quantity λ then
λA = λ[aij]m x n
= [λaij}m x n
7 3 5 7 3 5
For example, if A = � �, then 3A = 3� � =
5 −1 −1 5 −1 −1
21 9 15
� �
15 −3 −3
Properties of Addition of Matrices
1) Addition of Matrices is Commutative: If A and B are two matrices of
same order, then
A+B=B+A
2) Addition of Matrices is Associative: If A, B and C are three matrices
of same order, then
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
3) Existence of Additive Identity: If A is a matrix and O is the null
matrix of the same order as that of A, then
A+O=O+A=A
4) Existence of Additive Inverse:For any Matrix,
A + (-A) = (-A) + A = O
The following example illustrates these properties:

1 3 5 5 1 3 6 1 −7
Let A = � �, B=� �, C=� �
5 −1 −1 6 −1 2 −2 0 5
0 0 0
and O = � �. Then
0 0 0
11
 Business Mathematics 1 3 5 5 1 3 6 4 8
A+B=� �+� � =� �;
5 −1 −1 6 −1 2 11 −2 1
5 1 3 1 3 5 6 4 8
B+A=� � +� �=� � = A + B;
6 −1 2 5 −1 −1 11 −2 1
6 4 8 6 1 −7 12 5 1
(A +B) + C = � �+� �=� �;
11 −2 1 −2 0 5 9 −2 6
5 1 3 6 1 −7 11 2 −4
B+C=� � + � �=� �;
6 −1 2 −2 0 5 4 −1 7
1 3 5 11 2 −4 12 5 1
A + (B+C) = � �+� �=� � = (A + B)
5 −1 −1 4 −1 7 9 −2 6
+C;

1 3 5 0 0 0 1 3 5
A+O=� �+� � =� � = A and
5 −1 −1 0 0 0 5 −1 −1
1 3 5 −1 −3 −5 0 0 0
A + (-A) = � �+� � =� � = O.
5 −1 −1 −5 1 1 0 0 0

1.3.4 Multiplication of Two Matrices

Two matrices meet the requirement of multiplication if the number of
columns of first matrix is equal to the number of rows of second matrix. If
the matrix � is of order � � � i.e.,it has � rows and � columns, then matrix
� must be of order � � � where � is number of rows and � is number of
columns which is not necessarily equal to �. Then the product �� is another
matrix � = � � � of the order � � � (number of rows of � and number of
columns of �).
Let A = [aij]mxnand B = [bij]nxp be two matrices.Then the product AB is the
Matrix C,
where C = [cij]mxp,cij = ∑���
��� ��� ��� for i =1,2,3….m & j=1,2,3,4……p

where

12
s Remark: In the matrix product AB, the matrix A is called the pre-factor and Introduction to
Matrices
matrix B is called post-factor.
Example 14:
0 1 2
1 3 5
Let A = � � and B = � 5 2 1�
5 −1 −1
−1 2 1
Here the order of matrix A is 2 x 3 and the order of matrix B is 3 x 3, so the
product AB is defined.
��� ��� ���
AB = �� ��� ��� �
��

Where c11 = (1x0) + (3x5) + (5x-1) = 0 + 15 – 5 = 10

c12 = (1x1) + (3x2) + (5x2) = 1 + 6 + 10 = 17
c13 = (1x2) + (3x1) + (5x1) = 2 + 3 + 5 = 10
c21 = (5x0) + (-1x5) + (-1x-1) = 0 - 5 + 1 = -4
c22 = (5x1) + (-1x2) + (-1x2) = 5 - 2 - 2 = 1
c23 = (5x2) + (-1x1) + (-1x1) = 10 - 1 - 1 = 8

10 17 10
Thus, AB = � �
−4 1 8
Consider these matrices A and B to see whether the product BA is defined.
You will find that it is not. Why? Because the number of columns in B is not
equal to the number of rows in A. This shows that matrix multiplication is
not commutative.
For two matrices A and B, if AB and BA both are defined, then it is not
necessary that they are equal.

1 3 1 2
For example, if A = � � and B = � � then
2 −1 3 4
10 14 5 1
AB = � � and BA = � �
−1 0 11 5
Here AB ≠ BA
For two matrices A and B if AB = O, then it is not necessary that either of
A, B is a null matrix.
Example 15:

1 0 0 0
Let A = � � and B = � �
0 0 0 1
0 0
Here AB = � � = O but neither A = O nor B = O.
0 0
Properties of Matrix Multiplication
1) Associativity: Matrix multiplication is associative. For three matrices
A, B and C of order m x n,n x p and p x q respectively,
(AB) C = A (BC)

13
 Business Mathematics 2) Distributive over Addition: Matrix Multiplication is distributive over
matrix addition. For three matrices A, B and C of order m x n, n x p
and p x q respectively,
A (B+C) = AB + AC
3) Identity: For any matrix A of order m x n, there is an identity matrix In
of order n x n and an identity matrix Im of order m x m such that Im A =
A = A In.
For a square matrix A of order nxn, In A = A In = A
Example 16:
1 2 1 0 1 −1
If A = � �, B = � � and C = � �, then show that
3 4 2 −3 0 1
(I) (AB) C= A (BC)
(II) A (B+C) = AB + AC
(III) AI = IA = A
Solution:

1 2 1 0 5 −6
i) AB = � �� �=� �
3 4 2 −3 11 −12
5 −6 1 −1 5 −11
(AB) C = � �� �=� �
11 −12 0 1 11 −23
1 0 1 −1 1 −1
BC = � �� �=� �
2 −3 0 1 2 −5
1 2 1 −1 5 −11
A (BC) = � �� �=� �
3 4 2 −5 11 −23
Therefore, (AB) C= A (BC)

1 0 1 −1 2 −1
ii) B+C= � � +� �= � �
2 −3 0 1 2 −2
1 2 2 −1 6 −5
A (B+C) = � �� �= � �
3 4 2 −2 14 −11
1 2 1 0 5 −6
AB = � �� �=� �
3 4 2 −3 11 −12
1 2 1 −1 1 1
AC = � �� � =� �
3 4 0 1 3 1
5 −6 1 1 6 −5
AB + AC = � �+� �=� �
11 −12 3 1 14 −11
Therefore, A (B+C) = AB + AC

1 0 1 2 1 2
iii) IA= � �� �= � � =A
0 1 3 4 3 4
1 2 1 0 1 2
AI= � �� � = � � =A
3 4 0 1 3 4

14 Hence, AI = IA = A
s Introduction to
Check Your Progress 3 Matrices
1) Check the following two matrices. State if they are equal. Give reason
to support your answer.
1 3 1 3 6
� � and � �
5 4 5 4 8
2) Suppose that the following two matrices are equal. What are the values
of x and y?
1 3 � 3
�= � �, B=� �
5 4 5 �
3) When do you say matrix multiplication is defined?
4) Explain with example the Properties of Matrix Multiplication.
5) When would you say a matrix operation is not commutative?
6) Why would you say that matrix addition is associative?

1.4 TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX

The new matrix obtained by interchanging rows and columns of the original
matrix is called its transpose. Suppose we have a matrix A= ���� �of order
� × �. We interchanged its raw and column. The matrix thus derived is
known as transpose of A and denoted by �� or �′ . Thus, if
3 2
3 4 7
A = �4 1 �, then A’ = � �.
2 1 −5
7 −5
For any Matrix A, AA’ and A’A are always defined but need not to be equal.
In the above matrices AA’ and A’A are defined but not equal because the
order of AA’ is 3 x 3 while the order of A’A is 2 x 2.
Properties of Transpose of a Matrix
i) (A’)’ = A
ii) (kA)’ = k A’ where k is some scalar quantity.
iii) (A + B)’ = A’ + B’
iv) I’ = I
v) (AB)’ = B’ A’

Example17:

2 3 3 4 1 0
Let A = � �, B = � � and I = � �
0 1 2 1 0 1
2 0 2 3
A’ = � � and (A’)’ = � �=A
3 1 0 1
2 3 6 9
3A = 3 � �=� �
0 1 0 3
6 0 2 0 6 0
(3A)’ = � � and 3A’=3� �=� � = (3A)’
9 3 3 1 9 3
15
 Business Mathematics 2 3 3 4 5 7
A+B=� �+� � = � �
0 1 2 1 2 2
5 2
(A + B)’ =� �
7 2
2 0 3 2 2 0 3 2 5 2
A’ = � � and B’ = � � so, A’ + B’ =� �+ � � =� � =
3 1 4 1 3 1 4 1 7 2
(A + B)’

2 3 3 4 12 11 12 2
AB = � �� � =� � and (AB)’ = � �
0 1 2 1 2 1 11 1
3 2 2 0 12 2
B’A’ = � �� � =� � = (AB)’
4 1 3 1 11 1

1.4.1 Symmetric Matrix

Matrix A is called symmetric matrix if A’ = A. For example, if
1 5 4
A = �5 2 −1�,
4 −1 3

1 5 4
A’ = �5 2 −1� = A. So A is a Symmetric Matrix.
4 −1 3

1.4.2 Skew Symmetric Matrix

Matrix A is called skew symmetric matrix if A’ = -A. For example, if

0 5 4
A = �−5 0 −1�,
−4 1 0
0 −5 −4 0 5 4
A’ = �5 0 1 � = -�−5 0 −1� = -A. So A is a skew symmetric
4 −1 0 −4 1 0
matrix.

1.4.3 Orthogonal Matrix

Matrix A is called orthogonal matrix if AA’ = A’A = I. For example, if

1 2 2
�
A = �� 2 1 −2�,
−2 2 −1
1 2 −2
�
A’ = � �2 1 2 �.
2 −2 −1

1 2 2 1 2 −2
� �
Now, AA’ = � � 2 1 −2� � �2 1 2�
−2 2 −1 2 −2 −1
16
s 9 0 0 1 0 0 Introduction to
� Matrices
= � �0 9 0� = �0 1 0� = I
0 0 9 0 0 1
Similarly, it also can be proved that A’A = I

Check Your Progress 4

1) What do you mean by is transpose of a matrix?
2 3 4
2) You are given a matrix A=� �. Verify that ��′ �′ = A.
1 −5 9
3) How do you get an orthogonal matrix using transpose rule?

1.5 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have discussed matrices which help find unique solution to
problems when expressed in equations of linear forms. The basic operations
viz., additions and multiplications have been taken up after introducing the
concept of a matrix and types of matrices. We have seen that matrix defined
as a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns. There are
matrices such as row and column matrices, identity, diagonal, null,
symmetric, rectangular, triangular and orthogonal. The unit closes with a
brief discussion on transpose of matrix which means obtaining a new matrix
by interchanging rows and columns of the original matrix. Some special
matrices like orthogonal and skew symmetric have been discussed in this
part.

1.6 KEY WORDS

Diagonal Matrix:Non-zero elements only in the diagonal running from the
upper left to the lower right.
Equality of Matrices:Two matrices are equal if each matrix has the same
number of rows, columns and corresponding elements within each are also
equal.
Identity matrix:A matrix usually written as I, with 1 (ones) on the main
diagonal and zeros elsewhere.
Lower Triangular Matrix: A special kind of square matrix with all its
entries above the main diagonal aszero.
Matrix Multiplication: A feasible operation when the number of columns
in a first matrix is equal to number of rows in a second matrix.
Matrix:A way of representing data in a rectangular array.
Negation of a Matrix: Elements of a matrix with their replacement by their
negation.
Orthogonal Matrix:Matrix A is called orthogonal matrix if AA’ = A’A = I
Rectangular Matrix:A matrix with the number of rows not equal to the
number of columns.
Scalar Matrix: A diagonal matrix in which all the diagonal elements are the
same.
Scalar: A single constant, variable, or expression.
17
 Business Mathematics Skew Symmetric Matrix:Matrix A is called Skew Symmetric matrix if A’ = -A
Square Matrix:A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number
of columns.
Sub Matrix:A matrix obtained by deleting some rows or columns or both of
a given matrix is called sub matrix of a given matrix.
Symmetric Matrix:A matrix is symmetric if it equals its own transpose.
Dimension(s) or Order: The number of rows and the number of columns in
a matrix.
Transpose of Matrix:New matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and
columns of the original.
Upper Triangular Matrix:A special kind of square matrix with all its
entries below the main diagonal as zero.
Zero (or null) Matrix:Matrix whose elements are all zeros.

1.7 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

• Allen, R.G.D., “Mathematical Analysis for Economists”, London:
English Language Book Society and Macmillan, 1974.
• Archibald, G.C., Richard G.Lipsey. “An Introduction to a
Mathematical Treatment of Economics”, Delhi: All India Traveller
Bookseller, 1984
• Chiang, A. and Kalvin Wainwright, Fundamental Methods of
Mathematical Economics (Paperback), Mac Grow Hill, 2017.
• Dowling, Edward,T. “Schaum’s Outline Series: Theory and
Problems ofMathematics for Economists”, New York: McGraw Hill
Book Company, 1986.
• K. Sydsaeter and P. Hammond, Mathematics for Economic Analysis,
PearsonEducational Asia, Delhi, 2002.
• Wegner, Trevor. (2016). Applied Business Statistics: Methods and Excel-
Based Applications, Juta Academic. ISBN 9781485111931
• Yamane, Taro, “Mathematics for Economists: An Elementary
Survey”,New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, 1970.

1.8 ANSWER OR HINTS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
1) Matrix is an arrangement of numbers into rows and columns.
2) Matrices are used by industries and businesses to arrive at a decision on
the location of business, marketing of the products or arranging
financial resources.
3) To plan production or availability of raw materials.

18
s Check Your Progress 2 Introduction to
Matrices
1) Diagonal Elements:All the elements aijare called diagonal elements if
i=j. The elements a11, a22, a33 …ann are diagonal elements. In the above
matrices the diagonal elements are 1, 4 in matrix A and 2, 0, -2 are in
matrix B and 1, 0, 1, 2 are in matrix C.
2) a21 = 7, a34 = 5, a24 = 1 and a11 = -5. Diagonal Elements are -5, 6, 0, 2.
3) x = 5, y = -2.
4) (i) Identity Matrix (ii) Lower Triangular Matrix (iii) Column Matrix
(iv) Row Matrix (v) Null Matrix (vi) Upper Triangular Matrix (vii)
Scalar Matrix (viii) 2 x 3 Matrix (ix) 4 x 3 Matrix
Check Your Progress 3
1) These two matrices are not equal since they are not of the same dimensions.
2) � =1 and � =4
3) The matrix multiplication AB is defined only when the number of
columns in A is equal to the number of rows in B.
4) Explain associativity, distributive and identity properties.
5) Consider matrices A and B to see whether the product BA is defined. If
not, that could be due to the number of columns in B is not equal to the
number of rows in A. Such a result indicates that matrix multiplication
is not commutative.
6) Because (A+B) +C = A +(B+C)
Check Your Progress 4
1) The new matrix obtained by interchanging rows and columns of the
original matrix is called its transpose.
2 1
2 3 4
2) Get ���′
=�3 −5�, then transpose it to get ��′ �′ = � �
1 −5 9
4 9
3) Take an example such that ��′ = �′ �=I

1.9 EXERCISES WITH ANSWER/HINTS

1) You are told that the following two matrices are equal. What are the
values of x, y, and z?

4 0 � 0
� = �6 −2� , � = �6 � + 4�
�
3 1 �
1

Ans.: Given that A = B, we must have all the corresponding entries

equal. So, we know that a1,1 = b1,1, a1,2 = b1,2, a2,1 = b2,1, and so forth.
Thus, 4 = x, –2 = y + 4 and 3 = z/3

4 0 � 0
Rewriting the matrices as �6 −2� = �6� � + 4�, then we solve for
3 1 �
1
x= 4, y = –6, and z = 9.
2) Why is matrix multiplication not commutative? 19
 Business Mathematics Ans.: When we do not use square matrices, we cannot even try to
commute multiplied matrices as the sizes wouldn't match. But even
with square matrices, we don't have commutative feature always. For
example, consider case of 2×2 matrices A and B.
��� ��� ��� ���
Let � = �� ��� � and � = ���� �,
�� ���
��� ��� + ��� ��� ��� ��� + ��� ���
then, AB = � �
��� ��� + ��� ��� ��� ��� + ��� ���
��� ��� + ��� ��� ��� ��� + ��� ���
BA= � �
��� ��� + ��� ��� ��� ��� + ��� ���
It may be noted that these matrices are not be the same unless we make
some very specific restrictions on the values for A and B. Since we take
the rows from the first matrix and multiply by columns from the
second, such a process switching the order changes the values.
2 −5 1 3 4 0 7 −6 2
3) If A = � �, B = � � and C =� �,
−2 −1 4 5 −2 3 1 −4 11
then evaluate
i) A+B
ii) B–C
iii) 2A + B – C
5 −1 1 −4 10 −2
Ans.: (i)� � (ii)� �
3 −3 7 4 2 −8
0 0 0
(iii)� �
0 0 0
4) Find the matrices A and B from the following relations
6 −6 0 3 2 5
2A – B = � � and 2B + A = � �
−4 2 1 −2 1 −7
3 −2 1 0 2 2
Ans.: A = � � B=� �
−2 1 −1 0 0 −3
9 1 1 5
5) If A =� � and B =� �, find the matrix X such that 3A + 5B +
4 3 7 12
2X = O
−16 −14
Ans. X= � �
−47/2 −69/2
1 2 1 0 1 −1
6) If A =� � , B =� � and C =� � then show that
3 4 2 −3 0 1
(i) A (B + C) = AB + AC (ii) (AB)C = A(BC)
4 2
7) If A = � �, find (A – 2I) (A – 3I).
−1 1
1 2
8) If A = � �, show that products AA’ and A’A are symmetric but not
3 4
equal.

20
 Determinants
UNIT 2 DETERMINANTS
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Computation of Value of a Determinant
2.3 Properties of Determinants
2.4 Minors and Cofactors
2.5 Use of Cramer’s Rule in Determinants to Solve System of Linear
Equations
2.6 Let Sum Up
2.7 Key Words
2.8 Some Useful Books
2.9 Answer or Hints to Check Your Progress
2.10 Exercises with Answer/Hints

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to understand:
1) Basic concept of Determinant
2) Difference between matrix and determinant
3) Cofactors and Minors of a Determinant
4) Application of determinant in solving a system of linear equations
(Cramer’s Rule)

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the preceding unit, we have seen simple operations of matrices which can
be used as a background material for obtaining solution in linear form
problems. In the present unit, we extend the discussion to determinant which
was discovered by Cramer during solving of system of linear equations.Note
that determinant is a numerical value and can be computed from the elements
of a square matrix.
The determinant of a matrix A is denoted det(A), det A, or |A|. Seen
geometrically, it can be viewed as the volume scaling factor of the linear
transformation described by the matrix. We get a determinant in positive or
negative value form.

Check Your Progress 1

1) Distinguish between matrix and determinant
2) How Cramer discovered determinant?
3) Determinant can be computed only from which type of matrix?
21
Business Mathematics
2.2 COMPUTATION OF VALUE OF A
DETERMINANT
The value of determinant can be calculated by the following procedure:
Consider a square matrix. For each element of its first row or first column get
its submatrix. Next multiply each of the selected elements with the
corresponding determinant of the submatrix. Finally, add them with alternate
signs.
Determinant of a Matrix whose order is one(n=1)

As a base case, the value of determinant of a 1*1 matrix is the single value
itself.

That is to say that if the Matrix A has only one element, then the element
itself is the determinant of matrix A, i.e.,

if A = [a], then |A| = a.

For Example, if A = [2] then |A| = 2.
Determinant of a Matrix whose order is two (n=2)
If the order of square matrix A is 2, then|A| = (multiplication of diagonal
elements) – (multiplication of off diagonal elements), i.e.,
��� ��� ��� ���
if A = �� ��� �, then |A| = ���� ��� � = (a11 x a22) – (a21 x a12).
��

2 3
For example, if A = � �then |A| = (2 x 2) – (1 x 3) = 4 – 3 = 1.
1 2
Determinant of a Matrix whose order is three (n=3)
� � �
Let A = �� � � �,
� ℎ �
� � � � � �
� �
Then ��� (�) = ��� � � � � � = �� � � � = � �� �
�−�� �+
ℎ � � �
� ℎ � � ℎ �
� �
�� �.
� ℎ
In other words, go across the first row of the matrix ,(� � �) . Multiply
each entry by the determinant of the2 × 2 matrix obtained from by
crossing out the row and column containing that entry.Then we add and
subtract the resulting terms, alternating signs (add the -term, subtract the
-term, add the -term.)
2 1 −1
For example, if � = �1 1 1 �, then
1 −2 −3

1 1 1 1 1 1
|A| = +2� � -1� �+ (-1)� �
−2 −3 1 −3 1 −2
= 2(-3 + 2) -1(-3 - 1) – 1(-2 - 1) = -2 + 4 + 3 = 5.
22
We can use the same method to compute the determinant of a 4 × 4 matrix.In Determinants
fact, the method seen above can be applied for any square matrix of any size.
Note that you don't have to use the first row only; you can use any row or any
column, as long as you know where to put the plus and minus signs. Thus,

��� ��� ��� . ���

���� ��� ��� . ��� �
� �
if � = ���� ��� ��� . ��� �then |A| = ∑���� (-1)i+jaij|Mij|, Where
� . . . . . �
���� ��� ��� . ��� �
Mijis the sub matrix of A obtained by striking off ithrow and jtht column.

Check Your Progress 2

1) What is the value of the determinant of a matrix with a single element?
� �
2) You are given the following matrix:� �.
� �
Find the value of its determinant.
3) What formula would you use to find the determinant of a square matrix
of any size?

2.3 PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS

i) If all the rows and columns of a determinant are interchanged then the
value of determinant does not change, i.e.,|A| = |At|

1 6 5 1 3 −2
For example,� 3 2 1 � = �6 2 0 �
−2 0 −3 5 1 −3

ii) If any two rows/columns of a determinant are interchanged, the value of

determinant remains the same but the sign is reversed.

1 6 5 −2 0 −3
For example,� 3 2 1 �=- � 3 2 1 �
−2 0 −3 1 6 5

iii) If any two rows/columns of a determinant are identical, the value of

determinant is zero.

1 6 5
For example,� 3 2 1� = 0
3 2 1

iv) If all the elements of a row/column of determinant are multiplied by

some number (say, k) then the value of the determinant is multiplied by
that number.
1 6 5 2�1 2�6 2�5
For example,� 3 2 1 �= 56and � 3 2 1 �
−2 0 −3 −2 0 −3
23
Business Mathematics 1 6 5
=2x� 3 2 1 � =2x56 =112.
−2 0 −3

v) If all the elements of a row/column of a determinant are

added/subtracted k-times the corresponding elements of another
row/column, the value of determinant remains unchanged.

1 6 5 1 + (2�6) 6 5
For example,� 3 2 1 � = 56 and � + (2�2)
3 2 1 �=
−2 0 −3 −2 + (2�0) 0 −3
13 6 5
�7 2 1 � = 56
−2 0 −3

vi) If all the elements of a row/column of a determinant are sum/difference

of two or more elements then determinant can be expressed as the
sum/difference of two or more determinants.

1 6 5 1 6 2+3 1 6 2
For example,� 3 2 1 �=� 3 2 0+1 �=� 3 2 0� +
−2 0 −3 −2 0 2 + (−5) −2 0 2
1 6 3
�3 2 1 �= - 24 + 80 = 56
−2 0 −5

Check Your Progress 3

1) You have interchanged two rows/columns of a determinant. What
happens to its value?
2) John is doing some manipulation with the rows and columns of a
determinant but getting the same value of it. What do you think he is
doing?
3) Seeta has multiplied all the elements of the last row of the square
matrix A with a constant �. What value of the corresponding
determinant should she get because of her action?
4) Smith made changes in a determinant so as to obtain two identical
columns. What value would he get of such a determinant?

2.4 MINORS AND COFACTORS

Minor of an element of a determinant
Let |A| = |��� | be a determinant of order n. The minor of the element ���
which exists in ithrow and jth column of the determinant |A|, is the
determinant left by striking off ithrow and jth column of |A|.

��� ��� ���

For a determinant ���� ��� ��� �of order 3,
��� ��� ���

24
 ��� ��� st st Determinants
the minor of a11 is �� ��� �, which is obtained by deleting 1 row and 1
��
column of

��� ��� ���

�
� �� ��� ��� �
��� ��� ���

��� ��� nd
Similarly the minor of a22 is �� ��� � which is obtained by deleting 2
��
row and 2nd column of

��� ��� ���

�
� �� ��� ��� �
��� ��� ���
Illustration:
7 5 9
Given matrix = �3 8 4� , find the minors of a32and a23.
6 2 1

7 9
The minor of a32 is � � = (7x4) – (9x3) = 28 – 27 = 1.
3 4

7 5
The minor of a23 is � � = (7x2) – (5x6) = 14 – 30 = -16.
6 2
Cofactor of an element of a determinant
The cofactor of an element of a determinant is the signed minor of that
element. The sign of minor is determined on the value of � and �, i.e., the
row and column in which the element exists. The cofactor of element��� is
denoted by ��� .

The cofactor of ��� = (−1)��� minor of ��� .

��� ��� ���

�
For a determinant � �� ��� ��� �of order 3,
��� ��� ���

��� ��� 2 ��� ��� ��� ���

the cofactor of a11 is A11 = (-1)1+1�� ��� � = (-1) ���� ��� � =���� ��� �
��

��� ��� 5 ��� ���

Similarly, the cofactor of a32 is A32 = (-1)3+2�� ��� � = (-1) �� ��� �
�� ��
��� ���
= – �� �
�� ���

The sign of minor is + if i + j is even and the sign of minor is – if i + j is odd.

25
Business Mathematics Illustration:
1 6 5
For the matrix � = � 3 2 1 �, let us find out the cofactors of all the
−2 0 −3
elements of the corresponding determinant of the matrix.
2 1
A11 = (-1)1+1� � = (-1)1+1(2x-3 – 0x1) = -6 – 0 = -6.
0 −3
3 1
A12 = (-1)1+2� � = (-1)1+2(3x-3 – 1x-2) = -(-9 + 2) = 7.
−2 −3
3 2
A13 = (-1)1+3� � = (-1)1+3(3x0 – 2x-2) = (0+ 4)= 4.
−2 0
6 5
A21 = (-1)2+1� � = (-1)2+1(6x-3 – 5x0) = -(-18 –0) = 18.
0 −3
1 5
A22 = (-1)2+2� � = (-1)2+2(1x-3 – 5x-2) = (-3+10) = 7.
−2 −3
1 6
A23 = (-1)2+3� � = (-1)2+3(1x0 – 6x-2) = -(0+12) = -12.
−2 0
6 5
A31 = (-1)3+1� � = (-1)3+1(6x1 – 2x5) = 6 – 10 = -4.
2 1
1 5
A32 = (-1)3+2� � = (-1)3+2(1x1 – 5x3) = -(1 – 15)= 14.
3 1
1 6
A33 = (-1)3+3� � = (-1)3+3(1x2 – 6x3) = 2 – 18 = -16.
3 2
Miscellaneous Examples:
1 2 0 −1
3 −1 4 1
Example1: If A = � � , find |A|.
−2 0 −3 3
4 3 1 2
Solution:
1 2 0 −1
3 −1 4 1
�=� �
−2 0 −3 3
4 3 1 2
−1 4 1 3 4 1 3 −1 1
|A| = 1� 0 −3 3� - 2�−2 −3 3� + 0�−2 0 3� – (-
3 1 2 4 1 2 4 3 2
3 −1 4
1)�−2 0 −3�
4 3 1
|A| = 1M11 – 2M12 + 0M13 +1M14

−1 4 1
M11 = � 0 −3 3� = (-1)(-6 – 3) -4(0 – 9) + 1(0 +9) = 9 + 36 + 9 = 54
3 1 2

26
 3 4 1 Determinants
M12 = �−2 −3 3� = 3(-6 – 3) - 4(-4 – 12) + 1(-2 + 12) = -27 +64 +10 =47
4 1 2

3 −1 1
M13 = �−2 0 3� = 3(0 – 9) +1(-4 – 12) + 1(-6 – 0) = -27 -16 - 6 = -49
4 3 2

3 −1 4
M14 = �−2 0 −3� = 3(0 + 9) +1(-2 + 12) + 4(-6 – 0) = 27 + 10 - 24 =
4 3 1
13.
|A| = 1M11 – 2M12 + 0M13 +1M14
|A| =1x54 – 2x47 + 0x(-49) + 1x13
= 54 – 94 + 0 + 13 = -27.
0 �� � �� �
Example2: Evaluate ��� � 0 �� � �
�� � ��� 0
Solution:
Take common a from first row, b from second row and c from third row.

0 �� � �� � 0 �� ��
��� � � � = abc� �
0 �� � 0 ���
�� � ��� 0 �� �� 0

Now, take common a2 from first column, b2 from second column and c2 from
0 1 1
third column. We obtain a3b3c3�1 0 1� = a3b3c3 [0(0 – 1) – 1(0 – 1) + 1(1
1 1 0
-0)] = a3b3c3[0+1+1) = 2 a3b3c3.

Check Your Progress 4

1) What do you mean by a minor of a square matrix?
2) What is a cofactor of a square matrix?
3) How would you get a cofactor in a square matrix?
4) You are given following determinant:
1 −2
� �.
4 3
Find, for all its elements, minors and cofactors.

27
Business Mathematics
2.5 USE OFCRAMER’S RULEIN
DETERMINANTS TO SOLVE SYSTEM OF
LINEAR EQUATIONS
Cramer’s Rule:
This method was given by Swiss mathematician Gabriel Cramer to solve a
system of � linear equations in � variables using determinants.
Let the system of n linear equations with n variable x1, x2, x3, x4,……xn be
a11x1 + a12x2 + a13x3 + …………..+ a1nxn = b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + a23x3 + …………..+ a2nxn = b2
.
.
.
an1x1 + an2x2 + an3x3 + …………..+ annxn= b. The above system can be written in
Matrix form
AX = B
��� ��� ��� . ��� �� ��
���� ��� ��� . ��� � � �� � � �
��
�
where A= ���� ��� ��� . ��� �� , X = �� �� �� and B = �� �� ��
� . . . . . � � . � � . �
���� ��� ��� . ��� � ��� � ��� �

��� ��� ��� . ���

��� ��� ��� . ���
Let D = |A| =����� ��� ��� . ��� ��
. . . . .
��� ��� ��� . ���

Apply the property of determinant C1→x1 C1

�� ��� ��� ��� . ���

�� ��� ��� ��� . ���
x1 D = ���� ��� ��� ��� . ��� ��
. . . . .
�� ��� ��� ��� . ���

Apply the property of determinant C1→C1 + x2C2 + x3C3 +……..+xnCn

We have
��� �� + ��� �� + ⋯ . . ��� �� ��� ��� . ���
��� �� + ��� �� + ⋯ . . ��� �� ��� ��� . ���
x1 D = �� ��� �� + ��� �� + ⋯ . . ��� �� ��� ��� . ��� �� =
. . . . .
��� �� + ��� �� + ⋯ . . ��� �� ��� ��� . ���

28
 �� ��� ��� . ��� Determinants
� ��� ��� . ���
� � �
� ��� ��� . ��� = D1
� � �
. . . . .
�� ��� ��� . ���
��
� �
�
� ��
Where D1 is the determinant of A after replacing first column by � �� �
� . �
��� �
��
So x1 D = D1 which provides x1 = �

Similarly, it can be shown that x2 D = D2

��
� �
�
� ��
Where D2 is the determinant of A after replacing 2nd column by � �� �
� . �
��� �
�� ��
Which provides x2 = �
similarly xn = �

��
� �
�
� ��
where Dnis the determinant of A after replacing nth column by ��� �
� . �
��� �

Note: For any system of linear equations

If D ≠ 0, the system has unique solution and system is consistent.
If D = 0 and all D1, D2, D3, D4…… Dn are also equal to zero, then the system has
infinite solutions and system is consistent.
If D = 0 and at least one of D1, D2, D3, D4…… Dn is not equal to zero, then the system
has no solution and system is inconsistent.

Illustrations:
i) Solve the following system of equations by Cramer’s Rule.
x – 4y –z = 11
2x – 5y +2z = 39
-3x + 2y + z = 1
Solution:
1 −4 −1
We have D = � 2 −5 2 � = 1(-5 -4) + 4(2 + 6) -1(4 – 15) = -9 +32 + 11 = 34
−3 2 1
Here D ≠ 0, so solution is unique and can be obtained as
�� �� ��
x= �
,y= �
,z= �
29
Business Mathematics 11 −4 −1
D1 = �39 −5 2 � = 11(-5 – 4) + 4(39 – 2) - 1(78 + 5) = -99 + 148 - 83 = -34
1 2 1
1 11 −1
D2 = � 2 39 2 � = 1(39 –2) – 11(2 + 6) – 1(2 + 117) = 37 – 88 –119 = -170
−3 1 1
1 −4 11
D3 = � 2 −5 39� = 1(-5 –78) + 4(2 + 117) +11(4 –15) = -83 + 476 –121 = 272
−3 2 1
�� ��� �� ���� �� ���
So, x = �
= ��
= -1, y = �
= ��
= -5 and z = �
= ��
=8

ii) Solve the following system of equations by Cramer’s Rule.

x – 3y –8z = -10
3x + y - 4z = 0
2x + 5y + 6z = 13
Solution:
1 −3 −8
We have D = �3 1 −4� = 1(6 + 20) + 3(18 + 8) -8(15 – 2) = 26 +78 - 104 = 0
2 5 6
−10 −3 −8
D1 =� 0 1 −4� = -10(6 +20) +3(0 + 52) – 8(0 – 13) =-260 + 156 + 104 = 0
13 5 6
1 −10 −8
D2 =�3 0 −4� = 1(0 + 52) +10(18 + 8) -8(39 –0) = 52 + 260 – 312 = 0
2 13 6
1 −3 −10
D3 =�3 1 0 � = 1(13 –0) + 3(39 – 0) - 10(15 – 2) = 13 + 117 – 130 =0
2 5 13
Here D = D1 = D2 = D3 = 0, the system is constent with infinite solutions.
II) Solve the following system of equations by Cramer’s Rule.
x – 3y + 4z = 3
2x -5y +7z = 6
3x -8y + 11z = 11
Solution:
1 −3 4
We have D = �2 −5 7 � = 1(-55 + 56) + 3(22-21) + 4(-16+15) = 1 +3 - 4 =0
3 −8 11
3 −3 4
D1 = � 6 −5 7 � =3(-55 + 56) +3(66–77) + 4(-48 + 55) = 3 – 33 + 28 = -2≠0
11 −8 11

30
Since D = 0 and D1 ≠ 0, so the system has no solution. The system is Determinants
inconsistent.

Check Your Progress 5

1) What is Cramer’s Rule?

2) While using Cramer’s rule, when would you say that the system of
linear equations is inconsistent?
3) Give an example of system of linear equations.
4) What is the meaning of inconsistent system of linear equations?

2.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have discussed the solution mechanism involved in a
determinant. It is seen that determinant is a numerical value and can be
computed from the elements of a square matrix.
We have learnt to compute the value of determinant which can be calculated
by the following procedure: take a square matrix; for each element of its first
row or first column we get its submatrix. Next, multiply each of the selected
elements with the corresponding determinant of the submatrix. Finally, add
them with alternate signs.
We started value of determinant of a 1*1 matrix is the single value itself. If
the order of square matrix A is 2, then |A| = (multiplication of diagonal
elements) – (multiplication of off diagonal elements). In case of a square
matrix of order 3 × 3we need to go across the first row of the matrix.
Multiply each entry by the determinant of the 2 × 2 matrix obtained by
crossing out the row and column containing that entry. Then we add and
subtract the resulting terms, alternating signs (add the -term, subtract the
-term, add the -term.)The method seen in case of a 3 × 3can be extended to
any square matrix of any size. We have also noted that there no need to
confine ourselves to use the first row or column only while computing the
value of a determinant. Any row or column can be used after ascertaining its
position to include the plus and minus signs.
Discussing the properties of the determinant we have seen that interchanging
of two rows/columns leaves the value unchanged with only its sign reversed;
the value of determinant equals zero when two of its rows or columns are
identical; the value of the determinant remains unchanged when all the rows
and columns are interchanged. The same result is obtained by
adding/subtracting all the elements of a row / column of a determinant
� − �����the corresponding elements of another row/column;the value of
the determinant is �-time, if we multiply all elements of a row or column
with a constant �.
We are introduced to the concept of minor and cofactor of a square matrix to
compute the value of determinant. Whereas the value obtained from the
determinant of a square matrixby deleting out a row and a column
corresponding to the element of a matrix is called its minor, the cofactor is
defined as the signed minor. Towards the last part of the unit we have been
exposed to the use of determinants to solve a system of linear equations and
learnt the Cramer’s rule in that context.
31
Business Mathematics
2.7 KEY WORDS
Cofactor:The signed minor.
Cramer’s Rule:Methodof solving a system of � linear equations in �
variables using determinants.
Determinant:A numerical value computed from the elements of a square
matrix
Linear Equation System:A collection of two or more linear
equations involving the same number of variables.
Minor:Value obtained from the determinant of a square matrixby deleting
out a row and a column corresponding to the element of a matrix.

2.8 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

• Allen, R.G.D., “Mathematical Analysis for Economists”, London:
English Language Book Society and Macmillan, 1974.
• Archibald, G.C., Richard G.Lipsey. “An Introduction to a
Mathematical Treatment of Economics”, Delhi: All India Traveller
Bookseller, 1984
• Chiang, A. and Kalvin Wainwright, Fundamental Methods of
Mathematical Economics (Paperback), Mac Grow Hill, 2017.
• Dowling, Edward,T. “Schaum’s Outline Series: Theory and
Problems of Mathematics for Economists”, New York: McGraw Hill
Book Company, 1986.
• K. Sydsaeter and P. Hammond, Mathematics for Economic Analysis,
PearsonEducational Asia, Delhi, 2002.
• Yamane, Taro, “Mathematics for Economists: An Elementary
Survey”, New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, 1970.

2.9 ANSWER OR HINTS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
1) A matrix is a simply an ordered arrangement of elements in a tabular
form while determinant is a single numerical value which is associated
to a square matrix only.
2) During solving of system of linear equations.
3) Square matrix.
Check Your Progress 2
1) The determinant of a 1×1 matrix is that number itself.
2) proceed along the first row, starting with the upper left component a.
We multiply the component a by the determinant of the “submatrix”
formed by ignoring a's row and column. In this case, this submatrix is
32
 the 1×1 matrix consisting of d, and its determinant is just d. So the first Determinants
term of the determinant is ad.
Next, proceed to the second component of the first row, which is the
upper right component b. Multiply b by the determinant of the
submatrix formed by ignoring b's row and column, which is c. So, the
next term of the determinant is bc. The total determinant is simply the
first term ad minus the second term bc.
3) Let the matrix be ��×� . Then |A| = ∑���� (-1)i+jaij|Mij|, Where Mijis
the sub matrix of A obtained by striking off ithrow and jtht column.
Check Your Progress 3
1) The value of determinant remains the same with its sign reversed.
2) He is interchanging (i). all the rows and columns of the determinant;
and (ii) adding/subtracting all the elements of a row/column of a
determinant � − ����� to the corresponding elements of another
row/column.
3) She should get the value of the determinant �-times of the original
value.
4) He would get the value of determinant equal zero.
Check Your Progress 4
1) Value obtained from the determinant of a square matrixby deleting out
a row and a column corresponding to the element of a matrix.
2) The cofactor is defined as the signed minor. Cofactor of an element aij,
denoted by Aijis defined by A�� = (–1)i+j M��, where M�� is minor of aij.
3) A cofactor is the number one gets by removing the column and row of
a designated element in a matrix. The cofactor is always preceded by a
positive (+) or negative (-) sign, according as the element is in a + or −
position.
4) Minor of the element aij is Mij.
Here a11 = 1. So M11 = Minor of a11 = 3
M12 = Minor of the element a12 = 4
M21 = Minor of the element a21 = –2
M22 = Minor of the element a22 = 1
Next go over to cofactor of aij which is written asAij. So,
A11 = (–1)1+1 M11 = (–1)2 (3) = 3
A12 = (–1)1+2 M12 = (–1)3 (4) = –4
A21 = (–1)2+1 M21 = (–1)3 (–2) = 2
A22 = (–1)2+2 M22 = (–1)4 (1) = 1.

Check Your Progress 5

1) Methodof solving a system of � linear equations in � variables using
determinants.
2) When determinant D = 0 and at least one of D1, D2, D3, D4…… Dn is
not equal to zero.

33
Business Mathematics 3) Take 2� + � = 5 and −� + � = 2. When working together, we have a
system.
4) A system of linear equations is called inconsistent if it has no solutions.

2.10 EXERCISES WITH ANSWER/HINTS

Solve the following system of equations using Cramer’s rule.
i) 5x – 7y + z = 11; 6x – 8y - z = 15; 3x +2y - 6z = 7;
ii) x +2y -2z = -7; 2x - y + z = 6; x - y - 3z = -3;
iii) 6x + y -3z = 5; x +3y – 2z = 5; 2x + y +4z = 8
iv) 2x – 3y - 4z = 29; -2x + 5y – z = -15; 3x – y + 5z = -11
v) 2x - y + z = 4; x +3y + 2z = 12; 3x + 2y + 3z = 10;
Answers (i) x = 1; y = -1; z = -1; (ii) x = 1; y = -2; z = 2; (iii) x = 1; y = 2; z
= 1; (iv) x = 2; y = -3; z = -4; (v) No solution

34
 Inverse of Matrices
UNIT 3 INVERSE OF MATRICES
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Inverse Matrix
3.2.1 Definition of Inverse Matrix
3.2.2 Properties of Inverse Matrix
3.2.3 Inverting a 2 × 2 Matrix
3.2.4 Computing Inverse of Bigger Matrices
3.3 Matrix Inverse Method: Determinant and Adjoint Route
3.3.1 Adjoint of a Matrix
3.3.2 Computation of Inverse using Adjoint of a Matrix
3.4 Matrix Inverse Method: Elementary Operations Route
3.4.1 Elementary Matrix Operations
3.4.2 Computation of Inverse using Elementary Row Operations
3.5 Inverse and Rank of a Matrix
3.5.1 Rank of a Matrix
3.5.2 Linear Independence
3.5.3 Invertibility and Rank of a Matrix
3.6 Solving System of Linear Equations by Matrix Inverse
3.6.1 Systems of Equations
3.7 Let Us Sum Up
3.8 Key Words
3.9 Some Useful Books
3.10 Answer or Hints to Check Your Progress
3.11 Exercises with Answer/Hints

3.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to understand:
1) Concept of the inverse of a matrix
2) Finding Inverse of a matrix using adjoint
3) Elementary operations
4) Finding Inverse of a matrix using elementary operations
5) Rank of a matrix

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the first unit of this block under the title, ‘Introduction to Matrices’, we
have seen matrix operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication.
However, as it may be recalled, there was no discussion on division of a 35
Business Mathematics matrix. It is because of the underlying reason that a matrix cannot be divided.
While we cannot do that, there is a related concept to work with for that
purpose. It is called "inversion" of a matrix.
To get an intuitive idea of inverse, it is useful to recall that a simple equation
like 4� = 8 is solved if divided both the sides by 4. The result of such a
move is the solution of x=2. Just note that instead of dividing by 4, we could
have resorted to multiplication of ¼ in both the sides of the equation to solve
the problem and the answer could have been 2. What is done is to take the
help of reciprocal of 4/1 in the multiplication. Thus, reciprocal ¼ is the
inversion of 4/1.We get 1 on multiplying 4/1 with its reciprocal 1/4. Matrix
inversion can be thought of similar to such an operation with reciprocal
numbers.

3.2 INVERSE MATRIX

Let � be a matrix. Then inverse of � is written as��� . Since we cannot divide
a matrix, we do not write in reciprocal form of 1/�. Our search for similarity
of inverse matrix with scalar number system will show that just as
multiplication of 4 and its reciprocal, ¼, yields 1, our multiplication of a
matrix by its inverse will give the Identity Matrix. That is, � × ��� =
�which would be a square matrix with 1 in the diagonal.

3.2.1 Definition of Inverse Matrix

The inverse of a square � × �matrix �, is another � × �matrix denoted by
��� such that
���� = ��� � = �
where Iis� × �identity matrix. That is, multiplying a matrix by its inverse
producesan identity matrix. Note, however, that not all square matrices have
an inverse matrix. If the determinant of thematrix is zero, then it will not have
an inverse. Since matrix whose determinant is zero is known as singular, we
stipulate the condition that only a non-singular matrix will have an inverse.
Such a matrix is also called invertible matrix.

3.2.2 Properties of Inverse Matrix

1) A square matrix is invertible if and only if it is non-singular.
2) The inverse of the inverse of a matrix is matrix itself i.e., (A-1)-1 = A
3) The inverse of the transpose of a matrix is same as the transpose of its
inverse i.e., (A’)-1 = (A-1)’
4) If A and B are two invertible matrices of the same order then AB is also
invertible which holds true (��)�� = � �� . ��� .

3.2.3 Inverting a � × � Matrix

With a view to familiarize ourselves with the idea of computation of inverse,
we discuss below, as an example, a 2 × 2 matrix.
� �
Let � = � �
� �
where a, b, c and d are numbers. Its inverse is written as
36
 � � �� � � −� Inverse of Matrices
��� = � � = � � where(�� − ��)is the determinant
� � ����� −� �
value. It needs to be not equal to zero for moving forward with process of
inversion. Thus,wecould do the computation only when we have a square
matrix and a non-zero determinant.
4 5
Example 1: Invert the matrix � = � �
2 3
Solution:
4 5 �� � 3 −5 � 3 −5 1.5 −2.5
��� =� � =����� � �= � �=� �.
2 3 −2 4 � −2 4 −1 2
Similar to solving single equation like 4x=8, we can solve for unknown value
of a matrix X, using the inversion technique. For example, if we are given
that �� = �where matrices � and� are known, we can use inversion to find
the matrix �.To do that write
����� = ���� . Since ���� = �, we get
�� = ���� or, � = ���� (due to multiplication � with identity matrix).
Remember that all the conditions of inversion like � is a square matrix and
invertible and order of � is amenable to multiplication rule are satisfied to get
the required solution.

3.2.4 Computing Inverse of Bigger Matrices

We have seen above the inverse of a 2x2matrix. Compared to larger matrices
such as a 3x3, 4x4, …, it is easy to compute the inverse. Forlarger matrices,
however, we will have to use two main methods while working out the
inverse. Such methods are
i) inverse of a matrix using Minors, Cofactors and Adjugate (or, Adjoint)
and
ii) inverse of a matrix using Elementary Row Operations.
We have not included the use a computer, such as the Matrix Calculator, in
the present unit which can be used for inverting a matrix.
Note: Inversion of a diagonal matrix is obtained by replacing each element in
the diagonal with its reciprocal. For example, take a diagonal matrix
�
3 0 0
�=� �. Then � �� = � � � �. Verify that �� �� = � where � is identity
0 4 0 �
matrix.

Check Your Progress 1

1) How would you explain the idea of inversion of a matrix?
2) What is the result of multiplying a square matrix with its inverse?
3) You can apply the operation of inverse to which type of matrix?
4) Write the definition of inverse of a matrix.
5) What is a singular matrix?
6) How would you identify an invertible matrix? 37
Business Mathematics 7) How do you verify that you have correctly calculated an inverse
matrix?
8) Can you perform division operation on matrix?

3.3 MATRIX INVERSE METHOD:

DETERMINANT AND ADJOINT ROUTE
In the following, we discuss one of the two methods mentioned above
on inverting a matrix. As a background for that the concept of adjoint of a
matrix which is transpose of a cofactor in a square matrix is covered first.
The inverse which is obtained by dividing the adjoint with determinant is
given as a second step under a separate subsection.

3.3.1 Adjoint of a Matrix

To invert a matrix using first of the two methods mentioned above, it is
needed to understandthe concept adjoint of a matrix.
If� = [aij]isa square matrix of order n, then adjoint of � is defined to be
transpose of matrix [Aij] of order n, where Aij is cofactor of aijin |A|. In other
words, let
��� ��� ��� . ���
���� ��� ��� . ��� �
� ��� ��
� = ���� ��� ��� .
� . . . . . �
���� ��� ��� . ��� �

��� ��� ��� . ���

�� ��� ��� . ��� �
� �� �
���(�) = transpose of ���� ��� ��� . ��� �
� . . . . . �
���� ��� ��� . ��� �

��� ��� ��� . ���

�� ��� ��� . ��� �
� �� �
= � ��� ��� ��� . ��� �
� . . . . . �
���� ��� ��� . ��� �

Here A11 is the cofactor of a11 in |A|

A12 is the cofactor of a12 in |A| and so on.
Remarks
1) If � be a square matrix of order �, then �. ���(�) = ���(�). � =
|�|. �� , where �� is an identity matrix of order �.
2) ���(��) = ���(�). ���(�)
3) ���(�’) = (���(�))’
38
Example 2:Find the adjoint of the matrix Inverse of Matrices

1 6 5
�=� 3 2 1 �
−2 0 −3
and verify the theorem �. ���(�) = ���(�). � = |�|. ��
Solution:
��� ��� ���
���(�) = transpose of ���� ��� ��� �
��� ��� ���
1 6 5
Given that � = � 3 2 1 �, let us find out the cofactors of all the elements
−2 0 −3
of the matrix.
2 1
A11 = (-1)1+1� � = (-1)1+1(2x-3 – 0x1) = -6 – 0 = -6.
0 −3
3 1
A12 = (-1)1+2� � = (-1)1+2(3x-3 – 1x-2) = -(-9 + 2) = 7.
−2 −3
3 2
A13 = (-1)1+3� � = (-1)1+3(3x0 – 2x-2) = (0 + 4) = 4.
−2 0
6 5
A21 = (-1)2+1� � = (-1)2+1(6x-3 – 5x0) = -(-18 – 0) = 18.
0 −3
1 5
A22 = (-1)2+2� � = (-1)2+2(1x-3 – 5x-2) = -3 +10 = 7.
−2 −3
1 6
A23 = (-1)2+3� � = (-1)2+3(1x0 – 6x-2) = -(0 + 12) = -12.
−2 0
6 5
A31 = (-1)3+1� � = (-1)3+1(6x1 – 2x5) = 6 – 10 = -4.
2 1
1 5
A32 = (-1)3+2� � = (-1)3+2(1x1 – 5x3) = -(1 – 15) = 14.
3 1
1 6
A33 = (-1)3+3� � = (-1)3+3(1x2 – 6x3) = 2 – 18 = -16.
3 2
−6 7 4
So ���(�) = transpose of � 18 7 −12�
−4 14 −16
−6 18 −4
���(�) = � 7 7 14 �
4 −12 −16
Also |�| = 1(-6 – 0) – 6(-9 + 2)+5(0 + 4)
= -6 + 42 + 20 = 56
Now,
1 6 5 −6 18 −4
�. ���(�) = � 3 2 1 �� 7 7 14 �
−2 0 −3 4 −12 −16

39
Business Mathematics −6 + 42 + 20 18 + 42 − 60 −4 + 84 − 80
= �−18 + 14 + 4 54 + 14 − 12 −12 + 28 − 16�
12 + 0 − 12 −36 + 0 + 36 8 + 0 + 48
56 0 0
=�0 56 0 �……………………………………………. (I)
0 0 56
Similarly,
−6 18 −4 1 6 5
���(�). � = � 7 7 14 � � 3 2 1 �
4 −12 −16 −2 0 −3
−6 + 54 + 8 −36 + 36 − 0 −30 + 18 + 12
= � 7 + 21 − 28 42 + 14 + 0 −12 + 28 − 16�
12 + 0 − 12 −36 + 0 + 36 8 + 0 + 48
56 0 0
=� 0 56 0 � ……………………………………………….. (II)
0 0 56
56 0 0 1 0 0
�0 56 0 � = 56 �0 1 0� = |�|. �� ………………….. (III)
0 0 56 0 0 1
From (I), (II) and (III),
���(�). � = �. ���(�) = |�|. ��

3.3.2 Computation of Inverse using Adjoint of a Matrix

Let � be a square matrix of order n. The square matrix � of order � is called
the inverse matrix of � if
� × � = � × � = ��
The inverse of � is denoted by ��� , i.e.,� = ��� so that
� × ��� = ��� × � = ��
In the preceding subsection we have seen that �. ���(�) = |�|. �� ,
���(�) ���(�)
which gives �. |�|.
= �� .Thus � is invertibleand ��� = |�|.
where
|�| ≠ 0
So,only non-singular matrices are invertible.
1 −2 3
Example3: Find the inverse of matrix � = �3 −1 4 � and hence show
2 1 −2
that � × ��� =��� × � = ��
Solution:
1 −2 3
� = �3 −1 4 �
2 1 −2
|A|= 1(2 – 4) +2(-6 -8) +3(3 +2) = -2 – 28 +15 = -15

40
The cofactors of elements of matrix � are Inverse of Matrices

A11 = (2 – 4) =-2
A12 = -(-6 – 8) =14
A13 = (3+2) =5
A21 = -(4 – 3) = -1
A22= (-2 – 6) =-8
A23 = -(1 + 4) =-5
A31 = (-8 + 3) =-5
A32 = -(4 – 9) = 5
A33 = (-1 + 6) = 5
��� ��� ���
���(�) = transpose of � ��
� ��� ��� �
��� ��� ���
−2 14 5
= transpose of �−1 −8 −5�
−5 5 5
−2 −1 −5
=� 14 −8 5 �
5 −5 5
���(�)
Since ��� = |�|.
,

−2 −1 −5
�
��� = − �� � 14 −8 5 �
5 −5 5
1 −2 3 −2 −1 −5
�
So, � × ��� = �3 −1 4 �.( − ��) � 14 −8 5 �
2 1 −2 5 −5 5
−2 − 28 + 15 −1 + 16 − 15 −5 − 10 + 15
�
=− �� �−6 − 14 + 20 −3 + 8 − 20 −15 − 5 + 20�
−4 + 14 − 10 −2 − 8 + 10 −10 + 5 − 10
−15 0 0 1 0 0
�
=− �� � 0 −15 0 � = �0 1 0� = I3
0 0 −15 0 0 1
Similarly, it also can be proved that ��� × � = ��
2 3 10 4
Example 4: Find the matrix � such that � �� = � �
−1 4 −5 9
Solution:
2 3 10 4
Let � = � � and B = � �.
−1 4 −5 9
So, the above relation can be rewritten as �� = �
Consequently, � = ��� �
41
Business Mathematics Here |�|= (2x4 – (-1x3) = 8+3 = 11.
��� ���
���(�) = transpose of � �
��� ���
4 1
= transpose of � �
−3 2
4 −3
=� �
1 2
���(�) � 4 −3
��� = , so, A-1=�� � �
|�|. 1 2
� = ��� �
Hence,
� 4 −3 10 4
= �� � �� �
1 2 −5 9
� 40 + 15 16 − 27
= �� � �
10 − 10 4 + 18
� 55 −11
= �� � �
0 22
5 −1
=� �.
0 2
Example 5: If �is a square matrix of order 3 and ���� = 5 then what is
��� [(2�)�� ]?
Solution: If � is of order 3 then, ��� is also of order 3. Again, ��� (��) =
� � (det A) where � is the order of the matrix. A determinant being a scalar
�
number, ��� � = ��� ���. Thus, ��� [(2�)�� ] = 2� ���[�] and ���[��� ] =
� �
�.�
= �� .

Check Your Progress 2

1) If �is a square matrix of order �, then what is �.adj(�)?
2) You have two adjoint matrices ��� (�) and ��� (�). State how would
you find out ���(��).
3) How can you show that ���(�’) = (���(�))’?

3.4 MATRIX INVERSE METHOD:

ELEMENTARY OPERATIONS ROUTE
Elementary operations play a crucial role in finding the inverse. Take a
matrix� such that its inverse (��� ) exists. To find the inverse of a matrix using
elementary row or column operations, write � = ��and apply a sequence of
row or column operations on � = �� till we get, � = ��. The matrix � will
be the inverse matrix of �.
3.4.1 Elementary Matrix Operations
An elementary matrix is a square matrix that has been obtained by
performing an elementary row or column operation on an identity matrix. In
42
other words, when elementary operations are carried out on identity matrices, Inverse of Matrices
they give rise to elementary matrices.
Example 6: If we take the identity matrix and multiply its first row by 3, we
obtain the elementary matrix.
3 0 0
� = �0 1 0�
0 0 1
Thus, the following two matrices are also considered elementary matrices:
1 0 0
0 1
(�)�� = � � and (���)�� = �2 1 0�.
1 0
0 0 1
To see the method of obtaining these matrices you need to
1 0
i) interchange two rows of matrix � � and get �� and
0 1
1 0 0
ii) take the second row of the identity matrix �0 1 0�and add 2 times
0 0 1
of first row to it for getting �� .
There are three kinds of elementary matrix operations.
1) Interchange two rows (or columns).
2) Multiply each element in a row (or column) by a non-zero number.
3) Multiply a row (or column) by a non-zero number and add the result to
another row (or column).
When these operations are performed on rows, they are called elementary
row operations; and when they are performed on columns, they are
called elementary column operations.
The transformations on a given matrix into basic operations are written as,
1) Interchange of any two rows (columns)
Ri↔Rj / Ci↔Cj
2) Multiplication of any row (column) by a non-zero scalar
Ri→kRi / Ci→kCi
3) Addition to one row (column), of another row (column) multiplied by
any non-zero scalar
Ri→ Ri + kRj / Ci→ Ci + kCj
If square matrix � is obtained from matrix � by applying one or more
elementary operations, then matrices � and � are called equivalent matrices
and denoted as � ~ �.

3.4.2 Computation of Inverse using Elementary Row

Operations
Let � be a non-singular square matrix. So, we have
� = �� 43
Business Mathematics If elementary row operations are applied on �from left hand side and
on �from right hand side and we obtained a new form like
� = � × �,
then matrix � is the inverse of matrix �.
1 2 −2
Example 7: Find the inverse of the matrix �−1 3 0 � using elementary
0 −2 1
operations.
Solution:
1 2 −2
� = �−1 3 0�
0 −2 1
1 2 −2 1 0 0
So, �−1 3 0 � = �0 1 0� �
0 −2 1 0 0 1
Apply R2→ R2 + R1
1 2 −2 1 0 0
�0 5 −2� = �1 1 0� �
0 −2 1 0 0 1
�
Apply R2→�R2

1 2−2 1 0 0
� � �
�0 1− �� = � � � 0� �
0 −2 1 0 0 1
Apply R1→� 1 - 2R2
� � �
�1 0 − �� �
−� 0
�0 1 − �� = � �
0�
�
� �� � �
�0 – 2 1 � 0 0 1
Apply R3→� 3 + R1
� � �
�1 0 − �� �� − � 0�
� �� �� � �
�0 1 − �� = �� � 0� �
� � � �� � �
�0 0 � � �� � 1�
Apply R3→5R3
� � �
1 0 −� �
−� 0
�0 �� = � �
0� �
�
1 − � � �
0 0 1 2 2 5
�
Apply R1→� 1+� R3 and
�
R2→� 2 + � R3

44
 1 0 0 3 2 6 Inverse of Matrices
�0 1 0� = �1 1 2� �
0 0 1 2 2 5

3 2 6
So, A-1 = �1 1 2�
2 2 5
Check Your Progress 3
1) What is an elementary matrix?
2) When would you get elementary matrices?
3) List the three kinds of elementary matrix operations
4) James obtained a square matrix from another matrix by applying
elementary operations. Then he said of deriving a rectangular matrix
due to operations. Would you say James is correct? Give reasons to
support your answer.
5) State the meaning of elementary operators.

3.5 INVERSE AND RANK OF A MATRIX

There are two ways to determine whether the inverse of a square matrix
exists, viz.,
i) Compute its determinant and find that it is not equal to zero, and
ii) Determine its rank and see if it is invertible.
We have already seen the first of the two ways above. Let us look into the
other way, i.e., rank of a matrix now. Note that the rank of a matrix is a
unique number associated with a square matrix. If the rank of an n x n matrix
is less than n, the matrix does not have an inverse.

3.5.1 Rank of a Matrix

The maximum number of linearly independent rows in a matrix is called
the row rank. Similarly, the maximum number of linearly independent
columns in a matrix is called the column rank.
If � is an � × � matrix, that is, if � has m rows and n columns, then its
Row rank of � ≤ � and column rank of � ≤ � ----------------(1)
It is not so obvious, however, that for any matrix �,
the row rank of � = the column rank of � ---------------------(2)
Because of this, there is no point in distinguishing between row rank and
column rank.
Therefore, if � is order m x n, it follows from the inequalities in (1) that

����(��×� ) ≤ min (�, �) where ���( �, �) denotes the smaller of the two
numbers m and n (or their common value if m = n). For example, the rank of
a 3 x 5 matrix can be no more than 3, and the rank of a 4 x 2 matrix can be no
more than 2. Note that the rank of matrix A is denoted by ρ(A).
45
Business Mathematics Remarks
• A zero matrix or Null matrix is said to have rank zero.
• The elementary transformations do not alter the rank of a matrix.
As linear independence is associated with the identification of the rank of a
matrix, it seems pertinent to understand the concept clearly.

3.5.2 Linear Independence

One vector(i.e., variable representing both a magnitude and a direction) is
dependent on other vectors if it is a linear combination of the other vectors.
That is, if we take scalar multiples of some vectors and add these up to get a
new vector, then it is said to be a linear combination of the other vectors.
Example 8: Let � = 2� + 3� be given with
37 9
� = � �,� = � �and� = � �.
5
26 7 4
Operate on y and z to get
5 9 2∗5+3∗9 .
2� � + 3� � = � �
7 4 2∗7+3∗4
It may be noted that 2� and3� are scalar multiples. Therefore, � is a linear
combination of �and �.
Thus, a set of vectors is linearly independent if no vector in the set under
consideration is
i) a scalar multiple of another vector in the set,
or,
ii) a linear combination of other vectors in the set;
Conversely, a set of vectors is linearly dependent if any vector in the
set is
i) a scalar multiple of another vector in the set, or,
ii) a linear combination of other vectors in the set.
Consider the row vectors
� = [1 2 3], � = [5 6 7], � = [6 8 10],
� = [2 4 6], � = [0 0 1], � = [0 1 0]
We can make the following observations:

i) � and � are linearly Neither is a scalar multiple

independent of the other
ii) � and � are linearly dependent 2a=x
iii. �, � and � arelinearly � is a linear combination of
dependent � and � as � + � = �
iv. � ,�and � are independent Neither is a scalar multiple
nor a linear combination of
other

46
3.5.3 Invertibility and Rank of a Matrix Inverse of Matrices

Once we determine the linearly independent rows or columns, the rank of a

matrix is known. Since one of our concerns in this present unit is to draw
inference on invertibility of a matrix on the basis of its rank, we deal with
linearly independent rows or columns of a square matrix and ascertain its
rank. Such a result will indicate the invertibility of the matrix under
consideration.
For example, take the matrix
1 2 .
�=� �
2 −1
It may be seen that neither the columns nor the rows of this 2x2 matrix could
be amenable to conditions linear dependency. So, the rank of the matrix is
equal to 2 and is full ranked. On the basis of this result, we can say that it is
an invertible matrix.
To check that the matrix indeed has an inverse apply the elementary row
operation.
To use elementary row operations, we may write A = IA, i.e.,
1 2 1 0
� �=� ��
2 −1 1 1
Apply �� → �� − 2�� such that
1 2 1 0
� �=� � �.
0 −5 −2 1
Again, apply �� → − � �� to get
�

1 0
1 2
� � = �2 1� �
0 1 −
5 5
Further, taking
�� → �� − 2�� we get
1 0 1/5 2/5
� �=� ��
0 1 2/5 −1/5
giving ��� = 1/5 2/5 .
� �
2/5 −1/5
Also we can assess that less than full rank square matrix is not invertible.
Example 9: Let � is the 4 x 4 matrix of

1 −2 0 4 A is the 4x4 matrix

�= � 3 1 1 0 �
−1 −5 −1 8
3 8 2 −12

Its four row vectors are,

�� = ( 1, − 2, 0, 4)
�� = ( 3 1, 1 ,0)
47
Business Mathematics �� = (−1, −5, −1,8) and
�� = (3, 8,2, −12).
It may be seen that
�� = 2�� − ��
and
�� = 3�� + 2��
Thus, vectors �� and �� can be written as linear combinations of �� and �� .
That means the maximum number of independent rows is 2 and the rank of
this matrix is 2. Hence the matrix is not invertible.
Example10: Determine the rank of the following 4 by 4 matrix and see if it
has an inverse:
1 −1 1 −1
�=� −1 1 −1 1 �
1 −1 1 −1
−1 1 −1 1

Since �� = �� = −�� and �� = ��, all rows but the first will vanish. As only 1
nonzero row remains, rank C = 1. So, the matrix is not invertible.

Check Your Progress 4

1) How would you determine the rank of a matrix on the basis of its
minors?
2) Stuart has a 3x3 matrix whose rank is 2. Can he invert the matrix?
3) What is a vector?
4) State the meaning of linear combination of vectors.
5) When would you say that a set of vectors is linearly dependent?

3.6 SOLVING SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

BY INVERSE MATRIX
This section will explain the method used to solve a system of linear
equations by using inverse matrices. To help understand this method, we will
largely rely on examples.

3.6.1 Systems of Equations

Suppose your family is going to National Zoological Park, New Delhi. The
family members consisted of one adult and two children for which the total
cost of entry fee is Rs.50. Your friend's family joins you in this trip. They
have three adults and five children and their total cost of entry fee is Rs.140.
Your task is to find out the cost of ticket per each child and adult.
To solve the problem,you need to have two equations to be able to find two
unknowns. So, you have a system of equations. For that purpose, you have
to set up the system of equations, using x as the cost of one adult ticket,
and y as the cost of one child ticket.
System of equations:
� + 2� = 50
48
 3� + 5� = 140 Inverse of Matrices

Although there are many ways to solve systems of linear equations like the
ones at our disposal, we solve systems of equations by using inverse
matrices.
Note that the present method of solution can be obtained by going through
two steps, viz.,
i) find the coefficient matrix and its inverse matrix and
ii) use the inverse matrix to solve the equations.
The coefficient matrix is consisted of coefficients, or, numbers in front of
each variable in the system of equations.
Seen in terms of the above example, in the first equation the coefficients are 1
of � and 2 of �. In the second equation, we have 3 of � and 5 of �. Their
arrangement in matrix form will generate a 2x2 matrix. Let us call it
matrix A. Thus, we have the coefficient matrix of
1 2
�=� �
3 5
In the coefficient matrix, the elements of first row are the coefficients of the
first equation whereas the second row is composed of the coefficients from
the second equation. Again, the first column of the matrix is formed from the
coefficients of the �'s and the second column are the coefficients of the �'s.
Since we have two variables, we will have a 2x1 matrix called variable
matrix. So, the variable matrix is
�
� = �� �
A third matrix, called the constant matrix, contains the constants of the
system of equations. Let us call this matrix �,whichis a 2x1 matrix because it
has two rows and one column.
Write it as
50
�=� �
140
With these arrangements, we have a system of equations inmatrix form which
can be used to solve the system and find the answer.
Now that we know the required matrices, putting them together, a matrix
equation is obtained. Such an equation contains a coefficient matrix, a
variable matrix and a constant matrix, making use of which the system be
solved. Essentially, we know that if we multiply matrix � times matrix �, it
will equal matrix �.

So, we write the matrix equation as �(�) = �

1 2 � 50
i.e., � �� � = � �
3 5 � 140
� 1 2 �� 50
or, ��� = � � � �
3 5 140
� −5 2 50
or, ��� = � �� � (applying adjoint method of inversion)
3 −1 140 49
Business Mathematics � 30
or, ��� = � �.
10
Hence the solution is the cost of ticket per child is Rs. 10 while it is Rs. 30
per adult.
Keeping the above discussion in mind, we generalise the method to solve the
system of linear equations for � variables in the following.
Let the system of � linear equations with � variable x1, x2, x3, x4,……xn be
a11x1 + a12x2 + a13x3 + …………..+ a1nxn = b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + a23x3 + …………..+ a2nxn = b2
.
.
.
an1x1 + an2x2 + an3x3 + …………..+ annxn= bn
The above system can be written in Matrix form
�� = �
��� ��� ��� . ��� �� ��
���� ��� ��� . ��� � � �� � � �
��
�
where � = ���� ��� ��� . ��� � , � = � �� � and � = � �� ��
� � � �
� . . . . . � � . � � . �
���� ��� ��� . ��� � ��� � ��� �
From �� = �
� = ��� �
So, the multiplication of matrix ��� and � gives the solution of the system.
��� can be obtained by any method (either adjoint or elementary row
operations method).
Example 11:
Solve the following equations
x + 2y - 2z = -7
2x - y + z = 6
x - y - 3z = -3
1 2 −2 � −7
Solution: Here � = �2 −1 1 � , � = ��� and � = � 6 �
1 −1 −3 � −3
Now, we find out ��� by taking into account
1 2 −2 1 0 0
�2 −1 1 � = �0 1 0� �
1 −1 −3 0 0 1
From R2→ R2 - 2 R1 and
R3→ R3 - R1,

50
 1 2 −2 1 0 0 Inverse of Matrices
�0 −5 5 � = �−2 1 0� �
0 −3 −1 −1 0 1
��
From R2→ � R2

1 2 −2 1 0 0
� �
�0 1 −1� = � � − � 0� �
0 −3 −1 −1 0 1
From R1→ R1 - 2 R2 and
R3→ R3 + 3 R2
� �
1 0 0 �� � 0�
�� � �
�0 1 −1� = �� − � 0� �
0 0 −4 �� � �
�� − � 1�
��
From R3→ � R3 ,
� �
� � 0�
1 0 0 �
� � � �
�0 1 −1� = � � −� 0 ��
0 0 1 � � � ��
�− �� �� − ��
From R2→ R2 + R3
� �
0�
1 0 0 � �� �
� � ��
�0 1 0� = � �� − �� − �� �
0 0 1 � � � ��
�− �� �� − ��
� �
� � �
0�
� � � ��
So,��� = � �� − �� − ��
� � � ��
�− �� �� − ��
Taking � = ��� �, we get
� �
0�
� � � � −7
� � � ��
��� = � �� − �� − �� � 6 �
� � � � �� −3
�− �� �� − ��
�� ��
� � + � +0�
� �� � ��
=�− �� − �� + ��
� � �� � �
� �� + �� + � �
�
� � �
� ���
=�− ���
� �� �
� �� � 51
Business Mathematics � 1
�
� �=�−2�
� 2
So, x=1; y=-2; and z=2.

Check Your Progress 5

1) What do you mean by system of equations?
2) What is a coefficient matrix?
3) State the meaning of constant matrix.
4) How do you solve system of equations?

3.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have discussed inverse of a matrix. It is said that the intuitive
idea behind the concept is related to that ofdivision operation in scalar
number system, where division of a number � yields the same result as
multiplication of 1/�. A matrix, which does not have the operation of
division, can be thought of such a multiplication of reciprocals in number
�
system and written for a matrix � as��� instead of �.

We have seen that inverse of a matrix A, written as ��� , is derived from

another matrix � such that ���� = �, where � is the identity matrix. The
inversion however, is confined to square matrices. As some square matrices
do not have non-zero determinants, only a non-singular matrix will have an
inverse and such a matrix is called invertible matrix.
Two methods of matrix inverse have been presented. They are inverse of
matrix using (i). Minors, Cofactors and Adjoint and (ii)Elementary Row
Operations. While the first of these two requires computation of an adjoint
matrix which is transpose of a cofactor matrix, the second takes the help of
transformation to a square matrix that has been obtained by performing an
elementary row or column operation on an identity matrix.
We have been exposed to find rank of a matrix. Using the rank, we attempt to
determine inverse of a square matrix. In the process,it is explained that the
rank of matrix which refers to a number according the maximum number of
linearly independent rows/columns in a matrix. The rank of a square matrix,
if less than full, indicates that the matrix is not invertible.
In the last part of the unit, we learnt to find the solution of a system of
equations using an inverse matrix. In the process, we discussed the
conversion of a system of linear equations into matrix format and worked out
the values of unknown variables.

3.8 KEY WORDS

Adjoint (Adjugate) Matrix:A square matrix that is the transpose of the
cofactor matrix of the given matrix.
Coefficient Matrix:Coefficients of the variables in a set of linear equations.
Constant Matrix:Constants of the system of equations.
52
Elementary Matrix: A square matrix that has been obtained by performing Inverse of Matrices
an elementary row or column operation on an identity matrix.
Elementary Operators: Each type of elementary operation performed by
matrix multiplication, using square matrices.
Inverse Matrix: a square matrix ��� derived from another square matrix
� such that ���� = �, where I is the identity matrix.
Linear Combination: Scalar multiples of some vectors added to get a new
vector.
Linearly Dependent: A set of vectors such that at least one of them can be
written as a linear combination of the others.
Linearly Independent: A set vectors in which no vector cannot be written as
a linear combination of the others.
Non-Singular Matrix: A square matrix with its determinant non-zero.
Rank of a Matrix:Maximum number of linearly independent rows/columns
in a matrix.
Singular Matrix: A square matrix whose determinant is zero.
Systems of Equations: Collection of equations that are dealt with together.

3.9 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

• Allen, R.G.D., “Mathematical Analysis for Economists”, London:
English Language Book Society and Macmillan, 1974.
• Archibald, G.C., Richard G.Lipsey. “An Introduction to a
Mathematical Treatment of Economics”, Delhi: All India Traveller
Bookseller, 1984.
• Chiang, A. and Kalvin Wainwright, Fundamental Methods of
Mathematical Economics (Paperback), Mac Grow Hill, 2017.
• Dowling, Edward,T. “Schaum’s Outline Series: Theory and
Problems of Mathematics for Economists”, New York: McGraw Hill
Book Company, 1986.
• K. Sydsaeter and P. Hammond, Mathematics for Economic Analysis,
PearsonEducational Asia, Delhi, 2002.
• Yamane, Taro, “Mathematics for Economists: An Elementary Survey”,
New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, 1970.

3.10 ANSWER OR HINTS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
1) There is no division operation of a matrix as it is done in case of
scalars. To meet the requirement of division it can be thought of
multiplication of reciprocals in number system which produces the
�
same result. So, if there is a matrix �, one can write ��� instead of �.
53
Business Mathematics 2) An identity matrix.
3) Square matrix.
4) The inverseof a square matrix ��� , is another matrix denoted by
��� such that���� = ��� � = �,where Iisa� × �identity matrix.
5) Matrix whose determinant is zero
6) A square matrix that has a non-zero determinant (or, a non-singular
matrix).
7) Multiply it by the original matrix to get the identity matrix.
8) No. There is no matrix operation equivalent of division. The closest we
can get to division by a matrix is multiplying by its inverse.
Check Your Progress 2
1) |�|. �� , where � n is an identity matrix of order �.
2) By multiplying ���(�) with ���(�).
3) Take a matrix � and find adjoint of � and �’. Use your results to
establish the stated equality.
Check Your Progress 3
1) A matrix which differs from the identity matrix by one single
elementary row operation.
2) When elementary operations are carried out on identity matrices.
3) i.Interchange two rows (or columns); ii. multiply each element in a row
(or column) by a non-zero number; and iii. multiply a row (or column)
by a non-zero number and add the result to another row (or column).
4) James is wrong. He would get equivalent matrices.
5) Each type of elementary operation may be performed by matrix
multiplication, using square matrices called elementary operators.
Check Your Progress 4
1) Rank of a non-zero matrix is defined as r if at least one of its r-rowed
minors is not equal to zero while every (r+1)-rowed minor, if any, is
zero.
2) No. A square matrix not full rank is singular.
3) Variable representing both a magnitude and a direction
4) Take scalar multiples of some vectors and add these up to get a new
vector.
5) If any vector in the set is
i) a scalar multiple of another vector in the set, or,
ii) a linear combination of other vectors in the set.
Check Your Progress 5
1) A collection of two or more equations with a same number of unknown
as the number of equations.

54 2) The matrix formed by the coefficients in a linear system of equations.

3) A matrix that contains the constants of the system of equations. Inverse of Matrices

4) Find values for each of the unknowns that will satisfy every equation in
the system.

3.11 EXERCISES WITH ANSWER/HINTS

1 1 1
1) if A = �1 2 −3� , find adj(A).
2 −1 3
1 4 5
2) if A = �3 2 6 � , verify A.adj(A) = adj(A).A = |A|.I
0 1 −3
4 1 22 6 1 0
3) A=� �, Find matrix B, if AB equals (I)� � (II)� � (III)
7 2 11 3 0 1
−2 0
� �
0 −2
−1 2 3
4) B=� � and C = � �
1 −1 1
Find X, if BX = C
1 −2 3
5) If A = �3 −1 4 � , find A-1
2 1 −2
6) Solve the following equations using inverse of a matrix
5x – 6y + 4z = 15
7x + 4y – 3z = 19
2x + y + 6z = 46
7) Solve the following equations
2x + 6y + 11 = 0
6x + 20y -6z – 3 = 0
6y – 18z +1 = 0
8) What do you understand by the term rank of a matrix? Find out the
rank of the following matrix:
7 −1 0
A=�1 1 4�
13 −3 −4
9) Find the value of x such that the rank of the following matrix is less
than 3.
3 5 0
�3 x 2�
9 −1 8
10) Taking the following matrix, what would you comment on its
invertibility? Give reasons in support of your answer.

55
Business Mathematics 1 2 3
A = �3 4 5�
4 6 8
11) Given the following matrix, examine its rank and find its inverse
using the method of adjoint. Comment on its invertibility.
2 2 −1
�4 0 2�
0 6 −3
Answers
3 −4 −5
1) �−9 1 4�
−5 3 1
32 9 2 −1 −4 2
3) (I) � � (II)� � (III)� �
−110 −30 −7 4 14 −8
�

4) ����
�
� � �
� �� �� � �
� �� � ��
5) If A = �− �� ��
− ��
� � � ��
�−� �
− ��

6) x = 3; y = 4; z = 6
7) Equations have no solution.
8) 2
9) x=1
10) Since A is a square matrix of order 3 so ρ(A)≤ 3
Now,
|A|= 1(32 – 30) - 2(24 – 20) + 3(18-16) = 2 – 8 + 6 =0
|A| is the only minor of order 3 which is zero however a minor of
order 2 is not equal to zero, viz.
1 2
� � = 4 – 6 = -2 ≠ 0.
3 4
So, a square matrix with less than full rank is not invertible.
11) The matrix is linearly independent with a rank 3. Determinant is -24
and inverse of the matrix is
0.5 0 −0.17
�−0.5 0.25 0.33 � .
−1 0.5 0.33

56
 Application of
UNIT 4 APPLICATION OF MATRICES IN Matrices in Business
and Economics
BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Matrix Representation of Data
4.3 Market Demand and Supply Equilibrium
4.4 National Income Model
4.5 Input-Output Analysis
4.5.1 Assumptions
4.5.2 Input-Output Table
4.5.3 Technological Coefficient Matrix
4.5.4 Hawkins-Simon Conditions
4.5.5 Closed and Open Input-Output Models
4.6 Let Us Sum Up
4.7 Key Words
4.8 Some Useful Books
4.9 Answer or Hints to Check Your Progress
4.10 Exercises with Answer/Hints

4.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to understand application of
matrices to
• Matrix Representation of Data;
• Market demand and supply Equilibrium;
• National Income Model; and
• Input-Output Analysis.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the preceding Unit 3, we have learnt Solving System of Linear Equations
by matrix algebra. The present unit discusses application of the tool to some
of the themes in business and economics. It may be useful to note that matrix
algebra is widely used many areas including those of demand-supply
equilibrium, national income determination and input-output analysis. We see
such applications in the following.

4.2 MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF DATA

Matrices are the most convenient way to compactly represent the data. To see
this feature let us take the following examples:
57
Business Mathematics Example 1: A firm has three factories (F1, F2 and F3) and four warehouses
(W1, W2, W3, W4). It wants to find the minimum per unit transport cost
from each factory to each warehouse. Given the cost data in matrix form in
the following, find the minimum as well as maximum unit cost for each
factory to transport its product to warehouses.

����������
� �� �� �� ��
�� 15 17 20 12
Factories �� 21 10 17 19
�� 10 27 18 16
Answer:
i) Per unit cost is minimum from F1, F2 and F3 to W4, W2 and W1
respectively.
ii) Per unit maximum cost from F1, F2 and F3 to W3, W1 and W2
respectively.
Example 2: In an elocution contest, a participant can speak either of the five
languages, viz., Hindi, English, Punjabi, Gujarati and Tamil. A college (say,
No.1) sent 30 students of which 10 offered to speak in Hindi, 9 in English, 6
in Punjabi, 3 in Gujarati and rest in Tamil. Another college (say, No.2) sent
25 students of which 7 spoke in Hindi, 8 in English, 10 in Punjabi. Out of 22
students from third college (say, No.3), 12 offered to speak in Hindi, 5 in
English and 5 in Gujarati.
Write the information given above in matrix form.
Answer:
Hindi English Punjabi Gujarati Tamil
College 1 10 9 6 3 2
College 2 7 8 10 0 0
College 3 12 5 0 5 0

Example 3: A finance company has offices located in every division, every

district and every taluka in a certain state in India. Assume that there are five
divisions, 30 districts and 200 talukas in the state. Each office has 1 head
clerk, 1 cashier, 1 clerk and 1 peon. A divisional office has, in addition, an
office superintendent, 2 clerks, 1 typist, and 1 peon. A district office has, in
addition 1 clerk, 1 peon, The basic monthly salaries ( in Rs.) are as follows:

Office superintendent 15000

Head clerk 12000
Cashier 11750
Clerks and typists 11500
Peons 7500

58
Using matrix notation, find Application of
Matrices in Business
i) The total number of posts of each kind in all the offices taken together. and Economics

ii) The total basic monthly salary bill of each kind of office and,
iii) The total basic monthly salary bill of all the offices taken together.
Answer:
The number of offices can be arranged in a row matrix:
Division District Taluka
� = [ 5 30 200 ]
Staff compostion can be arranged in 3 x 6 matrix
O H C T Cl P
1 1 1 1 3 2
� = �0 1 1 0 2 2�
0 1 1 0 1 1
where O = Office Superintendent
H = Head Clerk
C = Cashier
T = Typist
Cl = Clerk
P = Peon
The column matrix D will have the elements that correspond to basic
monthly salary
� 15000
� �12000�
� �11750��
�= �
� �11500�
�� �11500�
� � 7500 �

i) Total Number of posts of each kind in all the offices are the columns of
the matrix ��
1 1 1 1 3 2
�. � = [5 30 200] �0 1 1 0 2 2� =
0 1 1 0 1 1
[3 235 235 5 275 270]
ii) Total basic monthly salary bill of each kind of offices is the elements of
matrix ��
15000
�12000�
1 1 1 1 3 2 � � 99750
11750�
�. � = �0 1 1 0 2 2� � = �61750�
�11500�
0 1 1 0 1 1 42750
�11500�
� 7500 �

59
Business Mathematics iii) Total bill of all the offices is the element of the matrix
99750
[5 30 200] �61750� = [10901250]
42750
Check Your Progress 1
1) Why would you prefer to store data of a business operation in matrix
form?
2) You use two modes of travel, bus and train, while commuting between
home and your study centre. The cost of travel for the last two days is
recorded as follows:
Day one: Rs. 20 (in bus)+Rs. 30(in train)=Rs.50 (total)
Day two: Re.0 (in bus)+ Rs. 60 (in train)=Rs. 60 (total)
Write the above data in matrix format.
3) The total cost of manufacturing three types of motor car is given by the
following table:

Type of motor Labour Materials Subcontracted

Car (hrs) (units) Work (units)
Car A 40 100 50
Car B 80 150 80
Car C 100 250 100

Labour cost Rs 2 per hour, units of material cost Rs 1 each and unit of
sub-contracted work cost Rs 3 per unit. Find the total cost of
manufacturing 3000, 2000 and 1000 vehicles of type A, type B and
type C respectively using matrices.

4.3 MARKET DEMAND AND SUPPLY

EQUILIBRIUM
It is seen in microeconomics that the demand for a commodity and its supply
are expressed as functions of its own price only. The resultant equilibrium of
such a relation is given by the equality between demand and supply
equations. To see the process of determination of equilibrium price and
quantity, let us consider a hypothetical example of car industry.
Example 4: If demand and supply curves for car are:
� = 100 − 6�, � = 28 + 3� , where � is the price of cars, what is the
quantity of car bought and sold at equilibrium?
Answer: We know that the equilibrium quantity will be where supply equals
demand. So first we'll set supply equal to demand:
100 - 6P = 28 + 3P. Re-arranging we get:
72 = 9� ⇒ � = 8.

60
 Mathematical
UNIT 5 MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS Functions

Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Functions and Their Types
5.2.1 Definition of Function
5.2.1.1 Domain, Codomain and Range
5.2.2 F u n c t i o n T yp e s : A l g e b r a i c
5.2.2.1 Polynomial Function
5.2.2.2 Rational Function
5.2.2.3 Piecewise Function
5.2.3 F u n c t i o n T yp e s : T r a n s c e n d e n t a l
5.2.3.1 Exponential Function
5.2.3.2 Logarithmic Function
5.2.4 Function Types: Inverse and Composite
5.2.4.1 Inverse Function
5.2.4.2 Composite Function
5.3 Functions and Cartesian Coordinates
5.4 Graph of Some Functions
5.4.1 Graphing Functions of Straight-Line Types
5.4.1.1 Linear Function:
5.4.1.2 Absolute Value Function
5.4.1.3 Step Function
5.4.2 Graphing Functions: Curvy Types
5.4.2.1 Quadratic Functions
5.4.2.2 Cubic Function
5.4.3 Graphing Functions: Asymptotic Types
5.4.3.1 Square Root Function
5.4.3.2 Exponential Function
5.4.3.3 Logarithmic Function
5.5 Functions related to Business and Economics
5.5.1 Demand Function
5.5.2 Supply Function
5.5.3 Cost Function
5.5.4 Revenue Function
5.5.5 Profit Function
5.5.6 Consumption Function
5.6 Let Us Sum Up
5.7 Key Words
5.8 Some Useful Books
5.9 Answer or Hints to Check Your Progress
5.10 Exercises with Answers/Hints

75
Business Mathematics
5.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to understand:
• meaning of a function;
• different types of functions; and
• use of functions in Business and Economics.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
A function relates an input (or, argument) to an output. Notice the three main
components, viz., input, relation and output present in describing a function.
For example, in producing an output, you have used an input. It may so
happen that you have got the output whose value is doubled the value of the
input. That means the relationship between input and output is a simple
function of multiplying 2, viz., ����� × 2 = ������.
We use "�" or any other letter like � … to name a function. To read a
function, for example, we say "� �� � ������ � �������" and write it
as�(�) = � � . Here input �, if takes a value 3, output becomes 9 and we can
write �(3) = 9.
The format of the function as output depends on inputs is useful represent
many relations in the form of graphs. In this unit we discuss graphic forms of
some mathematical function.

5.2 FUNCTIONS AND THEIR TYPES

On the basis of general idea of a function seen above, it can be defined
formally.Some important functions find application in economics and
business. We take these up in this section.

5.2.1 Definition of Function

A function relates each element of a set with exactly one element of another
set. In defining the function as above, we need to note following:
i) “each element” implies every element in a set, say X, is related to some
element of another set say, Y;
ii) “exactly one” implies that a function is single valued. That is, �(3) =
8 or 9 is not right.
If a relationship does not follow those two rules, then it is not a
function although it is still a relationship. In that event, the elements of both
the sets are simply ordered pairs. They are called ordered pairs because the
input always comes first, and the output second.
Example1: Let the relationship be � → � � as given in the figure below:
Figure 5.1: Relation between X and Y

76
 Mathematical
Functions

Source: Math is Fun (taken from Internet)

In the relationship given above, set X contains the elements of � and set Y
has the element of � � . It is a function as
• every element in X is related to Y
• no element of X has two or more relationship.
5.2.1.1 Domain, Codomain and Range
In the example given above
the set "X" is called the Domain,
• the set "Y" is called the Codomain, and
• the set of elements that get pointed in Y (the actual values produced by
the function) is called the Range.

A function is uniquely represented by its graph which is the set of

order pairs (x, f (x)). When the domain and the codomain are sets of numbers,
each such pair may be considered as the Cartesian coordinates of a point in
the plane. In general, these points form a curve, which is also called the graph
of the function. This is a useful representation of the function, which is
commonly used everywhere. For example, graphs of functions are commonly
used in newspapers for representing the evolution of price indexes and stock
market indexes.

Sometimes a relation or a function does not follow directly the stated pattern
discussed above. The case of implicit function falls in this category. We see
it before going further.
A function is explicit is when it shows us how to go directly from
independent input � to dependent output �.
For example, take� = � � – 5. See that if you know �, then you can find �.
That is how we write � = �(�).
Implicit function is one where the independent input and its dependent
output are not given directly as is done with � = �(�).
Example 2: � � − 5�� + � � = 0
As you may notein case of the above equation, it is difficult to go directly
from � to �. 77
Business Mathematics Out of many types, we will discuss the following functions which are
commonly used.

��������
� �
� ���������� � ������  
���������� ���������  
� �
��������� � ��������  
� � ���������
� �����
� �����������  
�������������� �
� �������ℎ���

5.2.2 Function Types: Algebraic

The following discussion introduces the important functions often used to
solve problems. As summarised above, we have two broad groups of
functions, viz., algebraic and transcendental.Let us attempt to understand
these accordingly.
There is a group of functions called algebraic functions where a
function�(�) satisfies���, �(�)� = 0as a polynomial in� and� with integer
coefficients. These functions can be constructed using only a finite number
of elementary operations, such as plus, minus, multiplication and division.

5.2.2.1 Polynomial Function

A polynomial in the variable x is a function that can be written in the form,
�(�) = �� � � + ���� � ��� + ⋯ + �� � � + �� � + �� ,
where �� , ���� , … �� , �� , �� are constants. We call the term containing the
highest power of � (i.e., �� � � ) the leading term, and �� the leading
coefficient. The degree of the polynomial is the power of � in the leading
term i.e., degree �. Again, its degree 0, 1, and 2 are polynomials which are
constant, linearand quadratic functions while degree 3, 4, and 5 are
polynomials with special names: cubic, quartic, and quintic functions.
Polynomials with degree � > 5 are just called ��� degree polynomials. See
examples of polynomials in the following:
�� (�) = 2� + 5,
�� (�) = 2� � − � + 5,
�� (�) = 2� � − 5� � +5� � .
Constant Function: A constant function is a linear function for which
the range does not change no matter which member of the domain is
used. That is,�(�� ) = �(�� ) for any �� and �� in the domain.
Linear Function: Linear functions are those whose graph is a straight line.
A linear function has the following form. y = f(x) = a + bx.
Quadratic Function: A quadratic function is one of the forms: �(�) =
�� � + �� + �, where �, �, and � are numbers with a ≠ 0.

78
Power Function: A power function is a function that can be represented in Mathematical
Functions
the form:
�(�) = �� � ,
where � and � are real numbers, and � is known as the coefficient. See that
this function is constituted of a variable base raised to a fixed power just like
you find in a single term of a polynomial function.
All the functions given below are power functions:
The constant and only x term functions are power functions because they can
be written as�(�) = � � and �(�) = �� .
The quadratic and cubic functions are power functions with whole number
powers �(�) = � � and �(�) = � � .
The reciprocal and reciprocal squared functions are power functions with
negative integral powers because they can be written as �(�) =
� �� ��� �(�) = � ��
The square and cube root functions are power functions with fractional
� �
powers because they can be written as�(�) = � � and �(�) = � � .
5.2.2.2 Rational Function
A rational function is defined by a rational fraction, i.e., an algebraic
fraction such that both the numerator and the denominator are polynomials.
Example 3: The function �(�) = (−2� � + 4� � − 1) / � � is a
rational function since the numerator and the denominator are polynomials.
Note that the value of denominator should not be equal to zero.
5.2.2.3 Piecewise Function
We can have functions that behave differently depending on the input value.
That is, it is defined on a sequence of intervals. The absolute value function
as given below is an example of a piecewise function.
Example 4:
−� ��� � < 0
|�| = � 0 ��� � = 0  
� ��� � > 0
We may consider the rate structure of Indian income tax to appreciate such a
function. It may be seen from the income tax rates for 2019-20 is given
below.

Income tax Slabs Tax rate

Income up to Rs.2.5 lakh No tax
Income above Rs. Rs.2.5 to 5 lakh 5%
Income more than Rs.5 to 10 lakh Rs.12500 plus 20% of total income
exceeding Rs. 5 lakh
Income above Rs. Rs. 10 lakh Rs.1,12,500 + 30% of total income
exceeding Rs.10,00,000

79
Business Mathematics Taking rate of tax in the table above as a function of income level, we can
construct the piecewise function.

5.2.3 Function Types: Transcendental

This class of functions is not expressible as a finite combination of the
algebraic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, raising
to a power, and extracting a root. Examples of these types include
the logarithmic and exponential functions.

5.2.3.1 Exponential Function

If � is any number such that � > 0 and � ≠ 1, then we have an exponential
function in the form,
�(�) = � � , where � is called the base and � can be any real number.

Notice that in the function above,� is in the exponent and the base is a fixed
number. This is exactly the opposite from what we’ve seen in algebraic
functions. There the base has been the variable, � in most cases, and the
exponent was a fixed number. We will see some examples of exponential
functions shortly.
Before we proceed further, we should address the restrictions on �. We avoid
taking one and zero as the function would be,
�(�) = 0� = 0 and �(�) = 1� =1.
Such constant functions won’t have many of the properties that general
exponential functions have.
Next, we do not take negative numbers. Such numbers would result in getting
complex values out of the function. For example, taking � = −4, the
function would be,
�
�(�) = (−4)� ⇒ �(1/2) = (−4)� = √−4 ,

a complex number. As we only want real numbers to arise from function

evaluation, we require that �not be a negative number.
Note that taking a function

�(�) = � � , where � is the " Euler’s Number " = 2.718281828459...

we get the natural version of exponential function.

5.2.3.2 Logarithmic Function
The function � = ���� �, where �, � > 0 and � ≠ 1 gives the basic logarithm
function, which is read “ � equals the log of �, base �” or “ � equals the log,
base �, of �.”
The above function is equivalent to � = � � . Note that when no base is
shown, the base is understood to be 10. Also note that the domain of the
logarithmic function is the set of all positive real numbers and the range is the
set of all real numbers.

80
While evaluating logarithmic functions, the bases used most often are base 10 Mathematical
Functions
and base �. ��� base 10,i.e ��� 10 is known as the common logarithm and is
written as log.
The logarithm of a number is the exponent to which we must raise the base to
get the number. e.g.,
log2 8 = 3 because 23 =8.
log3 27 = 3 because 33 = 27
log10 100 = 2 because 102 = 100.
If ��� base e, i.e., ���e, is used, it is known as the natural logarithm and is
written as l�.
Having seen both exponential and logarithm function above, it would be
useful to note the relationship between the two. That is, a logarithmic
function is inverse of an exponential function, and vice versa. Thus, � � (an
exponential function) is the inverse function of ���� (�) (a logarithm
function).
If �, � and � be positive numbers, then important properties of logarithmic
functions are:
1) log (m.n) = log m + log n; logarithm of product is the sum of logarithms.
2) log ( m/n) = log m - log n; logarithm of quotient is the difference of
logarithms.
3) log (mn) = n log m; logarithm of power of a number is the exponent
times the logarithm of that number.
4) loge (ex) = x
5) loge e = 1
6) loga 1 = 0
7) loga a = 1.

5.2.4 Function Types: Inverse and Composite

In addition to algebraic and transcendental functions, it would be useful to
know two more types of functions, viz., inverse and composite. These two
functions figure in algebraic and transcendental functions.
5.2.4.1 Inverse Function
Inverse functions are defined asf(x) = y �� ��� ���� �� g(y) = x.In other
words, a function � has an inverse function only if for every � in
its range there is only one value of � in its domain for which �(�) = �. This
inverse function is unique and is frequently denoted by � �� and called
“� inverse.”
Example 5: Let the � be a function withdomain �, � and � and with
codomain 1, 2 and 3 (see figure below). See that � �� is inverse of �. The
reason is element � maps to 3 in � while 3 maps to � in � �� . The same is true
for other elements.

81
Business Mathematics

Fig. 5. 2: Inverse Function

Source: Wikipedia

Example 6: Consider function �(�) = 5� − 7. To reverse it means we

need to get � back from some output value, say �. This is given by the
function,
���
�(�) = �
.{\displaystyle g(y)={\frac {y+7}{5}}.}

Example 7: Find the inverse function for f(x) = 3x − 7.

Answer: Write y = 3x − 7 and solve for x as a function of y.
���
That is, � = �
.

Example 8: Find the inverse function for

�
�(�) =
�+1
Answer: Let � = �/(� + 1), and solve for �in terms of �.
We have from above �� + � = �,so that � = �(1 − �)
�
or, � = ���
�
Thus, � �� (�) = ���
.

Example 9: Find the inverse of function �(�) = � ���

Answer:
Given y = ex-3
82
Taking �� of both sides we obtain Mathematical
Functions
� − 3 = ln �
or, � = �� � + 3
Change � into � and � into � to obtain the inverse function.
� �� (�) = � = �� � + 3
Example10: Find the inverseof the function given by
�(�) = 3 ��(4 � − 6) − 2
Answer:
• Write � as an equation, change from logarithmic to exponential form.
� = 3 ��( 4 � − 6) − 2 ,
which gives ��( 4 � − 6) = ((� + 2) / 3
• Changing from logarithmic to exponential form we get
���
4� − 6 = � � �
�
.
• Solving for � yields
���
� �
4� = � � +6
���
� �
and finally,� = (1/4)� � + 3/2
• Changing � into � and � into � to obtain the inverse function.
���
� �� (�) = � = (1/4)� � �
�
+ 3/2

5.2.4.2 Composite Function

Composite function implies applying one function to the results of another.
That is, the result of f( ) is sent through g( ) and written as (g º f)(x), which
means g(f(x)).Thus,iff we have two functions �(�) and �(�), then we can
define a composite function ℎ(�) �(�(�))
For example,if �(�) = � � and �(�)
( ) = 2� − 1, then
ℎ(�) = (2� − 1)� = 8� � − 12� � + 6� − 1
On the other hand, if we define the composite function �(�) �(�(�)), then
we write �(�) = 2(� � ) − 1 Notice that ℎ(�) and �(�) are different
functions.
Taking into account natural exponential and logarithm functions, we evaluate
their relationship with composite function the following:
Given f(x) = ex and g(x) = ln x,, then
f(g(x)) = eln x = x
g(f(x)) = ln (ex) = x.
When composing functions, the order matters. For example, consider the
function
�(�) = 2� + 3 and �(�) = � � . Let

�(�) = (2� + 3)� . Now reverse the order �

�g º f�(�) = �(�(�)).Thus, �g º f�(
and �. So, 83
Business Mathematics (f º g)(�) = ���(�)� = �(� � )
Since �(�) = 2� + 3, �(� � ) = 2� � + 3.
We get a different result due to change of order of � and �.
Example 11: Given f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = –x2 + 5, find (f o g)(x).
Answer: Plugging the formula for g(x) into the formula for f(x), we get
(f o g)(x) = f (g(x))
= f (–x2 + 5)
= 2( )+3
= 2(–x2 + 5) + 3
= –2x2 + 10 + 3
= –2x2 + 13.

Check Your Progress 1

1) What are functions?
2) Explain the difference between domain and range.
3) State the meaning of an inverse function.
4) What does a composite function imply?
5) What do you understand by linear functions?
6) What do you understand by Quadratic functions?
7) Explain the difference between Exponential and Logarithm functions.
8) What is the difference between common logarithm and natural
logarithm functions?

5.3 FUNCTIONS AND CARTESIAN

COORDINATES
We have already seen that a function is a technical term used to define
relations between variables. A variable � is called a function of � if for every
value of � there is a definite value of �.
For example,� = 2� + 3,
where � is independent variable and �dependent variable as its value depends
upon the value of �.
For a better understanding of the functional relationship between the
variables let us return to cartesian coordinate system that is composed of a
horizontal line and a vertical line perpendicular to each other (see Figure 3).
Remember that these lines are called coordinate axes. The point where they
intersect each other is called the origin (0). Distance of a point from
horizontal axis or �-axis is called the coordinate, coordinate and the distance
of the point from vertical axis or �-axis is called the x-coordinate(abscissa).
To the right of �-axis,� coordinates are positive and to the left of it, x-
coordinates are negative. Above the �-axis � coordinates are positive and
below it they are negative.

84
 Mathematical
Functions

Fig. 5.3: Cartesian Coordinate System

The sign of the coordinate in each quadrant is shown in the figure. Note that
quadrants are numbered anticlockwise.
Each point in the coordinate system is associated with ordered pair of
numbers known as coordinates, showing the location of point in relation to
origin. For example, the point (2, 1) is 2 units on�-axis and 1 unit on-axis
measured from the origin.

Check Your Progress 2

1) What is a cartesian coordinate system?
2) How would you describe each point in the coordinate system?
3) Taking a point on horizontal axis, what would you can measure?

5.4 GRAPH OF SOME FUNCTIONS

Writing a function as � = �(�), we take the elements of the domain (�� ) as
independent variable and that of range �� as dependent variable. It helps
record the values of � and � while plotting the graphs.

5.4.1 Graphing Functions of Straight-Line Types

5.4.1.1 Linear Function
To see the graph of a linear function consider depicting the relationship
between price(�) and market demand (�) for a commodity which is often
depicted by a straight line.To plot the graph for evaluating the relationship, it
is convenient to prepare a table called, t chart, comprising the values of � and
�as a first step. If a function takes the form of� = � – ��, then the� −
chart is as under:
Table: t-chart of � = � – ��

� � = 7 − 5�
-1 12
0 7
85
Business Mathematics
1 2
2 -3
3 -8

Plotting the values of the chart we get the following graph.

Fig.5.4: Graph of Function � = � − ��

Source: Internet

The graph has x-intercept on a point where y is zero and y-intercept on a

point where x is zero. For example, to find the x and y intercepts of the
equation
3� + 4� = 12, proceed as follows:
To find the x-intercept, set y = 0 and solve for x. That is,
3� + 4( 0 ) = 12 ��, � = 12/3 = 4. Similarly, to find the y-intercept, set
x = 0 and solve for y.
That is, 3( 0 ) + 4� = 12 ��, � = 12/4 = 3. Thus,the x-intercept is (4,
0) and the y-interceptis (0, 3).
5.4.1.2 Absolute Value Function
Absolute Value Function is given as f(x) = |x| indicating that we need to
consider modulus |x| of a real number keeping it as the non-negative value
without regard to its sign. That is, |x| = x for a positive x, |x| = −x for a
negative x (in which case −x is positive), and |0| = 0. Thus, the absolute value
of 2 is 2, and the absolute value of −2 is also taken as 2. The graph of such as
function is as follows:

Fig.5.5: Graph of Absolute Value Function

Source: Internet
86
For example, ��� � is a function given by (�) = |� − 2| . The � intercept is Mathematical
Functions
given by
�0 , �(0)� = (0 , |−2|) = (0 , 2); � intercept is at the point (2 , 0) since we
solve for|� − 2| = 0. Since |� − 2| is either positive or zero for x = 2, the
domain of � is the set of all real numbers andthe range of � is given by the
interval [0 , +∞).
5.4.1.3 Step Function
A step function (or, staircase function) is a piecewise function containing all
constant "pieces". The constant pieces are observed across the adjacent
intervals of the function, as they change value from one interval to the next.
A step function is discontinuous (not continuous). You cannot draw a step
function without removing your pencil from your paper.
Features of step functions are: open circles and/or closed circles on the graph
(open = point not on graph; closed = point is on graph);
• horizontal "pieces"
• discontinuous (cannot be drawn without removing your pencil from the
paper)
• may or may be a function.
• Domain: all reals; Range: all integers; y-intercept = 0; x-intercept: [0,1).

−3; �<2
Consider the function �(�) = �0; −2 ≤ � ≤ 1  . Its graph is given below:
3; �>1

Fig.5.6: Graph of Step Function

Source: Internet

5.4.2 Graphing Functions: Curvy Types

Determining the nature of the function that produces curves requires
additional considerations compared to linear types. When you graphed
straight lines, you only needed two points to graph the line, though you
generally plot three or more points just to be on the safe side. However, three
points will almost certainly not be enough points for graphing curves of
quadratic or cubic functions.

87
Business Mathematics 5.4.2.1 Quadratic Functions
Quadratic functions help describing demand, cost, revenue and profit which
you will find while covering microeconomic analysis. The general technique
for graphing quadratics is the same as for graphing linear equations.
However, since quadratics graph are curvy lines (called "parabolas"), rather
than the straight lines generated by linear equations, there will have to be
some additional considerations.
The most basic quadratic function is y = x2. We will use the following F
chart to draw the graph.
Table: T-chart of � = � �

� � = ��
0 0
1 1
2 4

Based only on this experiment the plotted graph will produce a straight line.
Thus, the graph is not correct presentation of the function. More points need
to be considered. By extending the above table with more points we construct
the following table.
Table: t-chart of � = � �

X -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Y 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

With this table, we draw the following graph:

Fig.5.7: Graph of Equation � = ��

Source: Internet

See that the graph is a parabola.

Note that the parabola does not have a constant slope. In fact, as xincreases
by 1, starting with x = 0, yincreases by 1, 3, 5, 7,… . As xdecreases by 1,
starting with x = 0, yagain increases by 1, 3, 5, 7,… .
Consider a quadratic function of the form: �(�) = �� � + �� + � with
� ≠ 0. The graph of such a function takes one of the two general forms
shown in the following figure, depending on the sign of a.
88
 Mathematical
Functions

Fig.5.8: Graph of Quadratic Function

Source: Internet

For example, let us sketch the graph of function � = 2� � − 8� + 6. The

coefficient of � � is positive, so the graph is � − �ℎ����. The function is
sketched in the following figure.

Fig.5.9: Graph of Function � = ��� − �� + �

Source: Internet

Computation of Vertex
Consider a generic quadratic expression:� = �� � + �� + �.Start with
completing the square on the equation to have � = �[� � + ��/� + �/�] or,
� = �[(� + �/2�)� − (�/2�)� + �/�]
The expression −(�/2�)� + �/� is a constant and it does not depend on �.
So, we can replace it with �. Thus, we write � = �[(� + �/2�)� + �].
Now, depending on whether � is positive or negative, the parabola given by �
will either have a maximum or minimum. Since � and � are fixed, this must
occur when (� + �/2�)� = 0. Hence, � = −�/2� which implies that the
function y is at a minimum or a maximum when this is true.
Since parabolas are symmetric over a vertical line, let us call that line � = �.
This means that if the graph crosses the x-axis, then, �� � + �� + � = 0 to
have real solutions they must be equidistant from � = �.So (�, 0) must be
the midpoint of the segment with endpoints at the zeros of the quadratic or, �
is the average of the zeros. From the quadratic formula, the two zeros of the
��±√� � ���� �� �
quadratic are, ��
so their sum is �
and their average is � = − �� .
�
That means, the � − ���������� of the vertex must be − �� .

Example 12: Find the vertex of � = 3� � + � – 2 and graph the parabola.

Ans: To find the vertex, look at the coefficients�,�, and �. The formula for
�� �(�) ��
the vertex gives: ℎ = �� = ��� = � .
89
Business Mathematics
Then k is obtained by evaluating �at ℎ = – 1/6:
� = 3(– 1/6) � + (– 1/6 ) – 2 = 3/36 – 1/6 – 2
= 1/12 – 2/12 – 24/12 = – 25/12
� ��
Since the vertex is at (– � , – ��)T-chart can be prepared as follows:

� � = 3� � + � − 2
-2 8
-1 0
0 -2
1 2
2 12

The graph can be drawn with the specification vertex as follows:

Fig.5.10: Graph of � = ��� + � − �

Source: Internet

5.4.2.2 Cubic Function

Cubic functions are encountered in the discussion of total cost in
microeconomic analysis. Consider a cubic function of the form�(�) =
�� � + �� � + �� + �. Its graph is as follows:
The "basic" cubic function is�(�) = � � . The graph is:

Fig.5.11: Graph of Cubic Function

Source: Internet

Let f is a cubic function given by � (�) = � �

90 a) Find the � and � intercepts of the graph of �.

b) Find the domain and range of �. Mathematical
Functions
c) Sketch the graph of �.
a) The y intercept is given by (0, �(0)) = (0 , 0) . The � coordinates of
the � intercepts are the solutions to � � = 0. The x intercept is at the point
(0 , 0).
b) The domain of � (�) is the set of all real numbers. Since the leading
coefficient of x3 is positive, the graph of � is up on the right and down on
the left and hence the range of � is the set of all real numbers.
c) Table of values are:

� -2 -1 0 1 2
�(�) = � � -8 -1 0 1 8

Now, the graph can be drawn with this values.

5.4.3 Graphing Functions: Asymptotic Types

We are familiar with exponential growth models such as population growth
and compound interest. The functions representing such behaviour will be
used to see the graphs.
5.4.3.1 Square Root Function
As the name indicates we take a variable x to write the function in the form
of f(x) = √x.
Because the domain of f is the set of all positive real numbers and zero, we
might construct a table of values as follows:
X 0 1 4 9 16
√x 0 1 2 3 4
Plotting its graph yields the following figure:

Fig.5.12: Graph of Square Root Function

Source: Internet

5.4.3.2 Exponential Function

Consider natural exponential of the form � → � � where e is Euler's number, a
transcendental number approximately 2.718281828. Since x is an exponent
and the exponent can be any real number, the domain is all real numbers. The
range is the y-values. Since the graph never intersects or goes below the x-
axis, the y-values are not zero or negative. Its graph is given below.
91
Business Mathematics Draw a graph so that at any point (x, y) on the graph the slope is equal to y,
the vertical coordinate of the point. Notice that the higher up the point on the
graph is (the larger the y value), the steeper the slope. So, we make this
graph, starting at the point (x, y) =(0, 1) (where the graph has slope equal to
1). So, the graph starts out going up as we move to the right. You will see
that as you draw the graph from left to right it keeps going up faster and
faster.

Fig.5.13: Graph of Exponential Function

Source: Internet

5.4.3.3 Logarithmic Function

The logarithmic function slowly goes to positive infinity as the variable
increases and slowly goes to negative infinity as itapproaches 0. Afunction
given by � = ���� �, where � is any number such that � > 0, � ≠
1, ��� � > 0 is called a logarithmic function the function is read "log
base b of x". Its graph crosses the x-axis at (1, 0). When b> 1, the graph
increases; 0 <b< 1, the graph decreases.
In thelogarithmic function, the domain is all positive real numbers (never
zero) while the range is all real numbers. The graph is asymptotic to the y-
axis - gets very, very close to the y-axis but does not touch it or cross it.
The graph of � = ���� �, �> 1 with
• Domain: (0, ∞)
• Range: (−∞ , ∞ )
• x-intercept: (1, 0)
• Increasing
may be seen below:

Fig.5.14: Graph of Logarithmic Function

Source: Internet
92
 Mathematical
Check Your Progress 3 Functions

1) Draw the graph of � = (– 5/3)� – 2.

2) List two graphs that would be of curvy-type.
3) How do you describe the shape taken by a logarithmic function?
4) What is a vertex?

5.5 FUNCTIONS RELATED TO BUSINESS AND

ECONOMICS
In recent years, economic decision making has become more and more
mathematically oriented. Faced with huge masses of statistical data,
depending on hundreds or even thousands of different variables, business
analysts and economists have increasingly turned to mathematical methods to
help them describe what is happening, predict the effects of various policy
alternatives, and choose reasonable courses of action from the large of
possibilities. In this section some functions which are useful in business and
economics are discussed.

5.5.1 Demand Function

Demand is a function of price. For each price level of a good, there is a
corresponding quantity demanded that consumer will demand. If p is the
price per unit and � is the demand for a good, then demand function can be
written as:
x= f(p)
where � is dependent variable and p is the independent variable. Here, � and
p are positive because negative prices and quantity are meaningless.
Normally, there is a negative and linear relation between price and demand.

5.5.2 Supply Function

Supply is a function of price. For each price level of a good, there is a
corresponding quantity supplied by a producer. If p is the price per unit and �
is the supply for a good, then supply function can be written as:
x= g(p)
where � is dependent variable and p is the independent variable. Here, � and
p are positive because negative prices and quantity are meaningless.
Normally, there is a positive and linear relation between price and supply.

5.5.3 Cost Function

Total cost is the sum of fixed cost(FC) and variable cost(VC). Fixed cost is
the sum of all cost that is independent of the level of output, e.g., rent,
salaries of permanent workers etc. Variable cost is dependent on output. It
increases with an increase in output and vice versa.e.g., raw material, salaries
of temporary workers etc.
Let C be the total cost, then total cost function is defined as:
C= C(x),
93
Business Mathematics where � is the total units of output.

5.5.4 Revenue Function

Revenue function shows the relation between price of the commodity and
output sold. If �units of an output are sold at a price p per unit, then the total
revenue R(x) is given by
R(x) = x· p

5.5.5 Profit Function

Profit function is derived by considering profit earned and prices of inputs
and output. If R(x) and C(X) be the total revenue and total cost functions
respectively, then profitP(x) = R(x) – C(X), where P(x) = profit, and � is
units of output.
The point where revenue from sales is equal to the cost of production is
called as break-even point i.e., no profit, no loss point. In other words, profit
is equal to zero (i.e., total revenue is equal to total cost).

5.5.6 Consumption Function

It is proposed that consumption is the function of national income. If C
denotes total consumption in the economy and � denotes the total national
income, then
C= f(Y)
is called as the consumption function.
Example 13: A business man sells 2000 items per month at a price of Rs.10
each. It is estimated that monthly sales will increase by 250 items for each
Re. 0.25 reduction in price. Find the demand function corresponding to this
estimate.
Answer From the estimate, increases 250 units each time drops Re. 0.25
from the original cost of Rs.10. This is described by the equation
����
� = 2000 + ( �.�� )

= 1200 – 1000p
�
or, p= 12 - ����

Check Your Progress 4

1) What is a demand function?
2) How would you describe a revenue function?
3) How would you formulate a consumption function?

5.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have discussed the mathematical functions used to study
economic and business themes. For that purpose, we started with a broad
understanding of function used to define relations between variables. A
variable � is called a function of � if for every value of � there is a definite
94
value of �. Coming to types of functions, we have tried to categorized these Mathematical
Functions
into algebraic (containing ordinary numbers, variables and operators like
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) and transcendental (not
expressible as a finite combination of the algebraic operations). Thereafter we
have been exposed to the graphs of some important functions. There is a brief
preliminary discussion on application of functions in the themes of demand,
supply, cost, revenue, profit and consumption in the last section of the unit.

5.7 KEY WORDS

Algebraic: Expression or equation in which a finite number of symbols are
combined using only the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and exponentiation with constant rational exponents.
Asymptotic: A curve and a line that get closer but do not intersect.
Codomain:Set of all possible output values of a function.
Domain:Set of values of the independent variable(s) for which a function or
relation is defined.
Ordered Pair: Two elements, say, input and output(�, �), must follow the
ordering such that the input always comes first, and the output second in a
relation.
Parabola:A curve where any point is at an equal distance from a fixed point;
and a fixed straight line.
Range: All the output values of a function.
Rational Number: Number that can be represented as the ratio of
two integers.
Real Number: A value that represents a quantity along a number line.
Transcendental: A function which "transcends," i.e., cannot be expressed in
terms of algebra.
Vertex: A corner or a point where lines meet.

5.8 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

• Allen, R.G.D., “Mathematical Analysis for Economists”, London:
English Language Book Society and Macmillan, 1974.
• Bhardwaj, R.S.,”Mathematics for economics and business”, Delhi:
Excel Books, 2005.
• Dowling, Edward,T. “Schaum’s Outline Series: Theory and
Problems ofMathematics for Economists”, New York: McGraw Hill
Book Company, 1986.
• Chiang, A. and Kalvin Wainwright, Fundamental Methods of
Mathematical Economics (Paperback), Mac Grow Hill, 2017.
• Archibald, G.C., Richard G.Lipsey. “An Introduction to A
mathematical Treatment of Economics”, Delhi: All India Traveller
Bookseller, 1984
• Yamane, Taro, “Mathematics for Economists: An Elementary
Survey”,New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, 1970.
• K. Sydsaeter and P. Hammond, Mathematics for Economic Analysis,
PearsonEducational Asia, Delhi, 2002. 95
Business Mathematics
5.9 ANSWER/HINTS TO CHECK YOUR
PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
1) A function is a technical term used to define relations between
variables.
2) The set of all possible value of independent variable in a function is
called the domain of function and the set of all values of dependent
variable is called range of a function.
3) A function � has an inverse function only if for every � in
its range there is only one value of � in its domain for which �(�) = �.
4) Composite function implies applying one function to the results of
another.
5) Linear functions are functions with highest power 1.
6) Having the highest degree ‘2’.
7) Logarithmic and exponential functions are inverse of each other
8) Logarithms to the base 10 are called common logarithms and
logarithms to the natural base are called natural logarithms.
Check Your Progress 2
1) System that is composed of a horizontal line and a vertical line
perpendicular to each other.
2) By ordered pair of numbers known as coordinates.
3) Distance from vertical axis or �-axis (abscissa).
Check Your Progress 3
1) Do yourself after reading Sub-Section 5.4.1.1
2) Quadratic and cubic functions.
3) The logarithmic function goes slowly to positive infinity as the variable
increases and slowly goes to negative infinity as itapproaches 0.
Check Your Progress 4
1) Relation between quantity demanded and price of a commodity. It is
postulated that quantity demanded depends on price.
2) Revenue earned depends on price of the commodity sold.
3) By taking consumption as the dependent variable while income as the
independent variable.
4) Parabola has a vertical axis of symmetry and a turning point called
vertex.

5.10 EXERCISES WITH ANSWERS/HINTS

1) A business man sells 2000 items per month at a price of rupees10 each.
96 It is estimated that monthly sales will increase by 250 items for each
 Rs. 0.25 reduction in price. Find the demand function corresponding to Mathematical
Functions
this estimate.
2) Suppose the cost to produce some commodity is known to be linear.
Find cost as a function of output if costs are Rs. 4000 for 250 units and
Rs. 5000 for 350 units.
3) A garment manufacturer is planning production of new variety of t-
shirts. It involves initially a fixed cost of Rs. 1.5 lacs and a variable cost
of Rs. 150 for producing each shirt. If each shirt can be sold at Rs. 350,
then find: i) the cost function ii) the revenue function iii) the profit
function and iv) the break-even point
4) Suppose there is demand of 60 units of a product when its price is Rs.
18 per unit and 40 units when its price is Rs. 28 each. Find the demand
function, assuming that it is linear.
5) When the unit price of an item is Rs. 5, the daily supply will be 100.
When the price is increased to Rs. 10, the daily supply is found to be
200. Find the supply function, assuming that it is linear.
6) A company decides to set up a small production plant for
manufacturing electronic clocks. The total cost for initial set-up (fixed
cost) is Rs. 9 lakhs. The additional cost (i.e., variable cost) for
producing each clock is Rs. 300. Each clock is sold at Rs. 750. During
the first month, 1,500 clocks are produced and sold:
i) Determine the cost function C(x) for the total cost of producing x
clocks.
ii) Determine the revenue function R(x) for the total revenue from
the sale of x clocks.
iii) Determine the profit function P(x) for the profit from the sale �
clocks.
iv) What profit or loss the company incurs during the first month
when all the 1,500 clocks are sold?
v) Determine the break-even point.
7) A manufacturer earns Rs. 5500 in the first month and Rs. 7000 in the
second month. On plotting these points, the manufacturer observes a
linear function may fit the data.
i) Find the linear function that fits the data.
ii) Using your model make a prediction of the earning for the fourth
month.
8) A salesman earns Rs. 380 in the first week, Rs. 660 in the second week
and Rs. 860 in the third week. On plotting the points (1, 380), (2, 660)
and (3, 860), the salesman feels that a quadratic function may fit the
data.
i) Find the quadratic function that fits the data.
ii) Using the model make a prediction of the earning for the fourth
week.

97
Business Mathematics 9) A firm wants to launch a new product. It observes that the fixed cost of
the new product is Rs. 35000 and the variable cost per unit is Rs. 500.
The revenue function of the new product is 5000x – 100x2. Find i)
Profit ii) Break-even values iii) the values of � results in loss.
Answers
1) p= 12- x/1000; x>2000
2) C (x)= 10x +1500
3) i) C (x)= 150000 +150x;
ii) R(x) = 350x
iii) P(x) =200x – 150000
iv) 750
4) p = 48 -1/2 x.
5) p = 1/20 x.
6) i) C(x) = 9,00,000 + 300x
ii) R(x) = 750x
iii) 450x – 9,00,000
iv) P(1500) = - 2,25,000
v) x = 2,000
7) i) Take y = mx + c, where � denotes earnings, � denotes the months
and m and c are constants. From given data obtain,
5500 = m + c …1
7000 = 2m + c …2
Solve these to get, 1500 = m and c = 4000 and linear equation is
y = 1500x + 4000.
ii) Earning for the fourth month is
y = 1500 x 4 + 4000
= 6000 + 4000 = 10000
8) i) Let the quadratic function is
y= ax2 + bx + c
where y stand for earnings and � for weeks.
From above data to obtain
380 = a. 12 + b. 1 +c
660 = a. 22 + b. 2 +c
860 = a. 32 + b. 3 +c.
Solve these to get a= -40, b = 400 and c= 20.
Therefore, the required function is:
98
 y = -40 x2 + 400 x +20 Mathematical
Functions
ii) The predicated earning for the fourth week is:
y = -40 x 16 + 400 x 4 + 20
= Rs. 980.
9) i) Given R(x) = 5000x – 100x2 (revenue function)
C(x) = FC + VC (Cost Function)
= 35000 + 500x
P(x) = R(x) – C(x) (Profit Function)
= 5000x – 100x2 – (35000 + 500x)
= -100x2 +4500x -35000
ii) For break-even values, P(x) = 0
P(x)= -100x2 +4500x -35000 = 0
x2 – 45x + 350 = 0
(x-10)(x-35) = 0
x= 10,35
iii) For loss making values; P(x)<0
-100x2 +4500x -35000 < 0
i.e., (x-10)(x-35) > 0
This is possible if x<10 and x>35.

99
Business Mathematics
UNIT 6 LIMIT AND CONTINUITY
Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Limit of a Function
6.2.1 Properties of Limit
6.2.2 Some Standard Limits
6.2.3 Method of Factorization
6.3 Continuity
6.3.1 Properties of Continuity
6.4 Let Us Sum Up
6.5 Key Words
6.6 Some Useful Books
6.7 Answer or Hints to Check Your Progress
6.8 Exercises with Answer/Hints

6.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• Understand the concept of limit of a function and
• Explain the concept of continuous function.

6.1 INTRODUCTION
The present unit discusses two basic concepts, viz., limit and continuity,
which are adopted widely in differential calculus. We consider these two
themes together as the concept of a limit is closely connected to that
of continuity. We will see later that a function is continuous at a point, if
the limit exists at that point and is equal to the corresponding value of the
function.
Idea of Limits of Functions
When we discussed about functions in the preceding unit, we tried to see the
values of functions at specific points. For example, our concern was to
discern the value of f(x) if, say, x=1.
The idea behind limit is to analyze the value that function is "approaching"
when its input "approaches" a specific value. To appreciate underlying idea,
see the following Graph 1:

100
 Limit and Continuity

Fig. 6.1: Approximation of Limit

It may be seen that when � approaches the value "�" in the � axis, the
function �(�) approaches "�" in the � axis. Let us pay attention to the
hole at the point (�, �) given in the form of a small circle. Around that
area, we don't necessarily know the value of function � at � = �. That is,
we cannot work out the exact value of the function but can see what it
should be as we get closer and closer. Such a situation is expressed as
lim�→� �(�) = � .
� � ��
Example 1: Let us take a function�(�) = ���
and try to solve it for � = 1.
� � �� �
Plugging the value � = 1 into ���
we get �. There is a difficulty in the
�
solution obtained. We do not know the value as � is indeterminate.
Therefore, we need to find some other way toderive an answer.
Instead of working out for � = 1, we try approaching 1 closer and closer
in the following way:

� �� − 1
�−1
0.5 1.50000
0.9 1.90000
0.99 1.99000
0.999 1.99900
0.9999 1.99990
0.99999 1.99999

101
Business Mathematics � � ��
See that as � gets closer to 1, the value of ��� gets closer to 2. With such a
result, an interesting situation is obtained. For, when x=1, we don't know the
answer as it is indeterminate. But in another approach, we could see that it
is going to be 2. That is to say, we want to give the answer "2" but can't do
(� � ��)
so. Instead, we say, the limit of ��� = 2 as � approaches 1. Essentially, we
are saying, ignoring what happens when we get there, weknow of getting
closer and closer to 2 as � goes closer and closer to 1.
The Idea of Continuous Functions
Basically, we say a function is continuous when we can graph it without
lifting a pencil from the paper. Here's an example of what a continuous
function looks like Graph 2:

Fig. 6.2: Continuous Curve

If there is a break in the curve shown above in the graph, then the function is
not continuous. Intuitively, a continuous function indicates that small
changes in the input of the function would result in small changes in the
output.
We will return to see the precise definitions of limit and continuity concepts
introduced above.

Check Your Progress 1

1) What is the intuitive idea behind limit of a function?
2) List the commonly understood idea behind continuity of a function.
3) How would you like to explain the relation between limit and
continuity of function?

6.2 LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

We have seen above in the introduction section that a function may have a
limiting value as the independent variable approaches a particular real
number. This limiting value is known as a limit, provided it exists.
Symbolically,
lim�→� �(�) = �

102
Above equation implies that as � approaches �, the limit of �(�) equals �. Limit and Continuity
Here � approximately equals to � (i.e., � can be less than � or greater than �
but x≠ �).
To find out the limit, we need to work on the value of function for two
different values of � - one for � greater than c (right-hand limit) and other for
� less than c (left-hand limit) and verify whether both of these are equal or
not. The limit of a function will exist if and only if both left-hand and right-
hand limits are equal, i.e.,
If, lim�→�� �(�) = � and lim�→�� �(�) = �, then lim�→� �(�) = �
Example 2: Find out the limit of � � when � → 2.
Solution: To find out the limit, following tables are created with assumed
values of � and the corresponding values of �(�):
When � < 2,

� 1 1.4 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.99 1.995 1.999

f(�) 1 1.96 2.89 3.24 3.61 3.9601 3.98 3.996

When � > 2,

� 3 2.6 2.4 2.2 2.1 2.01 2.005 2.001

f(�) 9 6.76 5.76 4.84 4.41 4.0401 4.02 4.004

It is clear from above tables, when � is approximately equal to 2, the f(�) is

approximately equal to 4, i.e.,
lim�→�� � � = 4 and lim�→�� � � = 4
Therefore,
lim � � = 4
�→�

� � ��
Example 3: Find out the limit of f(�)= ���
when �→2.

Solution: when �<2 then �(�) equals

� 1 1.4 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.99 1.995 1.999

f(�) 1 3.4 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.99 3.995 3.999

When �>2, the f(�) equals

� 3 2.6 2.4 2.2 2.1 2.01 2.005 2.001

f(�) 5 4.6 4.4 4.2 2.1 4.01 4.005 4.001

It is clear from above tables, when � is approximately equals 2, the �(�) is

approximately equals 4.
lim�→�� �(�) = 4 and lim�→�� �(�) = 4
Hence,
lim �(�) = 4
�→�
103
Business Mathematics The method of finding limiting values of a function at a given point by putting the
values of the variable very close to that point may not always be convenient.
We, therefore, need other methods for calculating the limits of a function as
�(independent variable) tends to a finite quantity, say,�.
� � ��
Example 4: Find lim�→� �(�), �ℎ��� �(�) = ���

Solution:
We can solve it by the method of substitution,steps of which are as follows:
1) We consider a value of �close to,say,� = � +
ℎ,whereℎisaverysmallpositive number. Clearly, as �→�, ℎ → 0
� � ��
For � (�) = , we write � = 3 + ℎ, when � → 3 then ℎ → 0.
���

2) Simplify �(� ) = �(� + ℎ)

(���)� ��
Now, � (3 + ℎ) = (���)��

���� �����
= �

�� ���
= �

= ℎ+6
3) Putℎ = 0
�(3 + 0) = �(3) = 6
i.e., lim�→� �(�) = lim�→� (ℎ + 6) = 6.
In the above while defining limit we have seen a condition on existence of a limit. When
we say the limit does not exist, it means that the limit is either infinity or not
defined. In case of the limit of a function 'tends to infinity’, its value gets
arbitrarily larger. If it doesn't get closer to any value, the limit does not exist.
If the variable tends to a finite value, then the function must get closer to a
number as the variable gets closer to the finite value. Again, if it doesn't get
closer to any value, then the limit does not exist. It could be because the left-
and right-hand limits are not equal, or because they're equal to infinity.

6.2.1 Properties of Limit

If � be any constant and lim�→� �(�) then the following are true:
1) The limit of a constant is constant, i.e., lim�→� � = �, where k is
constant.
2) lim�→� ��(�) = � lim �(�)
�→�

3) The limit of a sum or difference is the sum or difference of the limits.

i.e., �lim [ �(�) ± �(�)� = lim �(�) ± lim �(�)
�→� �→� �→�

4) The limit of a product is the product of limits. i.e., lim [�(�). �(�)] =
�→�
lim �(�). lim �(�).
�→� �→�
104
 �(�) ��� �(�) Limit and Continuity
5) lim �(�) = �→�
��� �(�)
given, lim �(�) ≠ 0
�→� �→�
�→�

6) lim ���(�) = �� lim �(�) for all positive integer values of n

�→� �→�

7) lim � � = �� for all positive integer values of n

�→�

8) lim log[�(�)] = log[ lim �(�)]

�→� �→�

9) lim exp [�(�)] = exp[ lim �(�)]

�→� �→�

6.2.2 Some Standard Limits

� � ���
1) lim�→� ���
= ����� , � be positive integer

2) lim(1 + �)�/� = �
�→�
�� ��
3) lim �
= log � � (where a>0)
�→�
� � ��
4) lim �
=1
�→�
��� (���)
5) lim �
=1
�→�

Examples 5: Evaluate the following limits

1) lim 9
�→�

2) lim 3� �
�→�

3) lim( 5� � + 3� + 7)
�→�

4) lim [(� � + 4)(3� − 2)]

�→�

�� � � ���
5) lim ��� �
�→�

Solutions:
1) lim 9 = 9
�→�

2) lim 3� � = 3. lim�→� � � = 3. (2)� = 3 × 4 = 12

�→�

3) lim( 5� � + 3� + 7) = lim5� � + lim 3� + lim 7 = 5(2)2 + 3(2) + 7 = 33

�→� �→� �→� �→�

4) lim [(� � + 4)(3� − 2)] = lim (� � + 4). lim (3� − 2)

�→� �→� �→�

= [ lim � � + lim 4]. [ lim 3� − lim 2]= (1 + 4) (3 – 2) = 5

�→� �→� �→� �→�

�� � � ��� ��� (�� � � ���) �� ��� �

5) lim ��� �
= �→�
��� (� � � �)
= ���
= ��
=0
�→� �→�

Check Your Progress 2

1) Explain the left-hand and right-hand limit.

105
Business Mathematics 2) Is the limiting value of a function exist when left-hand limit is not equal
to the right-handlimit?
3) What is lim�→� ��(�) = � lim �(�)?
�→�
� � ��
4) What is value of lim �
?
�→�

6.2.3 Method of Factorization

If f(�) and g(�) are two functions such that lim�→� �(�) = lim�→� �(�) = 0
�(�) �
and we have to find lim�→� �(�), then we obtain a � form, which is
�
meaningless. Note that �is called as indeterminate form. Other indeterminate
form is ±∞/±∞. Such limits are solved by method of factorization.
� � ������
Consider the example lim�→� � � ����� , as �→5, both numerator and
denominator approach zero. This is an indeterminate form. In such case, we
follow the following steps:
1) Factorise�(�) and �(�)to get,
� � − 3� − 10 (� + 2)(� − 5)
lim = lim
�
�→� � − 6� + 5 �→� (� − 1)(� − 5)

2) Simplify the equation

(� + 2)(� − 5) (� + 2)
lim = lim
�→� (� − 1)(� − 5) �→� (� − 1)

3) Putting the values of �, we get

(� + 2) 7
lim =
�→� (� − 1) 4
√����√���
Example 6: Evaluate lim�→� �

Here, we do the following steps:

Step 1. Rationalise the factor containing square root.
Step 2. Simplify
Step 3. Put the value of � and get the required result.
√����√���
Solution: given, lim�→� �

√����√��� √����√��� √����√���

Rationalising,lim�→� �
= lim�→�
�
x
√����√���
� �
√��� �√���
= lim�→� ��√����√����
�������
=lim�→� ��√����√����
��
=lim�→� ��√����√����
�
=lim�→� �
√����√����
106
Putting the value � = 0, we get Limit and Continuity

2 2 2
lim = = =1
�→� �√1 + � + √1 − �� √1 + 0 + √1 − 0 2
�� � �����
Example 7: Evaluate lim�→� ��� �����

Solution: As � approaches ∞, both the numerator and denominator approach

�
∞.Therefore, the given function takes the indeterminate form �. However, we
can change the form of the quotient so that a conclusion can be drawn as to
whether or not it has a limit. This is done by dividing both numerator and
denominator by the highest power of � that occurs in the denominator. Thus,
dividing both the numerator and denominator by x3, we get
� � �
2� � + 5� + 1 + �+ �
lim � = lim � �� ��
�→� 3� − 2� + 4 �→� 3 − + �� ��
� � �
����→� � ��� � � ��� �
= � �→��
�
�→��
�
��� �� ��� � � ��� �
�→� �→�� �→��

����� �
= ����� = � = 0
�
Example 8: For the demand function � = ��� (where � is price, � is
quantity demanded and � and � are constants), show, by using the concept of
limit, that the demand increases to infinitely large amount as the price falls.
Also, show that total revenue reaches a limiting value as the quantity demand
increases.
�
Solution: Given, � = ���

Rearranging equation,
�
� = − �
�
Putting the limit � → 0,
�
lim�→� � = lim [� − �] = ∞
�→�

Therefore, demand approaches ∞, when price approaches 0

� ��
Now, �� = �� = �[���] = ���
�� �
lim�→� ��= lim = lim � =�
�→� ��� �→� ��
�

Thus, �� reaches a limiting value ‘�’ as quantity demanded increases.

Check Your Progress 3

1) Explain the indeterminate forms of limit.
2) What is the limiting value of constant when � approaches �?
3) When would you like to use factorization method of finding the limit of
a function?
107
Business Mathematics
6.3 CONTINUITY
We have seen above in the introduction section that a function is said to be
continuous if the graph of the function has no breaks, i.e., if its graph can be
drawn without lifting pencil off the paper. The graph of a continuous function
and discontinuous function are given below:

a: Continuous function b:Discontinuous function

Fig. 6.3: Continuous and Discontinuous Function

In other words, a function is continuous if minor changes in the independent

variable generate minor changes in the function values. Mathematically, a
function � is said to be continuous at � = � if
i) the function is defined at � = �, and
ii) lim�→� �(�) = �(�), �. �, lim�→�� �(�) = lim�→�� �(�) = f(c)
If �(�) is continuous for every value of � in its domain, it is said to be
continuous throughout the interval.
A function, which is not continuous at a point, is said to have a discontinuity
at that point.
A function � is a continuous over an interval (�, �) if it is continuous at every
point within the interval.
Example 9: Examine the continuity of the function �(�) = � − � at � = �
Solution: Put � = � + ℎ,so that when � → � then ℎ → 0. Now,
lim �(�) = lim �(� + ℎ)and at � = �,
�→� �→�

lim �(� + ℎ) = lim ((� + ℎ) − �)

�→� �→�

= 0
Also, �(�) = � − � = 0
Hence, �(�) = ��� �(� + ℎ) = 0
�→�

Thus �(�) is continuous at � = �.

6.3.1 Properties of Continuity

1) �(�) = � (constant) is continuous for all real number�.
2) �(�) = � � ,� is natural number, is continuous for all real number �.
108 3) polynomial functions are continuous for all real numbers.
4) If �(�) and �(�) are two continuous function then, �(�) ± �(�) are Limit and Continuity
also continuous. i.e., sum and difference of two continuous functions
are also continuous.
5) If �(�) and �(�) are two continuous function, then �(�)x �(�) is also
continuous. i.e., product of two continuous functions is also continuous.
6) If �(�) and �(�) are two continuous function, then �(�)/�(�) is also
continuous (provided �(�) ≠ 0), i.e., quotient of two continuous
functions is also continuous.
Example 10: A function �(�) is defined as
� + 1, �� − 1 ≤ � < 0
�(�) = � �, �� 0 ≤ � ≤ 1  
2 − � �� 1 ≤ � ≤ 2
Show that it is discontinuous at � = 0 but is continuous at � = 1.
Solution: When � = 0,we get
�(0) = 0
lim �(�) = lim � = 0
�→�� �→��

lim �(�) = lim (� + 1) = 1

�→�� �→��

Since, lim�→�� �(�) ≠ lim�→�� �(�),� is not continuous at � = 0.

When � = 1,
�(1) = 1. Now,
lim �(�) = lim�→�� (2 − �) = 2 − 1 = 1;
�→��

lim �(�) = lim � = 1.

�→�� �→��

Since lim �(�) = lim �(�) = 1 = �(1),

�→�� �→��

� is continuous at � = 1.
Example 11: Find the points of discontinuity of the function
2� � + 6� − 5
12� � + � − 20
Solution: The given function will be discontinuous at the point where
denominator is equal to zero. i.e.,
12x2 + x – 20 = 0
or, 12x2 + 16x -15x – 20 = 0
or, 4x (3x + 4) -5 (3x + 4) = 0
or, (4x – 5) (3x + 4) = 0. So
� �
x = �or, − �
which are the points of discontinuity.
Example 12: Examine the continuity at � = 0 of the function �(�) defined
as under: 109
Business Mathematics �
�(�) = � at x≠0
�� � �

= 0 at x = 0
��� �
Solution: R.H.L. lim�→�� �(�) = lim�→� � = lim� →� � =0
�� � � �� � �
��� ��
L.H.L. lim�→�� �(�) = lim�→� �
� = lim� →� �
� =0
�� � � �� � �

Also, f(0) =0
Since R.H.L. = L.H.L = 0 = f(0), the given function is continuous at � = 0.
Example 13: A function is defined as under
� � � ����
� = �(�) = ���

i) Evaluate the limit of y when � → 4

ii) Is the function continuous at � = 4? why?
Solution: Given the function,
� � − � − 12
� = �(�) =
�−4
i) Applying the limit at � = 4, we get
� � − � − 12 (� − 4)(� + 3)
lim � = lim �(�) = lim = lim
�→� �→� �→� �−4 �→� �−4
lim(� + 3)
= =4+3=7
�→4

ii) At � = 4, function is evaluated as

� � � ���� �� � ���� �
� = �(�) = ���
= ���
= �
(Not defined)

Since, the function y is not defined at � = 4, the function is not continuous at

� = 4.
Example14: A shopkeeper charges Rs. 25 per item for buying 20 or less
items. He gives some rebate if items bought are more. If the items bought are
50 or less, then a rebate of Re. 1 per item and for purchase of more than 50
items, rebate of Rs. 2 per item. Find the cost function. What are the points at
which this is not continuous?
Solution: let ‘x’ denotes the number of items then the cost function C(x) is
shown as
25� 1 ≤ � ≤ 20
C(x) = � 24� 20 < � ≤ 50  
23 � � > 50
At x = 20,C(20) = 25 x 20 = 500
L.H.L = lim�→��� �(�) = lim�→��� �(20) = lim�25� = 25�20 = 500 (left
�→��
hand limit)
R.H.L = lim�→��� �(�) = lim�→��� 24� = 24 �20 = 480 (right hand
110 limit)
Since, LHL ≠ RHL,the function C(x) is not continuous at x = 20-0 Limit and Continuity

At x = 50, C(50) = 24 x 50 = 1200

L.H.L = lim�→��� �(�) = lim�→��� �(50) = lim� 24� = 24 �50 = 1200
�→��
(left hand limit)
R.H.L = lim�→��� �(�) = lim�→��� 23� = 23 �50 = 1150 (right hand limit)
Since, LHL ≠ RHL, the function C(x) is not continuous at x = 50.
Therefore, the function is discontinuous at x = 20 and x = 50.
Example 15: Anelectric company charges from its customers the following
amount for services: Rs. 5 for first 20 kilowatt hours or less, 25 paise per
kilowatt hour for the next 80-kilowatt hours and 10 paise per kilowatt for any
hours above 100 kilowatt hours. If x is the number of kilowatt hours, express
the total cost C as a function of x. Also test the continuity of �at x = 20 and
x = 100.
Solution: Given,
5, �� � ≤ 20
�
�5 + 1 ( � − 20), �� 20 < � ≤ 100
�(�) = 4  
�
� 25 + 1 �(� − 100) , �� � > 100
� 10
At x = 20, C(20) = 5
L.H.L = lim�→��� �(�) = lim�→��� 5 = 5
�
R.H.L = lim�→��� �(�) = lim�→��� 5 + �
( � − 20) = 5
Hence, lim�→�� �(�) = 5 = �(20)
Therefore, the �(�) is continuous at x =20.
Similarly, we can show that � is continuous at x = 100.

Check Your Progress 4

1) Explain continuous and discontinuous functions.
2) Are polynomial functions continuous for all real numbers?
3) Construct a function that is discontinuous at � = 0 but is continuous at
� = 1.

6.4 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have been exposed to the concepts of limit and continuity of a
function. We have learnt that the intuitive idea of a limit is one of analyzing
the value which a function is "approaching" when its input "approaches" a
specific value. On the other hand, we say a function is continuous when we
graph it without lifting the pencil from the paper. That is, to be qualified as a
continuous function, it should not have breaks. With such a feature in place, a
continuous function indicates that small changes in the input of the function
would result in small changes in the output. Along with these, we have been
told the properties of limit of a function.
111
Business Mathematics Discussing the formal definition of limit of a function, we learnt that the
limiting value is known as a limit, provided it exists. To understand such a
concept, we need to find out the limit of a function from two different sides
called right-hand limit and left-hand limit. Once computing these, we have to
proceed for verifying whether both of them are equal. For, the limit of a
function would exist if and only if both left-side and right-side limits are
equal. We also learnt the method of finding limit through factorization when
the value of a function attains indeterminate form.
Coming to the concept of continuity we have seen that a function � is said to
be continuous at � = � if conditions
i) the function is defined at � = �, and
ii) lim�→� �(�) = �(�), �. �, lim�→�� �(�) = lim�→�� �(�) = f(�) are
satisfied. We have been also showed the properties of a continuous
function.

6.5 KEY WORDS

Continuity:A function f(x) is continuous provided its graph is continuous.
More formally, a function f(x) is said to be continuous at x = a, provided
����→� �(�) exists, finite and is equal to f (�).
Indeterminate Forms:whose limit cannot be determined solely from the
limits of the individual functions.
Limit: Value that a function (or sequence) "approaches" as the input
"approaches" some value.
Method of Factorization:It is a technique to finding limits that works by
cancelling out common factors. It is normally used to transform an
indeterminate form into one that allows for direct evaluation.
Method of Substitution:is a method of determining limits where the
approaching value is substituted into the function and the result is evaluated.
Natural Number: Those used for counting.
Real Number: A continuous quantity that can represent a distance along a
line. Thus, the real numbers include all the rational numbers, such as the
integer −5 and the fraction 4/3, and all the irrational numbers, such as √2.
Real Valued Function: whose values are real numbers.

6.6 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

• Allen, R.G.D., “Mathematical Analysis for Economists”, London, English
Language Book Society and Macmillan, 1974.
• Chiang, A. and Kalvin Wainwright, Fundamental Methods of
Mathematical Economics (Paperback), Mac Grow Hill, 2017.
• K. Sydsaeter and P. Hammond, Mathematics for Economic Analysis,
PearsonEducational Asia, Delhi, 2002.

112
 Limit and Continuity
6.7 ANSWER/HINTS TO CHECK YOUR
PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
1) Value that a function approaches as the input approaches some value.
2) When we can graph a function without lifting a pencil from the
paper.
3) A function �(�) is continuous at a point �� if the limit exists at �� and
is equal to �(�� ).
Check Your Progress 2
1) For RHS limit, value of a function is just greater than the limit
whereasfor LHS limit, value of a function is just less than the limit.
2) no
3) It is a property of limit of a function.
4) 1
Check Your Progress 3
� �
1) the value of the equation is of the form of �
��� �
.
2) Constant
�
3) In cases of functions with two indeterminate forms viz., 0/0 and �.

Check Your Progress 4

1) A function f is a continuous over an interval (�, �) if it is continuous at
every point within the interval, otherwise discontinues.
2) Yes
3) See the discussion given in Sub-Section 6.3.1 and answer.

6.8 EXERCISES WITH ANSWER/HINTS

1) Find the limit of the following functions:
a) lim�→� 7
b) lim �
�→�

c) lim(3� + 4)
�→�

d) lim(3� � − 2� � + 4� � + 5� − 7)
�→�

e) lim [(� � + 5)/(� − 1)]

�→�
�� � � ���
f) lim [��� � ����]
�→�
�� � � �� � � �
g) lim [��� � � �����]
�→�

113
Business Mathematics 2) Discuss whether the following functions are continuous or not:
a) lim(2� � − 3� + 5)
�→�

b) lim [(� � − 7)/(� + 3)]

�→�

3) Examine the continuity at x = 0 for the following function

�� �/�
, �� � ≠ 0 
f(x) = ���� �/�
0 , �� � = 0
� � � ����
4) Given, y = f(x) = ���

a) Evaluate the limit of � as � → 5.

b) Is this function continuous at � = 5? Why?
5) Discuss the continuity of the function �, where
� + 2, ��� � < 1
4� − 1 , ��� 1 ≤ � ≤ 3 
f(x) = �
� � + 5, ��� � > 3

Answers:
1) a) 7 b) 0 c) 13 d)3 e) 9 f) 2/3 g) -2/5
2) a)continuous b)continuous
3) continuous
4) a) 4 b) No, since it is not defined at � = 5.
5) Continuous at � = 1, discontinuous at � = 3.

114
 Concept of
UNIT 7 CONCEPT OF DIFFERENTIATION Differentiation

Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Differentiation by First Principle
7.3 Rules of Differentiation
7.4 Standard Derivatives
7.5 Differentiation of Implicit Functions
7.6 Differentiation using Logarithms
7.7 Derivative of Inverse Function
7.8 Differentiation of Parametric Function
7.9 Let Us Sum Up
7.10 Key Words
7.11 Some Useful Books
7.12 Answer or Hints to Check Your Progress
7.13 Exercises with Answer/Hints

7.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• understand the concept of derivative, its meaning,
computation and interpretation;
• comprehend several rules for calculating derivatives; and
• use logarithm in differentiation.

7.1 INTRODUCTION
The rate of change of one variable of function with respect to another on
which it depends is called the derivative of the function. Differentiation is the
process of the finding out the derivative of a continuous function. A
derivative is the limit of the ratio of the small increment in one variable of
the function corresponding to a small increment in the argument (other
variable) as the later tends to zero.

7.2 DIFFERENTIATION BY FIRST PRINCIPLE

Differentiating a function from "first principles" means we start from scratch
and use algebra to find a general expression for the slope of a curve, at any
value x. To appreciate the underlying idea, we start with some general idea of
the concept.

115
Business Mathematics Let � = �(�) be a function defined in an interval (�, �). Let � = � be any
point of the interval, so that �(�) is the corresponding value of the function.
Let( � + ℎ) be any other point of this interval which lies to the right or left of
� according as ℎ is positive or negative. The corresponding value of the
function is �(� + ℎ). Then �(� + ℎ) − �(�) is the change in the dependent
variable � corresponding to the change ℎ in the independent variable �.
�(���)��(�)
Consider the ratio: �
of these two changes whichis a function of ℎ
and is not defined for ℎ = 0, � being a fixed point.
Definition: A function � = �(�) is said to be differentiable at � = � if
��� f(c + h) − f(c)
h �� 0
h
exists and the limit is called the derivative of the function �(�) at � = �. it is
denoted by �’(�) or �� (�).
Steps
1) Put the given �(�) equal to � i.e.,
� = �(�) (1)
2) Increase � by a small quantity ∆� and corresponding increase in ∆�
So � + ∆� = �(� + ∆�) (2)
3) Subtracting (1) from (2)
� + ∆� − � = �(� + ∆�) – �(�)
or, ∆� = �(� + ∆�) − �(�)
4) �ividing both sides by ∆�
Δ� �(� + ∆x) − f(x)
=
Δ� ∆x
���
5) Put ∆x �� 0 both sides such that
��� �� ��� �(��∆�)� �(�)
∆x �� 0 �� = ∆ x �� 0 ∆�

Expression on LHS represents the derivative which is the instantaneous rate

of change in the dependent variable corresponding to a change in the
independent variable. The function is differentiable only if the limit exists
and the function must be continuous at that point.

Check Your Progress 1

1) What is derivative of a function?
2) When would you say that a function is differentiable?
3) What do you mean by differentiation from first principle?

7.3 RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

In this section, we will discuss the rules and properties for finding derivatives
for different kinds of functions. Importantly, we will learn the Product Rule
116
and the Power Rule that offer shortcuts to differentiation. See the Concept of
Differentiation
accompanied figure for computing important derivatives.

Fig. 7.1: Rules for Computing Derivatives

Rule 1:Constant function rule

Derivative of a constant is zero.
That is, if � = �(�) = �, then
��
��
=0

If Y= constant, Y will not change for any value of X

Example1:Find the derivative of the following functions:
i) y=8
ii) y = 6000c
iii) y = 5/6
Solution:i) y = 8
��
=0
��
(ii) y = 6000c
��
��
=0

(iii) y = 5/6
��
��
=0

Rule 2: Power Function Rule

�
If� is any real number, and � = �(�) = � � , then �� � � = � � ���

Derivative of Power function= powerx coefficientx Variablepower-1

117
Business Mathematics Example 2:
i) y= x3/2

�
�� � �
Solution: ��
= � � ��� = � x1/2

ii) y=x

��
Solution: ��
= 1. ���� = 1
�
iii) y=
√�

Solution: y = x-1/2
� �
�� � �
��
= − � � ���� = − � � ��

iv) y = 2 x6

��
Solution: ��
= 2.6 x6-1

=12 x5
�
v) y = �.x 2/3

�
�� � � ��
Solution: �� = . � ��� =
� � �
. x -1/3
���
vi) y= �
√�

Solution: y= 100. � ��/�

�
�� �
��
= 100. - � � ����
���
=- �
x -4/3

Rule 3: The Linear Function Rule

The derivative of a linear function, � = �� + �,is equal to �, the
coefficient of �.
��
If � = �� + �, then �� = � � � + 0
��
That is, �� = �

Example 3:
If � = 3� + 7, then ��/�� = 3 + 0
or,dy/dx = 3
The derivative of a linear function, � = �� + � = ����������� �� �.
Rule 4: Rule of Sums and Differences

118
If f and g are differential functions, and Concept of
Differentiation
� (�) = � (�) ± � (�) then, we have:
�’(�) = �’(�) ± �’(�)
The derivative of a sum or a difference of two functions is the same as
the sum or difference of their individual derivatives.
Example 4:
i) y = x8 + x2/3
Solution:
�� � � � �
= .� + . ��
�� �� ��
�
�� � �
or, �� = 8. � ��� + � . � ��� = 8. � � + � . � ��/�

ii) y= 3x3 + 4x2 -5x + 5

Solution:
�� � � � �
��
= �� . 3 x3 + ��. 4x2- ��.5x+��.5

= 3.3 x3-1 + 4.2 x2-1 - 5 x1-1 + 0

= 9x 2+8x –5

��� �
iii) y= �

Solution:
�� � �� + 1
= � �
�� �� �

� �� � �
= �� . �
+ �� . �

� � �
= �� � � + �� . �

� �
= �� � � + �� � ��

= 2x - x-2
�
= 2x - � �

Rule 5: The Product Rule

The derivative of a product, � = �(�). �(�) is equal to the first function
multiplied by the derivative of the second function plus the second
function multiplied by the derivative of the first function, i.e.,

119
Business Mathematics � � �
[ �(�). �(�)] = �(�). [�(�)] + �(�). [ �(�)]
�� �� ��
�
or,�� [ �(�). �(�)] = �(�). [�′(�)] + �(�). [ �′(�)]

Example 5:
i) y = 5x4(3x − 7)
Solution:
� � �
[5� � (3� − 7)] = 5� � . [3� − 7] + (3� − 7). [5� � ]
�� �� ��
��
or, �� = 5� � . 3 + (3� − 7). 20� �
��
or, �� = 15x4+ 60x4- 140x3
��
or, �� = 75� � − 140� �

ii) y= (4x3 – 5x +7)(3x4 -2x3+2)

Solution:
�
[(4x � – 5x + 7). (3x � − 2x � + 2)]
��
�
= (4x � – 5x + 7). [(3x � − 2x � + 2)]
��
�
+ (3x � − 2x � + 2). �� (4x � – 5x + 7
��
��
= �4x � – 5x + 7�( 12x� − 6 x � ) + (3x � − 2x � + 2). (12 x � − 5)

= 84 x6 -48 x5 – 75 x4 +120 x3 -18 x2 -10

Rule 6: The Quotient Rule
�(�)
The derivative of the given expressionis y= �(�) equal to the denominator
times the derivative of the numerator, minus the numerator times the
derivative of the denominator, all divided by the square of the
denominator (where g(x)≠0). i.e.,
� �
� �(�) �(�). �� �(�) − �(�) �� �(�)
� �=
�� �(�) [�(�)]�
� �(�) �(�). ��(�)� �(�) ��(�)
i.e., �� ��(�)� = [�(�)]�

Example 6:
Find dy/dx from
����
i) y= ���

120
 Solution: Concept of
Differentiation
� �
�� (� − 1) �� (2� + 1) − (2� + 1) �� (� − 1)
=
�� (� − 1)�
(���)(�)� (����)(�) ��
= (���)�
= (���)�

� � �� � ��
ii) y= � � ��

Solution:
� � � � � � � �
�� (� + 1) �� (� − � + 1) − (� − � + 1) �� (� + 1)
=
�� (� � + 1)�
�� � ������� ����� ��� �� � ��� (��) � � ��� � ���
= (� � ��)�
= (� � ��)�

Rule 7:Chain Rule

The derivative (��/��) of a functionof a function, � = �(�), where
� = �(�), is equal to the derivative of the first function with respect to �
times the derivative of the second function with respect to �. i.e.,

�� �� ��
= .
�� �� ��

��
Example 7: Find �� of the following

i) if y = u2 and u = 2x3+ 5x + 1
Solution:
�� � �
= �
�� ��
��
or, ��
= 2�

�� �
����, = . (2� � + 5� + 1)
�� ��
��
or, �� = 6� � + 5
�� �� ��
or, �� = �� ��
. = 2u. (6x2 +5)2
��
Putting the value of u in �� ,

��
= 2(2� � + 5� + 1). (6� � + 5)
��
ii) y= 4u3 and u = 12x2 + 5
Solution:
dy/du = 12u2
du/dx = 24x
So, dy/dx = 12u2(24x) 121
Business Mathematics or, dy/dx = 288xu2
putting the value of u in dy/dx,
dy/dx= 288x(12x2+5)2

iii) y= √� and u= 5 + 7x + x3
Solution:
�� � �
= . ��
�� ��
�
�� �
or, �� = �
. � ��
�� � ��
��� ��
= ��
. (5 + 7� + � � ) or, �� = 0 + 7 + 3� � = 3� � + 7
�
�� �� �� �� �
Thus, �� = �� . �� or, �� = �� . ��� � . (3� � + 7 )
��
������� �ℎ� ����� �� � �� �� ,

�� 1 �
= � . (5 + 7� + � � )�� � . (3� � + 7 )
�� 2
�� (�� � � � )
��, �� =
��(����� � � )

Note: The chain rule is particularly helpful in finding the derivative of

quantities raised to powers, as the derivative of [�(�)]� . Let � = �� and
� = �(�). Applying the chain rule, we obtain,
�� �� ��
��
= �� . �� = ����� . �’(�)

�
Therefore, �� . [�(�)]� = � [�(�)]��� . �(�)

(����)�
iv)
(����)�

Solution:
(����)� ����
Let y = (����)� . Then � can be written as � = �� , where � = ����
.

Thus, by chain rule,

�� �� ��
= .
�� �� ��
��
Now,�� = 4��
�� � ����
Also, �� = .
�� ����
.

122
 Applying quotient rule, Concept of
Differentiation
�� (5� − 7)(2) − (2� + 5)(5)
=
�� (5� − 7)�
�� (10� − 14) − (10� + 25) −39
⇒ = �
=
�� (5� − 7) (5� − 7)�
�� ���
Thus, �� = 4�� . (����)�

Putting the value of u,

�� 2� + 5 � −39 (2� + 5)�
= 4( ) . = −156
�� 5� − 7 (5� − 7)� (5� − 7)�

Check Your Progress 2

�
1) Find �� (3� + 5)

2) Compute is the derivative of xn

3) What is the Product Rule?
4) Using chain rule differentiate � = (3� + 1)� .
5) What is quotient rule of differentiation?

7.4 STANDARD DERIVATIVES

Logarithmic and exponential functions are the most commonly used
functions after algebraic functions. The standard derivatives of
logarithmic and exponential functions are given below:
i) Derivative of logarithm function
If y = log x
�� �
then,�� = �

(When base of the log is not mentioned, it is taken as e)

ii) Derivative of exponential function
If y = � �
then,dy/dx= � �
iii) Derivative of ax, where a is constant
If y = ax
then, dy/dx = ax. logea

123
Business Mathematics
Note:the chain rule is also useful in finding the derivative of y = log u and
y = eu where u is an appropriate function of x. then we can find
differentiation by applying chain rule. For example, if y = log u and u=
f(x), then
�� �� �� 1 ��
= . = .
�� �� �� � ��
and if y = eu, u = f(x)
�� ��
= ��
�� ��

Example 8:
��
Find �� of the following

i) y = log (5x2 + 7)
Solution: This function is of the form y = log u, where u = 5x2 + 7.
Thus,
�� 1 � �
1
= . (5� + 7) = . (10�)
�� 5� � + 7 �� 5� � + 7
10�
=
5� � + 7
ii) y = x2 log (3x + 7)
Solution: applying product rule
�� � �
= �� ���(3� + 7) + log(3� + 7) � �
�� �� ��
�� � �� �
or, �� = � � ������ (3) + log(3� + 7). (2�) = ���� + 2� log(3� + 7)

� �����
iii) y = � ��
Solution:
�� � ����� � � �����
��
= � �� ��
. (5� � + 4� + 8) = � �� (10� + 4)

��� �
iv) y= ��

Solution: Applying the quotient rule,

� � �
�� ��. .(��� �)���� � . �� � � � � .� ����� � .�� ������� � ��� ��� �
= ��
��
��
= �
= =
�� �� �� ��

v) y = x3 + 8x + log x
�� � � � �
Solution: �� = ��
�� + ��
8� + ��
log � =3� � + 8� log � � + �

124
 Concept of
Check Your Progress 3 Differentiation
1) Find the derivative of �(�) = 5�
2) What is the derivative of � = 3� � + 2� � ?
����
3) Differentiate �(�) = �� (�)

7.5 DIFFERENTIATION OF IMPLICIT

FUNCTIONS

Given a relation �(�, �) = 0, if it is not possible to express � in terms of �

or vice-versa, then that relation is called an implicit function. To determine
��/�� in such an equation, we differentiate both sides of the equation and
obtain an expression for ��/�� from resulting equation. The method is best
illustrated with the help of following examples:
Example 9: Find ��/�� of the following:
i) �3 + �3 = ��
Solution: By treating � as a function of � and differentiating both sides
with respect to x, we get
� � � � �
(� ) + (� ) = (��)
�� �� ��

�� ��
��, 3� � + 3 � � . = �. + �
�� ��

�� ��
Rearranging,3� � �� − � �� = � − 3� �
��
or, (3� � − �) �� = � − 3� � .

�� � − 3� �
�ℎ��, =
�� 3� � − �

ii) ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy +c = 0

Solution: differentiating both sides with respect to (w.r.t.) x, we get,

� � � � � � �� �
�. (� ) + 2ℎ (��) + � (� ) + 2� (�) + 2� + �
�� �� �� �� �� ��

�
= 0
��

�� �� ��
or, 2�� + 2ℎ � � �� + �� + 2�� ��
+ 2� + 2� �� + 0 = 0

��
or, ��
(2ℎ� + 2�� + 2�) + ( 2�� + 2ℎ� + 2�) = 0
125
Business Mathematics ��
or, �� (2ℎ� + 2�� + 2�) = − ( 2�� + 2ℎ� + 2�)
�� �( ����������) �������
or, �� = ����������
= − �������

iii) ��1 + � + �√1 + � = 0

Solution:Rearrange the equation

��1 + � = − �√1 + �

Squaring both sides, we get

x2 (1 + y) = y2 (1+ x)

or, x2 + x2y = y2 + y2x

or, x2 - y2 + x2y - y2x = 0

or, (x-y) (x+y) + xy (x-y) = 0(as x2 - y2 = (x-y)(x+y))

or, (x - y)(x + y + xy) = 0

or ( x + y + xy) = 0

(because � ≠ � �ℎ�� � − � ≠ 0

Now, differentiating both sides,

�� � �
= �− ( )�
�� �� 1+�
�� (���).���.� �
or, ��
= − (���)�
= − (���)�

Check Your Progress 4

1) How to differentiate an implicit function?
��
2) Find �� , if you have 3x+2y=4
�� �
3) Explain the method of finding �� , if given � � = 1

7.6 DIFFERENTIATION USING LOGARITHMS

The method of logarithm differentiation is used to differentiate functions of
the form � = �(�) �(�) . With the help of this method, take natural log on
both sides of the equation � = �(�) �(�) to obtain ��� � = ��� [�(�) �(�) ].
By using the properties of logarithm, we simplify the equation �� � =
��� [�(�) �(�) ] and then differentiate both sides with respect to � and then
solve for ��/��. This method can also be used to differentiate functions
which are the product of several functions.

126
 Concept of
Differentiation
Note:Important properties of logarithm
log (m.n) = log m + log n
log ( m/n) = log m - log n
log (mn) = n log m
log (ex) = x
log e = 1

Example 10: Find dy/dx:

i) y = xx
Solution:
Taking log on both sides of the equation y = xx, we get
log y =log [ xx]
logy= x log x
Differentiating both sides of the equation,
1 �� � �
=� (log �) + log � �
� �� �� ��
� �� �
or, � �� = �. � + log �
� ��
or, � �� = 1 + log �
��
or, �� = � ( 1 + log �).
��
Putting the value of y, ��
= � � ( 1 + log �)

(���)�� (���)(���)
ii) �= (���)�

Solution: Taking log on both sides of the given equation,

(���)�� (���)(���)
log � = log � (���)�
�

log y = log (x+1)10 + log (x+5) + log (x+6) – log (x+7)2

log y =10 log (x+1) + log (x+5) + log (x+6) – 2 log (x+7)
Differentiating both sides w.r.t.�, we get,
1 �� 10 1 1 2
. = + + −
� �� � + 1 � + 5 � + 6 � + 7
�� �� � � �
or, ��
= �. ���� + ��� + ��� − ����
(���)�� (���)(���) �� � � �
=� (���)�
� . ���� + ��� + ��� − ����

127
Business Mathematics iii) xy = yx
Solution: Taking log on both sides
log xy = log yx
y log x = x log y
Differentiating w.r.t.�, we get
� �� � �
�. log � + log � = �. ���� + ���� �
�� �� �� ��
� �� � ��
or, �. � + log � �� = �. � �� + log �
�� � �� �
or, log � �� − �. � �� = log � − �
� �� �
or, �log � − �� �� = log � − �
[� ��� ���] �� � ��� ���
or, � ��
= �

�� � ��� ��� �
or, �� = ���� ��� . �

iv) y = (3x2+5)1/x
Solution:Take log on both sides to get
log y = log (3x2+5)1/x
�
log y = � log (3x2+5)

Differentiating both sides w.r.t.�

� �� � � � �
� ��
= � . �� log(3� � + 5) + log(3� � + 5). �� . �
� �� �
or, � ��
= � . (6�) + log( 3� � + 5) . (−� �� )

� �� ���( �� � � �)
or,� �� = 6 − ��

�� ���( �� � � �)
or,�� = �. �6 − ��
�
�� ���( �� � � �)
or, �� = (3x2+5)1/x �6 − ��
�

Check Your Progress 5

1) When would you prefer differentiation using logarithms?
2) Explain the steps you would follow to differentiate the function
��
� = (�����)√�� .
��

3) Simplify the natural logarithm of 10x?

128
 Concept of
7.7 DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE FUNCTION Differentiation

Let � = �(�) be a function of � and suppose that we can solve this equation
for � in terms of �.So, we may write � as a function of �, i.e., � = �(�).
Then �(�) is called the inverse of �(�). If � = �(�) is a differentiable
function at � such that �’ (�) ≠ 0, then � = �(�) is also differentiable at
�� �
the corresponding value of � and �� = �� .
��

Example 11:Find ��/�� from the following

����
i) � = ���
,

Solution: Differentiating � w.r t. �

�� (� + 1)(3) − (3� + 2). 1
=
�� (� + 1)�
�� 1
=
�� (� + 1)�
�� 1 1
= = � = (� + 1)�
�� ��/��
(���)�

ii) � = (� + 2)�/�
Solution: Differentiating � w.r t. �
�� � �
= (� + 2)�
�� ��
�
�� �
or, ��
= � . (� + 2)�� . 1
�� �
or, �� = �
�(���)�
�� �
or, �� =
��(���)

�� �
or, �� = ��/�� = 2�(� + 2)

Check Your Progress 6

1) What is an inverse function?
�
2) Prove that derivative of � = � �� (�) with respect to � is �� (�)

3) If � = �(�) is a differentiable function at � such that �’ (�) ≠ 0, and

�� �
��
= �� , you are dealing with what kind of function?
��

7.8 DIFFERENTIATION OF PARAMETRIC

FUNCTION
In parametric functions we use to express curves that can't be written in
single-equation form. In the process, rather than defining � and � in terms of
one another, we define these in terms of another variable t (known as the 129
Business Mathematics parameter). So, we have� = �(�) and � = �(�). These functions are then
related to one another through the parameter. We can differentiate parametric
equations using the chain rule.
Let � = �(�) and � = �(�) be two derivable functions where � is a
�� �� ��
parameter.See that��/�� and ��/�� both exist. So, �� = �� / �� ,provided
��/�� ≠ 0.
��
Example 12: Find �� for the following:

i) y= t3 and x = t2
��
Solution:Since y= t3, �� = 3� � .

Again from � = � � we get ��/�� = 2�

�
Hence,��/�� = (��/��)/(��/��) = (3� � )/2� = � �

ii) � = (1 − �)/(1 + �) and � = 2� � + 4�

Solution: � = (1 − �)/(1 + �)
��/�� = ((1 + �)(−1) − (1 − �).1)/(1 + �)�
��/�� = (−2)/(1 + �)�
� = 2� � + 4�
��/�� = 6� � + 4� ���4
Therefore,
��/�� = (��/��)/(��/��)
��/�� = (6� � + 4� ���4)/((−2)/(1 + �)� )
�� (6� � + 4� ���4). (1 + �)�
=
�� −2
Check Your Progress 7
1) What is a parametric function?
2) How parametric functions are differentiated?
3) Differentiate the following parametric function:
� = 2�� � and � = 4��.

7.9 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have discussed the techniques of differentiation. Starting
with the meaning of derivative of a function as the rate of change in the
values of a function, we went on to learn that derivative can be expressed
as ��/�� or �’(�) or �� when � is differentiated with respect to � for the
function, � = �(�).
There are certain basic rules that can be used to find or compute the
derivative of several types of functions viz., The Constant Function rule, The
Power Function Rule, The Linear Function Rule, The Rule for Sums and
130
Differences, The Product Rule, The Quotient Rule,Rule for a Function of a Concept of
Differentiation
Function. Further, we are exposed to Derivative of a Logarithmic Function
(i.e., if � = ����, then ��/�� = 1/�)as well as derivative of an
exponential function (viz., � = � � ⇒ �� / �� = � � ). Towards the
concluding part of the unit we have covered the differentiation of inverse
function and parametric function. In the process it is seen that in case of an
inverse function, if y = f(x) is a differentiable function at x such that f’ (x) ≠
�� �
0, then x = g(y) is differentiable at the corresponding value of y and �� = �� .
��
Considering differentiation of the parametric function, we have learnt that if
� = �(�) and � = �(�) are two derivable functions with � is a parameter,
�� �� ��
��
= �� / �� ,provided ��/�� ≠ 0.

7.10 KEY WORDS

Chain Rule: A method for finding the derivative of a composition of
functions.
Derivative: Measuring rate of change of function.
Exponential Function:Afunction of the following form: � (�) = � �
where x is a variable and a is a constant called the base of the function.
Implicit Differentiation: A method for finding the derivative of
an implicitly defined function or relation.
Implicit Function: Defined implicitly by an implicit equation, i.e., by
associating one of the variables with the others.
Inverse Function: A function that "reverses" another function.
Limit of a Function: Analysis of the behavior of a function near a
particular point.
Logarithmic Differentiation: A method for finding the derivative of
functions such as y = xsin x .
Logarithmic Function: A function such as y = loga x or y = ln x. It is
inverse of an exponential function such as y = ax or y = ex.
Parametric Function: A set of equations that expresses a set of quantities as
explicit functions of a number of independent variables, known as
"parameters."
Power Function: A function written as � = �(�) = �� � where k and n are
real numbers.
Power Rule: The formula for finding the derivative of a power of a variable.
Product Rule: A formula for the derivative of the product of two functions.
Quotient Rule: A formula for the derivative of the quotient of two functions.

7.11 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

• Allen, R.G.D., “Mathematical Analysis for Economists”, London:
English Language Book Society and Macmillan, 1974.
131
Business Mathematics • Archibald, G.C., Richard G.Lipsey. “An Introduction to a
Mathematical Treatment of Economics”, Delhi: All India Traveller
Bookseller, 1984
• Chiang, A. and Kalvin Wainwright, Fundamental Methods of
Mathematical Economics (Paperback), Mac Grow Hill, 2017.
• Dowling, Edward,T. “Schaum’s Outline Series: Theory and Problems
of Mathematics for Economists”, New York: McGraw Hill Book
Company, 1986.
• K. Sydsaeter and P. Hammond, Mathematics for Economic Analysis,
PearsonEducational Asia, Delhi, 2002.
• Yamane, Taro, “Mathematics for Economists: An Elementary Survey”,
New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, 1970.

7.12 ANSWER OR HINTS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
1) Rate of change of functions of one variable with respect to another on
which it depends.
2) Function is differentiable only if the limit exists and the function must
be continuous at that point.
3) Use of algebra to find a general expression for the slope of a curve.
Check Your Progress 2
1) 3
2) �� ���
3) Take � = �(�). �(�) and find the derivative equals to the first
function is multiplied by the derivative of the second function plus the
second function multiplied by the derivative of the first function.
4) Differentiate ``the square'' first, leaving (3x+1) unchanged. Then
�� �
differentiate (3x+1). You will get �� = 2(3� + 1)��� . �� (3� + 1) =
2(3� + 1). (3) = 6(3� + 1)
5) The quotient rule is a formal rule for differentiating functions where
one function is divided by another.
� �
� �(�) �(�). �(�)� �(�) �(�)
Thus, �
�� �(�)
�= ��
[�(�)]�
��

Check Your Progress 3

1) (��5)5�
2) 6� + 2� �
�
� ��(�)�(����)� �
3) [�� (�)]�
�

132
Check Your Progress 4 Concept of
Differentiation
1) Differentiate both sides of the equation and obtain an expression for
dy/dx from resulting equation.
2) -3/2
�
3) First, solve the equation for y to get � � = �. So � = � � . Then get
�
�� �
= � ��
�� �

Check Your Progress 5

1) When required to find the derivatives of some complicated functions,
we can simplify these by using logarithms.
2) Take logarithms of both sides and simplify to get
ln � = ��(� � ) − ��(1 − 10�) − ��(√� � + 2). Then proceed just as
��/�� �
you do for differentiation of implicit function to get � = � +
�� �
�����
− � � ��.
3) �
Check Your Progress 6
1) Inverse function is a function that reverses another function. That is,
�(�) = � if and only if �(�) = �.
2) Take � = �(�). Differentiate both sides with respect to � such that
�� � �� �� �
��
= �� (�(�), i.e., �� = � � (�) or, �� = �� (�).

3) Inverse function.
Check Your Progress 7
1) A class of functions exists which defined in terms of another
variable t (known as the parameter).
2) Through chain rule.
�� �� ��
3) ��
= ��
× ��
�� �� �
Since �� = 4��, we get ��
= ���.
�� �� � �
Again, ��
= 4�. Hence �� = 4� × ���= �

7.13 EXERCISES WITH ANSWER/HINTS

1) Differentiate with respect to x
i) y = 3 x5
ii) y = x3 + 3x
iii) f(x) = 7x2 – 8x + 5
iv) f(x) = 8 (10 – x4)
2) Find the derivative of the following functions:
����
i) y= ����
133
Business Mathematics � � �� � ���
ii) y = � � � ��
�� √�
iii) y =
√���

3) Use the chain rule to find dy/dx of the following functions

i) y = 2u2 – 7u and u = 5x – x3
���
ii) y = u2 and u = ���

iii) y = log u and u = √� + 1/√�

iv) y = eu and u = x6 – x2 + 1
4) Find dy/dx of the following
i) log (logx)
ii) log x3
iii) (log x)3
iv) Log (3x2 + 2x -5)
v) Log (xex)
vi) (e3x +1)4
� ���
vii) 4��
�
viii) � � log �
�� �
5) if y = log�� + √1 + � � �, prove that �� = √��� �
�� �
6) if y = �√� + 1 + √� − 1�, prove that √� � − 1 �� = � �
Answers to Exercises
1) i) 15 x4 ii) 3x2 +3 iii) 14x – 8 iv) 32 x3
�
�� � � ��� � ���� � ���� �
2) i) 23/( 4x-5)2 ii) (� � ���)�
iii) √�
�
�√����
�� (���) (���) � �� � ��
3) i)(20x – 4x3 – 7) ( 5- 3x2) ii) (���)�
iii) �� (���) iv) (6x5-2x) � �
�(����)� ����
4) i)1/ (xlogx) ii) 3/x iii) iv) ��� v) (x+1)/x vi) 12e3x(e3x+1)3
� � ����
� ��� � �
vii) log 4 (6x2+5) 4�� viii) � � �� + 2� �����

134
 Maxima and Minima

UNIT 8 MAXIMA AND MINIMA OF of Functions

FUNCTIONS
Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Higher Order Derivatives
8.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions
8.3.1 Increasing Functions
8.3.2 Decreasing Functions
8.4 Maxima and Minima
8.4.1 First Derivative Test for Local Extreme Values
8.4.2 Second Derivative Test for Local Extreme Values
8.4.3 Steps for Maxima/Minima Using Second Order Derivative
8.5 Let Us Sum Up
8.6 Key Words
8.7 Some Useful Books
8.8 Answer or Hints to Check Your Progress
8.9 Exercises with Answer/Hints

8.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• Understand higher order derivatives;
• Find the intervals on which a given function is increasing or decreasing;
and
• Find the maximum and minimum values of the function.

8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the preceding unit, we have seen the derivatives of functions. Going
further from that level, an attempt is made in the present unit to use
derivatives for finding the extreme points of the graph of a function. For
example, we will show how the sign of the derivative is used to settle
questions about intervals over which the graph of a function is rising or
falling. The principal application of this is in locating high or low points on
graphs and, in turn, these points are used to determine the maximum and
minimum values attained by the function.

8.2 HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES

��
If �(�)is a differentiable function of ‘�’, then �′(�) or �� is the first
derivative or first order derivative of � = �(�)with respect to (w.r.t) ‘�’.
135
Business Mathematics Since the derivative of function is also a function, another derivative can also
be found. The second order derivative, or second derivative, is the derivative
of the first derivative of the function �(�). Other notations are:
��
� ( ��� ) � (� � (�)) �� �
or, or, or, �� or �′′(�).
�� �� �� �

Since �′′(�) is also a function, its derivative can also be found which is
denoted as �′′′ (�). For higher order derivatives, superscripts can be used i.e.,
f4 = fourth derivative etc.
Example 1: �(�) = 5x4 + 6x3+2x+1
�’(�) = 20x3 + 18x2 + 2
�’’(�) = 60x2 + 36x
�′′′(�) = 120x + 36
Example 2: �= 9x4+ 7x3+ 2x2+ 5x + 7
Find all possible order of derivatives.

Solution:
Y1= dy/dx= 36x3 + 21 x2+4x+5
Y2 = d2y/dx2 = 108x2 + 42x + 4

Y3 =d3y / dx3 = 216x + 42

y4= d4 y / dx4= 216

Y5= d5 y / dx5 = 0
y6=d6 y / dx6=0
Derivatives of fifth and higher orders will be zero.
� �
Example 3: If �= ��� find out second order derivative
� �
Solution: Given y= ��� , take log on both sides to get
�
log � = � log�

= �(log1 – log �)
= -xlogx (as log1 = 0)
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. �
1 �� 1
. = − �� � � + log � .1�
� �� �
= - (1+ logx)
��
or,�� = −�. (1 + ����)

Again, differentiating w.r.t. �,

136
��� 1 �� Maxima and Minima
�
= − �� � � + (1 + log �) . � of Functions
�� � ��
Putting the value of ��/��,
�� � 1
= − �� � � + (1 + log �) . (−�. (1 + ����))�
�� � �
�� � �
or, �� � = − �� − (1 + ����)� ��
�� � �
or, �� � = −� �� − (1 + ����)� �

Putting the value of �

��� 1 � 1
= − � � � − (1 + ����)� �
�� � � �
Interpretation of Derivatives of Different Orders
The first derivative of the function � = �(�) i.e., ��/��, measures the rate
of change of � due to change in �. It gives the slope of the curve at a point.
1) If first order derivative is positive, i.e., if dy/dx > 0 at a point, then it
implies that � increases for a small increase in the value of �.
2) If first order derivative is zero, i.e., if dy/dx = 0 at a point, then it
implies � does not change for a small increase in the value of �.
3) If first order derivative is negative, i.e., dy/dx< 0 at a point, then �
decreases for a small increase in the value of �.
The second derivative, d2y/dx2gives the rate of change of dy/dx. Thus,
if:
a) d2y/dx2>0, the function has increasing slope.
b) d2y/dx2<0, the function has decreasing slope.

Check Your Progress 1

1) What do you look in a derivative to draw your inference on rising or
falling graph of a function?
2) If the value of a function is decreasing when its input is increasing, then
the graph is showing what curve?
3) The slope of a curve at a point can be known from which order
derivative of a function?
4) You are given the second order derivative of a function. What can you
comment on the slope of a curve on the basis of such a piece of
information?
5) You are given the profit function of a business activity and asked to
offer your suggestion on the rate of change of profit. What would you
do?
6) Make a list of signs of derivatives to draw your inference on increasing
and decreasing curves of a function.

137
Business Mathematics
8.3 INCREASING AND DECRE
DECREASING
ASING
FUNCTIONS
Broadly spspeaking, a function, say, �(�), is increasing when y increases
as � gets larger (i.e., looking left to right) and �((�)is decreasing when y
decreases as � gets larger. Such functions are of interest to us for determining
rate of change of a variable. For example, we would be interested to know the
speed of a car, or, rate of growing and declining population of a country.

8.3.1 Increasing Function

A function � = �(�) is said to be increasing in an interval [�, �], if �
increases as � increases from � to �.
If �� and �� ∈[�, �] and �� ≥�� , then, f(�� )≥ f(�� )
Thus, a function is said to be an increasing function in [�, �] if first
order derivative is greater than zero (i.e.,
(i.e.,�’(�)>
> 0) for all values of � in
an interval [�, �]. If �’(�) > 0, then the curve � = �(�) increasesfrom
left to right at the point � = �.

Fig.8.1: Increasing Function

8.3.2 Decreasing Function

A function � = �(�) is said to be decreasing in the interval [�, �] if �
decreases as value of � increases in [�, �] or vice versa. That is,
�(�� ) ≤ �(�� ), when �� � �� and �� and �� ∈[�
�, �]
If first order derivative is less than zero i.e., �′ (�) < 0 for all values of � in
an interval [�, �], then the function � = �(�) is a decreasing function in [�, �]
or if f’(q) < 0, then the curve � = �(�) falls from left to right at the point � =
q.

Fig. 8.2: Downward Sloping Curve

138
Example 4: Show that the function � = �(�) = 3x3+ 3x2+ � – 1 is Maxima and Minima
of Functions
increasing for allvalues of �.
Solution:��/��=�′(�) = 9x2+ 6x + 1
= (3x + 1)2
So, ��/�� > 0for all values of �.
Thus, the given function is increasing for all values of �.
Example 5: Find the interval in which �(�) is (i)increasing (ii) decreasing
�(�)= 2x3+ 9x2+12 � – 1.
Solution:��/�� = �′(�) = 6� � + 18 � + 12
= 6(�2+3 �+2)= 6(�+1)( �+2)
i) For �(�) to be increasing, �’(�)>0
i.e., 6(� + 1)(� + 2) > 0.
If � < −2, then �’(�)= 6 (-) (-)>0. That is, �(�) is increasing
and if � > −1, then �’(�)= 6 (+) (+)>0. That is, �(�) is increasing.
Hence, �(�) is increasing when � ∈ (−∞, −2)�(−1, ∞)
ii) If�(�)is decreasing, then �’(�)<0
i.e., 6(x+1)(x+2)<0.
If -2<x<-1, then �’(�)= 6 (-)(+)<0. �(�) is decreasing when x∈(-2,-1).
Therefore, �(�) is increasing when x∈(-∞,-2)U(-1,∞) and �(�) is
decreasing when x∈(-2,-1).
Example 6: Find the value of � for which the given function
f (�) =2x2− 8x+80
is decreasing.
Solution: For the function to be decreasing, its first derivative, �’(�)
should be less than 0. That is
�′(�) = 4� – 8 < 0 for the function to be decreasing. So,

4x –
8<0,
or,

4x < 8

x<2
Thus, the function is decreasing for � less than 2 and increasing for
more than 2 and has a stationary value at � = 2.
Example 7: Find the interval in which �(�)
�(�)=-2x3 + 3x2+12 x – 1
139
Business Mathematics is (i)increasing (ii) decreasing.
Solution: �’(�) = -6x2 +6x+12
= -6(x2-x-2)=-6 (x+1) (x-2).
i) For �(�) to be increasing, �’(�)>0
i.e., -6(x+1)(x-2)>0.
If -1<x<2, then �’(�)= (-) (+) (-)>0. That is, �(�) is increasing.
Hence, �(�) is increasing when x∈(-1,2)
ii) For �(�) to be decreasing, �’(�)<0
i.e., -6(x+1)(x-2)<0.
If x<-1, then �’(�)= (-) (-)(-)<0. So, �(�) is decreasing
and if x>2, then �’(�)= (−)(+)(+) < 0. That is, �(�) is decreasing
when x∈(-∞,-1)U(2,∞).
Therefore, �(�) is increasing when x∈(-1,2)and �(�) is decreasing
when x∈(-∞,-1)U(2,∞).
Example 8: Find the interval in which the function
�(�) = x4 – 2x2 is
i) increasing
ii) decreasing
Solution: �(�) = x4 – 2x2
⇒ �’(�)= 4x3 – 4x
= 4x(x2-1)
= 4x(x-1)(x+1)
i) For �(�) to be increasing, �’(�) should be greater than zero.
�’(�) = 4x(x-1)(x+1)>0
If -1< � < 0 then �’(�)= 4 (-) (-)(+)>0. So, �(�) is increasingand
if x>1, then �’(�)= 4(+) (+) (+)>0⇒�(�) is increasing.
Hence, �(�) is increasing when x∈(-1,0)U(1,∞).
ii) For �(�) to be decreasing, �’(�)<0
i.e., 4x(x-1)(x+1)<0.
If -∞<x<-1, then �’(�)= 4(-) (-)(-)<0. and if 0<x<1, then �’(�) = 4(+)(-)(+)
<0. Therefore, �(�) is decreasing when x∈(-∞,-1) U(0,1).
Thus, �(�) is increasing when x∈(-1,0)U(1,∞) and �(�) is decreasing when
x∈(-∞, -1) U(0,1).
Example 9: The Revenue function of a firm is given by
R = [8,00,000 + (� –300)2]

140
Determine the values of � for which total Revenue function is increasing Maxima and Minima
of Functions
and decreasing.
Solution: R’(x) = +2 (� – 300)
For revenue function to be increasing R’(�) > 0
i.e., + 2(� − 300) >0
Hence revenue function is increasing for more than/greater than 300
i.e., � > 300. For the Revenue function to be decreasing
R’(�) < 0
i.e., + 2(� − 300) <0
when �=0 then R’(�) < 0
and �− 300 < 0
�< 300.
Hence, the revenue function is decreasing for � = 0 ��� lying between 0
and 300 i.e., 0 ≤ �< 300.and it is stationary value at � = 300.

Check Your Progress 2

1) If a function is said to be an increasing function in interval [�, �],what
would you do to verify the claim?
2) Which order of derivative explains the slope of the function?
3) Explain a decreasing function on the basis of results obtained on first
and second order derivatives.

8.4 MAXIMA AND MINIMA

The maxima or minima of a function is the largest orthe smallest value of the
function, definedeither within a given range (the local or relativeextrema) or
on the entire domain of a function. Maximum means upper bound or the
largest possible value. The absolute maximum of a function is the largest
number contained in the range of the function. That is, if �(�) is greater than
or equal to �(�), for all � in the domain of the function, then �(�) is the
absolute maximum. On the other hand, minimum means lower bound or least
possible value. The absolute minimum of a function is the smallest number in
its range and corresponds to the value of the function at the lowest point of its
graph. If �(�) is less than or equal to �(�), for all � in the domain of the
function, then �(�) is an absolute minimum.

8.4.1 First Derivative Test for Local Extreme Values

i) Find �′(�)
ii) Find all critical values of the function �(�),i.e., all the values of �
where � � (�)=0.
iii) Each critical value of �, say � = �, determine the sign of the first
derivative. If sign of the first derivative, � � (�), changes from positive to
negative as � increases through �, then the function attains a local
maximum at � = �. If � � (�) changes from negative to positive as 141
Business Mathematics increases through �,, then the function attains a local minimum at
�increases
� = �.
iv) If � � (�) does not change its sign as � increases through �, then there is
no local extremum at � = �.. Such a point is called as point of
inflection.

8.4.2 Second Derivative Test forLocal Extreme Values

A function, �(�), is said to be
• maximum, if � ′(�) = 0 and � ′′ (�) < 0,, at a critical value of � = �
• minimum, if � ′(�) = 0 and � ′′ (�) > 0,, at a critical value of � = �
A point where � ′′ (�) = 0 and � ′′′ (�) � 0 is called a point of inflection.
Thus,

Points of maxima and minima are shown in diagram below

A function is increasing at those points, where the first derivative is

positive, i.e., at the point A & E in the diagram. A function is decreasing
at those points where the first derivative is negative, i.e., at the point C &
F in the diagram. At those points B & D, where the function is at a
relative maximum or minimum, the first derivative of the functio function or
slope of the function is equal to zero. This is essential condition for both a
relative maximum and a relative minimum.
The second derivative measures the rate of change in the marginal
function. If the first derivative is zero, indicating a zero slope and hence a
plateau in the function, while second derivative is negative, it means the
function is moving down from the pla plateau
teau and should have been at a
relative maximum. If the first derivative is zero and the second derivative
is positive, it means that the function is moving upward from a valley
and the function has a relative minimum. A point at which the first
142 derivative
ve equals zero is called a critical value or, a stationary value or an
extreme value point. If the second derivative is equal to zero, but the third Maxima and Minima
of Functions
derivative does not equal zero, then the critical value is neither a
maximum nor a minimum. There will be an inflexion point at which the
function alters its rate of change. Point A in the figure is an inflexion
point.

8.4.3 Steps for Maxima/Minima Using Second Order

Derivative
i) Find the first derivative of the function �(�). i.e., Calculate �’(�).
ii) Set the first derivative equal to zero and find the real roots of the
equation �’(�)= 0 to find the critical points of the independent
variable, � = �.
iii) Find the second derivative �”(�) of the function.
iv) Substitute each critical value in the second derivative. After the
substitution of critical values, second derivative can be positive,
negative or zero.
v) If �”(�) = 0, find �”’(�), the third-order derivative of the
function. Third Derivative can either be zero or non-zero.
Information regarding maximization or minimization of a function
can only be gathered at an even-ordered derivative whereas
information regarding point of inflexion can be collected at an odd-
ordered derivative.
Example 10: Find all the points of local maxima and minima of the function
�(�) = x4 -8x3 -22x2 -24x+ 1 by using first derivative rule.
Solution: Given,�(�) = x4 -8x3 -22x2 -24x+ 1,
�’(�) =4x3 -24 x2- 44x -24
= 4(x-1)(x-2)(x-3).
Putting �’(�)=0,
4(x-1)(x-2)(x-3) = 0. So,
either x=1, x=2 or x=3.
If x<1, then �’(�) = 4 (-)(-)(-)<0;
If 1<x<2, then �’(�) = 4 (+)(-)(-)>0;
If 2<x<3, then �’(�) = 4 (+)(+)(-)<0;
If x>3, then �’(�) = 4 (+)(+)(+)>0.
When � = 1,�’(�) changes sign from negative to positive as � increases
through
1. Hence, local minimum is at � = 1. The corresponding minimum value
of the function �(�) is �(1) = 1-8+22-24+1 = -8.
When � = 2,�’(�) changes sign from positive to negative as � increases
through
2. Hence, local maximum is at � = 2. The corresponding maximum value
of the function �(�) is �(2) = 16-64+88-48+1 = -7. 143
Business Mathematics When � = 3,�’(�) changes sign from negative to positive as x increases
through
3. Hence, local minimum is at � = 3. The corresponding minimum value
of the function is �(3) = 81-216+198-72+1 = -8.
Example 11: Find all the points of local maxima and minima of the function
�(�) = 2x3 -15x2 -36x + 60 by using first derivative rule.
Solution: given,�(�) = 2x3 -15x2+36x + 60,
�’(�)= 6x2 – 30x +36
= 6(x2 – 5x +6)
= 6 (x-2)(x-3).
Put �’(�)=0
i.e., 6 (x-2)(x-3)=0.
Hence, �’(�)=0 when x=2 or x=3.
If x<2, then �’(�)= 6 (-)(-)>0;
if 2<x<3, then �’(�)= 6 (+)(-)<0 and
if x>3, then �’(�)= 6 (+)(+)>0.
Since �’(�) changes sign from + to - as x increases through 2, � = 2
is a point of local maximum. Similarly, �’(�) changes sign from – to
+ as � increases through 3.Therefore, � = 3, is a point of local
minimum.
Example 12:Use second order derivative test to find all the points of maxima
and minima of the function �(�) = x3 -3x2 -9x+60.
Solution: Given�(�) = x3 -3x2 -9x+60,
�’(�) = 3x2-6x-9
= 3 (x2-2x-3)
= 3(x+1)(x-3).
Put �’(�) =0
i.e., 3(x+1)(x-3) = 0. Hence,
either x= -1 or x=3.
Therefore, x= -1 and x=3 are the critical values of the function
�(�). Take �’’(�) = 6x-6
when x= -1, �’’(�)= �’’(−1) = 6(-1) -6 = -6 -6 = -12.
Since, �’’(�)<0 at x= -1, the function has maxima at point x=-1.
When x=3, �’’(�)= �’’(3)= 6(3) -6 = 18-6 = 12
Since, �’’(�)>0 at x= 3, the function has minima at x=3.
Example 13:Use second order derivative test to find all the points of maxima
and minima of the function �(�) =x5 -5x4 + 5x3 -18.
144
Solution: Given �(�) =x5 -5x4 + 5x3 -18, Maxima and Minima
of Functions
�’(�) = 5x4 -20x3 +15x2
= 5x2 (x2 -4x +3)
= 5x2 (x-1)(x-3)
Putting �’(�) =0
=5x2 (x-1)(x-3).
Solving the above equation gives x=0, x=1 and x=3.
We have �’’(�) = 20x3 – 60x2 +30 x.
If x=1, then �’’(�)= -10<0, therefore, there is a local maximum at x=1;
if x=3, then �’’(�)= 90>0, therefore, there is a local minimum at x=3;
if x= 0, �’’(�)=0.Here second derivative test fails.
Now, finding third order derivative,
�’’’(�)= 60 x2 -120 x + 30. So,
�’’’(0)= 30>0
Since third order derivative is an odd number, function has neither a
maximum value nor a minimum at x=0. Hence, function has point of
inflexion at x=0.
Example 14:Find all the points of local maxima and minima of the function
�(�) = (1-x)2 ex. Also find the corresponding maximum and minimum
values.
Solution: �(�) = (1-x)2.ex = (1- 2x + x2) ex
�’(�) = (1- 2x + x2) ex + ex (-2 +2x)
= (1- 2x + x2 -2 + 2x) ex
= (x2 – 1) ex
Putting �’(�)= 0,
(x2 – 1) ex = 0
x=±1 (because ex≠0)
�’’(�) = ex 2x + (x2 -1) ex
= ex( x2 + 2x -1)
If x = +1, then �’’(�) = e(1 + 2 -1) = 2e>0. Therefore, there is a local
minimum at x =1.
Putting x=1 in �(�) to find out corresponding value, we get
�(1) = (1-1)2 e1 = 0
If x = -1, then �’’(�) = e -1(1 - 2 -1) = -2e-1<0. Therefore, there is a
local maximum at x =-1.
Putting x=-1 in �(�) to find out corresponding value,
145
Business Mathematics f(-1) = (1+1)2 e-1 = 4/e.

Check Your Progress 3

1) What do you mean by maxima or minima of a function?
2) State the meaning of absolute minimum of a function.
3) Which are the steps would you follow to do a first derivative test for
local extreme values?
4) State the meaning of an inflexion point.
5) What is a stationary point of a function?
6) How would you propose to determine the extreme values,
Maxima/Minima, of a function using second order derivative?
7) Explain the steps for finding Maxima and Minima of a function.
8) How critical value is found while working on maxima and minima of
function?

8.5 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have discussed the application of derivative of a function to
find out the maximum and minimum points of a curve. In the process we
have learnt the presentation of higher order derivatives and interpretation of
some of these. For example, it is seen that first order derivative of a function
indicates the rate of change of a variable giving thereby the slope of a point
on a curve. The second derivative, on the other hand, provides information on
the rate of change of a slope. Importantly, the increasing or decreasing slope
can be known on the basis of the positive or negative sign of the first as well
as second order derivative.
Signs of derivatives can also be used to know the increasing and
decreasing curves. While a function is said to be an increasing function in
interval [�, �] if first order derivative is greater than zero (i.e.,�’(�)> 0)
for all values of � in an interval [�, �], it is decreasing when first order
derivative is less than zero i.e., �′ (�) < 0 for all values of � in same
interval. If the first derivative is equal to zero, then we have a stationary
point indicating neither increase nor decrease of the curve.
We have covered maxima and minima of a function as the largest and the
smallest value of the function, defined either within a given range or on
the entire domain of a function. When considered the values within a
given range, we get the local or relative maxima or minima, while we
reach to global or absolute extrema by taking into account entire domain
of a function.
In order to compute the relative maxima and minima values, we learnt the
first and second derivative tests where assessments are made on the basis
of signs of first and second order derivatives. In addition, we are
introduced to the identification of inflexion points where the sign of the
curvature changes considering the signs of first and second order
derivatives. Towards the last part of the unit, steps required to compute
maxima/minima with the help of second order derivatives have been
discussed.
146
 Maxima and Minima
8.6 KEY WORDS of Functions

Absolute (Global) Minimum or Maximum: The smallest or the largest

value of the function on the entire domain of a function.
Local (Relative) Minimum or Maximum: The smallest or the largest value
of the function within a given range.
Point of Inflection:A point on a curve at which the sign of the curvature
changes.
Revenue:The income which a producer earns from its normalactivities,
usually from the sale of goods and services.
Slope: The slope of a curve is a number that describes steepness of the curve.
Stationary Point:A point where the function stops increasing or decreasing.

8.7 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

• Allen, R.G.D., “Mathematical Analysis for Economists”, London:
English Language Book Society and Macmillan, 1974.
• Bhardwaj, R.S.,”Mathematics for economics and business”, Delhi:
Excel Books, 2005.
• Dowling, Edward,T. “Schaum’s Outline Series: Theory and
Problems of Mathematics for Economists”, New York: McGraw Hill
Book Company, 1986.
• Chiang, A. and Kalvin Wainwright, Fundamental Methods of
Mathematical Economics (Paperback), Mac Grow Hill, 2017.
• Archibald, G.C., Richard G.Lipsey. “An Introduction to A
mathematical Treatment of Economics”, Delhi: All India Traveller
Bookseller, 1984
• Yamane, Taro, “Mathematics for Economists: An Elementary Survey”,
New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, 1970.
• K. Sydsaeter and P. Hammond, Mathematics for Economic Analysis,
PearsonEducational Asia, Delhi, 2002.

8.8 ANSWER OR HINTS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
1) Sign of the derivative
2) A decreasing curve.
3) First order derivative
4) Rate of change of a slope.
5) Get the first derivative of the function
6) Read Section 8.2 of the present unit and answer.

147
Business Mathematics Check Your Progress 2
1) Find that the first order derivative is greater than zero (i.e.,�’(�)> 0) for
all values of � in an interval [�, �].
2) Second order derivative
3) Check Sub-Section 8.3.2.
Check Your Progress 3
1) The largest and the smallest value of the function, defined either within
a given range or on the entire domain of a function.
2) The smallest number in defined range and corresponds to the value of
the function at the lowest point of its graph.
3) Read Sub-Section 8.4.1 and answer.
4) A point at which the function alters its rate of change.
5) In a differentiable function of one variable a point on the graph of the
function where the function's derivative is zero. Informally, it is a point
where the function stops increasing or decreasing.
6) Read Sub-Section 8.4.2 and answer.
7) Check Sub-Section 8.4.3
8) A critical point is an interior point in the domain of a function at
which � ′(�) = 0 or �′ does not exist.

8.9 EXERCISES WITH ANSWER/HINTS

1) Find the second order derivative of the following
i) �= ax3 + bx2 + cx+ d
ii) �= ALα
2) If � = ex + logx, then prove that y3 = ex + 2/x3
����
3) If �= ���� , prove that 2 y1y3 = 3y22

4) If �= 5x4 +9x3 – 8x -100 then show that y5 = 0

5) Find the intervals on which the following functions are increasing or
decreasing
i) �(�)= x3 -6x2 – 36 x +2
ii) �(�) = 2x3 -15 x2 +36x +1
iii) �(�)= (x+1)3 (x-3)3
iv) �(�) = x2 ex
6) Examine for the maximum and minimum values of the following
functions:
i) �(�)= 3x4 -4x3 +1
ii) �(�) = 2x3 +3x2 -36x +10
148
7) Examine the function �(�) = x3 -3x2 +3x +7 is i) maximum ii) Maxima and Minima
of Functions
minimum iii) neither maximum nor minimum.
8) Show that the function �(�) = 4x3 – 18 x2 +27x -7 has neither
maximum nor a minimum by using second derivative test.
9) Show that the function �(�) = x3 – 9 x2 +30x +5 has neither maximum
nor a minimum.
10) Show that the function �(�) = x3 – 6x2 +12x -5 has neither maximum
nor a minimum.
����
11) Show that the function �(�) = �
has a maximum value at x=e.

Answers
1) i) 30x2 -30x +7 ii) Aα(α-1)Lα-2
2) i) Increasing on (-∞, -2) and (6,∞), decreasing on (-2,6)
ii) Increasing on (-∞,2) and (3,∞), decreasing on (2,3)
iii) Increasing on (1,∞), decreasing on (-∞,1)
iv) Increasing on (-∞, -2) and (0, ∞), decreasing on (-2,0)
3) i) Local maximum at x=1, value 0, point of inflection at x=0
ii) Local maximum at x= -1/2, value 81/16, local minimum at x=2,
value -10,point of inflection at x=0.
7) iii) Neither maximum nor minimum.

149
Business Mathematics
UNIT 9 APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES

Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Demand Function and Supply Function
9.2.1 Slope of Demand Curve
9.2.2 Slope of Supply Curve
9.3 Elasticity: Demand and Supply Functions
9.3.1 Price Elasticity of Demand
9.3.2 Income Elasticity of Demand
9.3.3 Supply Elasticity of Demand
9.3.4 Cross-Elasticity of Demand
9.4 Average and Marginal Cost
9.5 Revenue Function
9.5.1 Relationship between AR, MR and Price Elasticity of Demand
9.5.2 Maximizing Revenue
9.6 Profit Maximization
9.7 Let Us Sum Up
9.8 Key Words
9.9 Some Useful Books
9.10 Answer or Hints to Check Your Progress
9.11 Exercises with Answers/Hints

9.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to understand
• application of derivatives to elasticity of demand as well as supply; cost
and revenue functions; profit maximization; and
• the importance of derivatives in maximum-minimum problems.

9.1 INTRODUCTION
In the preceding two units, we have discussed the techniques of
differentiation and extreme values of a function. In the present unit, we
extend differentiation techniques for applying to select business and
economic themes. Basically, an attempt is made here to learn the use of
derivatives to understand the rate of change as well as change in rate of
change, which is the corner stone of marginal analyses in economics as well
as business studies.

150
 Application of
9.2 DEMAND FUNCTION AND SUPPLY Derivatives
FUNCTION
In microeconomic analysis, it is postulated that demand and supply are
functions of price. While the quantity demanded is related to price inversely,
in case of supply it has a direct relationship with price. Because of such a
proposition, we have a downward sloping demand curve and upward sloping
supply curve. For the sake of simplicity, we often assume the demand curve
and supply curve for a good or service to be a linear line, although other non-
linear types are also considered. The consequent slopes of demand and
supply curves are, respectively, negative and positive. Let us use derivatives
to see the process of deriving these results.
We know that a linear equation is of the form � = �� + �, where � is the
slope of the line and � is the � intercept. We can model a demand function as
� = −�� + �(or, the inverse demand function as � = −�� + �),where �
and � represent price and quantity respectively. In such a format, we move
the price to the horizontal (�) axis and quantity to the vertical (�) axis as we
think of quantity demanded or supplied as a function of price. In the event of
presenting inverse demand function, we consider quantity in horizontal axis
and price in vertical axis. You will see the use of this form when we come to
derivation of marginal revenue.
The slope is negative in case of a normal demand curve, which slopes
downward. Similarly, a supply curve is modelled by another linear equation
of the form � = �� + � where � is the slope of supply curve with a positive
sign.

9.2.1 Slope of Demand Curve

In case of the equation of demand curve,� = −�� + �, differentiating �
��
with respect to (w.r.t.) �, we get �� = −�. The slope is −� and it gives the
rate of change in quantity demanded in response to change in price. See that
the downward sloping demand curve is represented by the negative slope.
Reasons for this feature could be threefold, viz.,
Substitution effect: Consumer will substitute other goods to buy more or less
according as price falls or rises.
Income effect: Rise or fall in real income as prices falls or rise
Law of diminishing utility: At a lower price, consumers are willing to
consume more as they compare the price with the satisfaction that is derived
from the consumption of that good.

9.2.2 Slope of Supply Curve

Considering the equation � = �� + � above and differentiating � w.r.t. �,
��
we get the slope of the supply curve. So, �� = � is the slope of supply curve
and it is positive, indicating a positive relationship between quantity supplied
and price.
Reason for this may be as follows:
1) Profit motive: With rise in prices following an increase in demand, it
becomes more profitable for businesses to increase their output; 151
Business Mathematics 2) Production and costs: Firm's production cost tends to rise as output
expands. Consequently, a higher price is needed to cover these extra
costs of production.
3) Incentive for new entrants: Higher prices may create an incentive for
other businesses to enter the market leading to an increase in total
supply.

Check Your Progress 1

1) Why the slope of the supply curve is positive for normal goods?
2) What reasons would you list for a negative slope of demand curve?
3) If you intend to consider an inverse demand function, then in what way
you would have to write the demand function?

9.3 ELASTICITY: DEMAND AND SUPPLY

FUNCTIONS
Elasticity refers to the responsiveness of the dependent variable of a function
to changes in the independent variable. It is measured in terms of percentage
changes instead of absolute changes. For example, we consider first the
percent change in a variable X and write,
�ℎ���� �� �ℎ� �������� �
������� �ℎ���� �� � =
�������� ����� �� �
Thus, we can say that the change in � is ��. If X changes from X to � + ��,
∆�
then proportion change in � = � .

Seen in terms of numerical value, we would say that the value of X changes
from 20 to 30. So, the proportion change is
��� ��
� = �� = 0.5. This is a percentage change in X of 50%. If concerned
with elasticity, then we say the elasticity of Y with respect to X. And we need
to find the ratio of the percentage change in Y to the percentage change in X.
That is,
������� ������ �� �
Elasticity of Y with respect to � = ���������� ������ �� �.

Sometimes the elasticity is defined with a negative sign while at other in

absolute values. For convenience, let us stick to the sign to emphasize the
nature of the percent changes. When an elasticity negative and say, greaten
than -1, it indicates that a percent increase in X corresponds to a greater
percent decrease in Y. In such a case, we would say that the variable Y is
elastic with respect to variable X.
An elasticity between -1 and 0 indicates that a percent increase in X
corresponds to a smaller percent decrease in Y. So, the variable Y is inelastic
with respect to the variable X. If the elasticity is of -1, then a percent increase
in X corresponds to an identical percent decrease in the variable Y. In that
case, the variable Y is said to be unit-elastic with respect to the variable X.

152
9.3.1 Price Elasticity of Demand Application of
Derivatives
The most common use of elasticity in economics and business studies is price
elasticity of demand (PED) or elasticity of demand with respect to price.
Such a concept helps us explore the responsiveness of the consumer demand
for some product to changes in the price of that product. If the price of a cup
of coffee were to increase, the quantity sold will be influenced. To see the
point, suppose that in 2016, Nestle increased the price of coffee from Rs.
4.95 to Rs. 5. 00. Due to such a change, the demand for coffees dropped
from 440 units per day to 438 units per day. The percent change in price P is
∆� �.�� ��.��
�
= �.��
= 0.01

or about 1%. The percent change in the demand Q is

∆� �������
�
= ���
= −0.0045 or about -0.45%. That is, with 1% increase in price
there is 0.45% decrease in the quantity demanded of coffee. Thus,
the price elasticity of demand is
Percent change in Q −0.0045
� = = = −0.45
Percent change in P 0.01
The result shows that 1% increase in price corresponds to a 0.45% drop in
demand for coffee. On the other hand, we may also say that 1% drop in price
corresponds to a 0.45% increase in demand.
Taking into account the relationship between demand and price in a
functional form, we can use derivative of the demand function to calculate
the price elasticity of demand. If we write that the change in price as being
from �to ∆Pand the corresponding change in demand as being from � to ∆�,
∆� ∆�
then corresponding percent changes in price and demand are � and � . The
definition of elasticity gives
Percent change in Q
�� =
Percent change in P
∆�
�
= ∆�
�
∆�
� ∆� � � ∆�
= ∆� = � .∆�=� ∆� .
�

∆�
It may be noted that ∆� represents the average rate of change of demand Q
with respect to price P. If we assume the change in price is small, we can
replace the average rate of change with the instantaneous rate of change, viz.,
��
��
.

Let the demand function be Q = f (P). Then, the price elasticity �� of demand
is
� ��
�� =
� ��

153
Business Mathematics Specifically, we may also define point price elasticity of demand at a point
(�� , �� ) on the demand curve as ��� = (��/��) (�� /�� ).
��
Example 1: Let the demand curve be � = −5 � + 30. Then �� = −5 . If a
point (P0, q0) = (1,25) is on the demand curve, how do we compute the PED
at (1,25).

Using the formula, we get

PED = (-5)(1/25) = -1/5 = -0.20.
Further, if a point p=3 and q =15 is on the demand curve, then the PED at
(3,15) is equal to (-5)(3/15) = -1;
if a point � = 5 and � = 5 is on the demand curve, then the PED at
(5,5) is (-5)(5/5) = -5.
Thus, with the help of calculus, we see that the PED changes for every point
on a straight-line demand curve.
Note the simple mathematical relationship:
��
� �� � �
��
= × = (�/�����) ×
�� � �
�

Example 2: To find the point price elasticity of demand,let us consider the

following example of a demand function:
� = 15,000 − 50�
Given this demand curve, we need to find out price elasticity of demand at
two different prices, P = 100 and P = 10.
So, take the derivative of the demand function when it's expressed with Q as
a function of P. Since quantity (Q) goes down by 50 each time price (P) goes
up by 1, we get, (∆Q/∆P)= -50
To find the quantity demanded at each price level we consider the price
quantity combinations of : (100; 10,000), (10; 14,500)

Then point elasticity of demand yields,

�� = -50(100/10,000) = -.5
�� = -50(10/14,500) = -.034
Results obtained show that both elasticities are negative. That imply a
downward sloping demand relationship. Moreover, they are relatively more
elastic.
Deriving Elasticity using Log Functions
Here is another expression for elasticity that is sometimes useful. It turns out
that elasticity can also be expressed as
� ���
����
.

154
The proof involves repeated application of the chain rule. We start by noting Application of
Derivatives
that
� ��� � ��� ��
= .
���� �� ����
� ��
= � ����
(1)
�� �� � ��� �� �
We also note that ��
= ���� ��
= ���� �
�� ��
⇒ ���� = � �� .

Substituting this into equation (1), we have

� ��� ���
����
= � �� � = �� .

9.3.2 Income Elasticity of Demand

The income elasticity of demand (YED) measures how effect of the change in a
consumer’s income on the demand for a specific product. It is defined as the
ratio of proportionate change in quantity demanded due to proportionate
change in income (�). There is a positive relation between income and
demand in case of normal goods; hence, sign of income elasticity of demand
is positive. Thus, we define
������������� ������ �� ������
�� = ������������� ������ �� ������

∆�/�
= ∆�/�

� ∆�
= � ∆�
� ��
In case of instantaneous change income,�� = � ��

Example 3: If x=4y2, where x is quantity demanded of a good and y is the

consumer’s income. Find the income elasticity of demand.
Solution: Given the demand function
x= 4y2;
�� �
�� = �� . �
��
��
= 4.2 � = 8�

Therefore,
�
�� = 8�. ��� = 2

The higher the income elasticity of demand for a specific product, the more
responsive it becomes to the change in consumers’ income.
Now, we can measure the income elasticity of demand for different products by
categorizing them as inferior goods and normal goods.

155
Business Mathematics Normal Goods
The YED for a product can be elastic or inelastic based on its category—
whether it is an inferior good or a normal good. When YED is more than zero,
the product is income-elastic. Normal goods have a positive YED. That is,
when the consumers’ income increases, the demand for these goods also
increases.
Inferior Goods
Inferior goods are called so because these have superior alternatives. Such
goods have a negative income elasticity, that is, YED is less than 0. If the
consumers’ income increases, they demand less of these goods.
Note: If sign of income elasticity of demand is negative, then the
commodity is inferior.
9.3.3 Elasticity of Supply (Es)
It is defined as the ratio of proportionate change inquantity supplied to a
proportionate change in its price.
������������� ������ �� ������
�� = ������������� ������ �� �����

= (-) (∆�� /�� )/(∆�/�)

� ∆�� � ���
= (-) � ∆�
or = �� ��
�

If a supply curve is given as � = 2� + 20, then ��/�� = 2. If a point

� = 1 and � = 22 is on the supply curve then the PES at (1,22) is (2)(1/22)
= 1/11. If a point � = 5 and � = 30 is on the supply curve, then the PES at
(5,30) is (2)(5/30) = 1/3.
Example 5:Forthe supply function x=5 +2p2, find the elasticity of supply at
p=2.
Solution:Given the supply curve
x = 5 + 2p2, differentiating w.r.t.�
��
��
= 4�. Thus,
� �� �
�� = � . �� = ����� . 4�

���
= �����

When p=2; �� is equal to

�� ��
�� = ��� = ��

9.3.4 Cross Elasticity of Demand

Cross elasticity of demand is the responsiveness of demand for a product in
relation to the change in the price of another related product. Mark word
“related” product. Note that unrelated products have zero elasticity of demand.
For example, an increase in the price of black gram will have no effect on the
demand for ice cream.
156
We can measure the cross elasticity of demand by dividing the percentage of Application of
Derivatives
change in the demand for one product by the percentage of change in the price
of another product. Thus,
����� ���������� �� ������
% �� �ℎ���� �� �ℎ� ������ ��� ������� �
=
%�� �ℎ���� �� �ℎ� ����� �� ������� �
or, (�� / ��′) ∗ (�′/�), where Q= quantity demanded, �� =price of a related
product of Q.
It is useful to note that the cross elasticity of demand depends on whether the
related product is a substitute or a complement (see below).
Substitute and Complementary Products
As mentioned earlier, cross elasticity measures the responsiveness of demand in
relation to related products. And these related products can be either substitutes
or complementary products. Let us understand the difference between the two.
Substitute Products
In case of substitute products an increase in the price of one will lead to an
increase in demand for the competing product. For instance, an increase in the
price of petrol will force consumers to go for diesel and increase the demand for
diesel. Thus, the cross-price elasticity value for two substitute goods is always
positive.
Complementary Products
In case of complementary goods, demand for two or more goods move together.
For example, see the demand for coffee beans and coffee paper filters. If the
price of coffee increases, then the demand for filters would reduce because the
demand is reduced for coffee. The cross elasticity of demand for two
complementary products is always negative.
Example 4:
We have a demand equation of � = 2000 − 4� + 5��(�′), find the cross-
price elasticity of demand.
Differentiate with respect to �′ and get:
��/��′ = 5/�′.
Substituting ��/��′ = 5/�' and � = 2000 − 4� + 5��(�′) into cross-
price elasticity of demand equation, we get
�
Cross-price elasticity of demand = ��� � × (�′/(2000 − 4� + 5��(�′)))

To find the cross-price elasticity of demand at � = 5 and �′ = 10,

substitute these into cross-price elasticity of demand equation:
Cross-price elasticity of demand
= (5/P') × (P'/(2000 -4P + 5ln(P')))
= (5/10) × (10/(2000 - 20 + 5ln(10)))
= 0.5 × (10 / 2000 - 20 + 11.51) (as ��(10) = 2.302585)

157
Business Mathematics = 0.5 × (10 / 1991.51)
= 0.5 × 0.002008
= 0.001004
Thus, cross-price elasticity of demand is 0.000502. Since it is greater than 0,
goods are substitutes.

Check Your Progress 2

1) Explain the idea behind elasticity of demand or supply.
2) Why would you say that the cross elasticity of demand for two
complementary products is always negative?
3) How do you identify an inferior good on the basis of income elasticity
of demand?
4) What is cross elasticity of demand?
5) How would you interpret the elastic, inelastic and unit-elastic character
of � = �(�)?
6) What is price elasticity of supply?

9.4 AVERAGE AND MARGINAL COST:

In this section we will discuss the cost of output production and see the
process of applying derivatives for finding solutions to different cost related
concepts.Let us start with the following cost concepts:
1) Total Cost: Total cost is the sum of two components, viz., fixed cost
and variable cost. Symbolically, TC= FC+ VC, where TC= total cost,
FC= fixed cost and VC= variable cost.
2) Fixed Cost: The cost remains constant for all levels of output (i.e.,
independent of quantity produced). For example, cost of machinery or
rent of factory building fall in this category.
3) Variable Cost: The cost varies with level of output. For example, cost
of raw materials forms a part of variable cost.
Given the total cost, we can derive the
Average Cost, which is defined as per unit cost of production and
written as
��
AC = �
, where � is units of output;and

Marginal Cost, which is the rate of change in total cost when � units
are produced and defined as
���
MC= ��
.

Relation between AC and MC

Relation between AC and MC can be explained with the help of
diagram below:

158
 Application of
Derivatives

Example 6:If TC = 2q2 + 8q +60,

calculate AC and MC at q=3
=3 and interpret the result.
Solution: Given TC = 2q2 + 8q +60.
��
Therefore,AC = �

��� � �� �
���
= �
��
= 2q + 8 + �
.
���
MC = ��

����� � �� �����
= ��

= 4q+ 8.
When q= 3, MC = 4x3 + 8 = 20.
Interpretation:It It means when production increases by 1 unit from 3rd
unit to 4th unit, then the total cost increases by Rs.20,approximately.
Example 7:: Total Cost of the firm is
C(x) = 0.005x3 – 0.002 x2 -30x
30x +5000, where x is the output
Find out
159
Business Mathematics i) Fixed Cost
ii) Variable Cost
iii) Average Cost
iv) Average Variable Cost
v) Marginal Cost
vi) Marginal Cost when 50 units are produced, interpret the results.
vii) Actual Cost of producing 51st unit.
viii) Rate of change in Marginal Cost w.r.t. x
ix) Marginal Average Cost
Solution: Given C(x) = 0.005x3 – 0.002 x2 -30x +5000, we have to find
out
i) Fixed cost by putting x=0 (i.e., output = 0)and get
FC = 5000
ii) VC= TC – FC
= 0.005x3 – 0.002 x2 -30x +5000 -5000
= 0.005x3 – 0.002 x2 -30x
�.����� – �.��� �� ���� �����
iii) AC= TC/x = �
= 0.005x � – 0.002 x −
����
30 + �

iv) Average Variable Cost = AVC= VC/x

�.����� – �.��� �� ����
= �

= 0.005x � – 0.002 x − 30
��� �
v) MC = �� = ��
�0.005x � – 0.002 x � − 30x + 5000� = 0.015 x2 –
0.004x -30.
vi) When x= 50, MC= 0.015 (50)2 – 0.004(50) -30 = 7.3
Interpretation: It means if production increases by 1 unit from 50th
unit to 51th unit, then the total cost increases by Rs.7.3,
approximately.
vii) C(51) = 0.005(51)3 – 0.002 (51)2 -30(51) +5000 = 4128.05
C(50) = 0.005(50)3 – 0.002 (50)2 -30(50) +5000 = 4120
Actual cost of producing 51th unit = C(51) – C(50) = 4128.05 –
4120
= 8.05
��� �
viii) Rate of change in MC = ��
= ��
�0.015x� – 0.004 x − 30�

= 0.030x – 0.004

160
 ��� � Application of
ix) Marginal Average Cost = ��
= �� �0.005x � – 0.002 x − 30 + Derivatives
����
��
�
����
= 0.010x -0.002 - �
�
Example 8:Prove that slope of average cost curve is �
( MC − AC) for the
TC= ax3 + bx2 +cx +d.
Solution: GivenTC= ax3 + bx2 +cx +d,
��� ���� �����
AC= �
= ax2 +bx + c + d/x
��� � �
Slope of AC = �� = �� �ax � + bx + c + � �

= 2ax +b – d/x2
��� �
MC = ��
= �� (ax � + bx � + cx + d )

= 3ax2 + 2bx +c.

� � �
Now, � ( MC − AC) = �
� 3ax � + 2bx + c − ax � − bx − c − � �
� �
= � � 2ax � + bx − � �

= 2ax +b –d/x2
= slope of AC
Hence proved.

Check Your Progress 3:

1) When AC is minimum then value of MC is equal to what?
2) Name the cost which is incurred by the firm when firm produces zero
output.
3) What are the components of total cost of production?

9.5 REVENUE FUNCTION

A revenue function depicts the relation between revenue and output. Note
that revenue is the product of price(�) and output (�), i.e., the price of the
product and its quantity sold.Needless to say, if the price of a good increases,
then the quantity sold decreases. So, revenuemay increase or decrease. To see
this, let us write the total revenue (��) = �� = ��(�), where � is the
price per unit of the good and � is the number of units of the commodity sold.
If we want to the see the nature of relation between revenue and output, we
have to examine the price elasticity of demand. Indeed, there is a very useful
relationship between price elasticity andrevenue change. To examine such an
insight, let the total revenue be expressed as
�� = ��.
If we let the price change to be � + ��and the quantity change to be� + ��,
then revenue obtained becomes
161
Business Mathematics � = (� + ��)(� + ��)
= �� + ��� + ��� + ����.
Subtracting ��from �we have
��� = ��� + ��� + ���q.
For small values of ��and ��, we can neglect the last term and get the
revenue as ��� = ��� + ���.
The rate of change of revenue per unit change in price is
��� ��
∆�
= � + � ∆�.

Thus, revenue increases when price increases if the elasticity of demand

is less than 1 in absolute value. Similarly, revenue decreases when price
increases if the elasticity of demand is greater than 1 in absolute value.
To see this is to return tothe formula for ��/��and rearrange
it as follows:
��� ��
= �+ �
∆� ∆�
� ��
= � �1 + �
� ∆�
= �[1 + �� ]
Since demand elasticity is stated be negative, we can also write this
expression
as �[1 − [|�� |]]
In this formulation, it is easy to see how revenue responds to a change in
price:
���
if the absolute value of elasticity is greater than 1, then ∆�
must be negative
and vice versa.
Intuitively, if demand is very responsive to price—that is, it is very elastic—
then an increase in price will reduce demand so much that revenue will fall.
If demand is very unresponsive to price—it is very inelastic—then an
increase in price will not change demand very much, and overall revenue will
increase. Taking the dividing line of an elasticity of −1, we can say that in
such a point, if the price increases by 1 percent, then the quantity will
decrease by 1 percent,so overall revenue doesn’t change at all. We have unit
elasticity.

9.5.1 Relationship between AR, MR and Price Elasticity of

Demand
We may extend the above result on revenue and price elasticity further to find
its relationship with marginal revenue and average revenue. To work in that
direction, let us define these terms first.
162
Average Revenue (AR) is the per unit revenue and can be computed as Application of
Derivatives
�� ��
AR= �
=� =�

Marginal Revenue (MR)is the change in total revenue resulting from an

additional unit of output sold. Thus,
���
�� = ��
.

Elasticity and Marginal Revenue:

We have seen above that for small changes in price and quantity, the change
in revenue is given by
��� ��
= �+ �
∆� ∆�
or, ��� = �∆� + � ��
Dividing both the sides by ��, we get
��� ∆� ��
∆�
= � ∆� + � ∆�, or
��� ∆�
MR= ∆� = � + � ∆�, or

� ∆�
�� = � �1 + �
� ∆�
Remembering we are trying to derive the relationship between MR and
�� , let usdo undertake some refinement on the second term in �� =
� ∆�
� �1 + � ∆� �. Broadly, it looks like inverse of �� . So, we can write �� =
�
� �1 + � �. Since we have used to write �� attaching a negative sign, we do
�
�
so here by writing �� = � �1 − |� |�, i.e., writting the �� in absolute term.
�

In interpreting such a result, we can say,

if elasticity of demand is −1, then marginal revenue is zero, i.e., revenue
doesn’t change when we increase output.
If demand is inelastic, then |�� | is less than 1, which means 1/|�� | is greater
than 1. Thus, 1−1/|�� | is negative. So, revenue would decrease when we
increase output.
Elasticity, Average Revenue and Marginal Revenue: To see the relation
between elasticity, average revenue and marginal revenue we simply work
� �
with �� = � �1 − |� |�. Just multiply (�) in the right-hand side to get
�

� 1 �� 1
�� = � � � �1 − �= �1 − �
� |�� | � |�� |
�� �
= � �1 − |� |�
�
�
=�� �1 − |� |�
�

��
��, �� − �� = �− �
|�� | 163
Business Mathematics ��
��, −�� + �� = � �
|�� |
�� − �� 1
��, =
�� |�� |
��
��, ����� = |�� |.

9.5.2 Maximizing Revenue

It is seen above that total revenue is influenced by price variation. In a market
structure with monopoly, the producer controls the price. This is in contrast
to pure competition, where price remains constant and it’s independent from
output. In that case, price, AR and MR are exactly the same. Let us see the
revenue maximization issue under a monopoly market.
Example 9: Find the total revenue and marginal revenue of the perfect
competitive firm with current price of Rs. 10 per unit.
Solution: Given, P= 10.
If q units are sold in the market then,
�� = �. � = 10�
��
�� = = 10
�
���
�� = ��
= 10

Therefore, � = �� = �� = 10 which is constant.

Under monopoly, price is determined by the firm and not given to it by the
market. The total revenue will be maximum at a level of output where first
order differentiation of total revenue is zero and second order derivative is
less than zero, i.e.,��’(�) = 0 ( �. �. , �� = 0) and ��’’(�) < 0.
Example10: If demand function of the firm is given as p = 5000 -20x – x2,
find TR,MR and comment on the nature of the firm.
Solution: Given, p=AR = 5000 -20x – x2
TR = p.x
= (5000 -20x – x2) x
= 5000x – 20x2 – x3
��� �
MR = ��
= �� (5000x – 20x2 – x3)

= 5000 – 40x – 3x2

Since, AR≠ MR, hence, firm is monopolist firm.
��
Example 11: Show that Ed = �����
at p = 5, where the demand function is
given by p = 50 – 3x.
Solution: p = 50 – 3x
Differentiating both side w.r.t.x
164
 �� Application of
��
= −3 Derivatives

Taking reciprocal
dx 1
= −
dp 3
� �� ����� � �����
�� = - � �� = − �
.−� = ��

If p= 5, then
5 = 50 – 3x
x= 45/3= 15
Putting the value of x in Ed

������ ����� �
�� = ���
= ��
= �.

TR = p.x = (50 – 3x)x

= 50x – 3x2
AR = TR/x = p.x/x= p =50 – 3x
When x= 15,
AR= 50 – 3×15 = 50- 45= 5.
���
MR = ��
= 50 – 6x

When x=15,
MR = 50- 6×15 = 50 – 90 = -40

�� � � �
�����
= ��(���) = �� = � =� d

Hence proved.

Check Your Progress 4

1) What is a revenue function?
2) State the relationship between AR, MR and Price Elasticity of Demand.
3) How is price elasticity related with rate of revenue change?
4) Revenue maximization is not important in a firm under which market
structure? Why?

9.6 PROFIT MAXIMIZATION

Economic theory normally uses the profit maximization assumption in
studying the behaviour of firm just as it uses the utility maximization
assumption for the individual consumer. This approach is taken to satisfy the
need for a simple rational objective for the firm.

165
Business Mathematics The profit-maximizing firm chooses both inputs and outputs so as to
maximize the difference between total revenue and total cost, i.e., � =
�(�) – �(�)
The firm will adjust variables under its control such that it can no longer
increase the profit further. Thus, the firm looks at each additional unit of
input or output with respect to its effect on profit.
Let us define revenue as �(�) = �(�) × �, where � and � are functions of
�. Note that we are taking inverse demand function �(�), which depicts price
as a function of quantity for getting the revenue function. As we will see
below it helps calculate MR quickly, which is required for getting the profit-
maximizing condition for firms regardless of market structure.
Profit function is the function of total revenue and total cost and it can be
expressed as:
� = �(�) = ��(�) − ��(�), i.e.,
� = �(�) × � − �(�).
To maximise profit take
�� �� ��
��
= ��
− �� =0

�� ��
⇒ = =0
�� ��
⇒ �� = ��.
Such an equality specifies the first order condition and we must add the
second order condition of profit maximisation. So, we need to have
�� �
< 0.
�� �
That is, at the optimal quantity (q*), marginal profitmust be declining. In
�� �
terms of �� and ��, weget �� �
< 0 ��,

��’’(�) − ��’’(�) < 0, or,

��’’(�) < ��’’(�), or,
(��)� < (��)�,
which means that the slope of marginal revenue must be less than the slope of
MC curve at the profit maximizing output.
Example 12: The total cost of a firm is C= 1/3x3– 6x2+40x+15. Find the
equilibrium output if price is fixed at Rs.20 per unit.
Solution: Given
price (p) = 20,
Revenue (TR) = px
Thus, Revenue = R(x) = 20x
Profit = �(x) = TR(x)- TC(x)
= 20x – (1/3x3– 6x2+40x+15)
166
 = 20x - 1/3x3+ 6x2- 40x – 15 Application of
Derivatives
= -1/3x3+ 6x2- 20x-15
Differentiating with respect to x
�’(x) = - x2 +12x – 20
For maximization �’(x)= 0
That is, - x2 +12x – 20 =0
or, x(x-10) – 2(x-10) =0
or, (x-10)(x-2) =0
Therefore, either x= 10 or x = 2
Calculating second-order derivative of the profit function with respect to x,
we get,
�’’(x) = -2x +12
When x=10
�’’(10) = -2(10) +12
= -20 + 12= -8<0
When x=2
�’’(2) = -2(2) +12 = 8>0
Since, second order derivative is less than zero at x = 10, profit is maximum
when firm produces 10 units of output.
Example 13: A monopolist has the following demand and cost functions:
C = 20 +2x + 3x2 and p= 50-x
Find the output level and price at which the profit is maximized.
Solution: Revenue (TR) = px = x(50-x) = 50x – x2
Profit (�) = TR – TC
= 50x – x2 -20 -2x -3x2
= 48x –4x2 – 20
Differentiating w.r.t. �
��/�� = �’ = 48 – 8� = 0
x= 48/8 = 6
Calculating second order derivative
�’’= -8<0
Hence, profit is maximum at x = 6, and equilibrium price is:
P = 50-x= 50 – 6 = 44
Hence, equilibrium output is 6 units and equilibrium price is 44.

167
Business Mathematics Example 14: A stereo manufacturer determines that in order to sell x units of
a new stereo, the price per unit, in rupees, must be p(x)= 1000 - x. The
manufacturer also determines that the total cost of producing x units is given
by C(x) = 3000 + 20x.
a) Find the total revenue R(x).
b) Find the total profit P(x).
c) How many units must the manufacturer produce and sell in order to
maximize profit?
d) What is the maximum profit?
e) What price per unit must be charged in order to make this maximum
profit?
Solution:
a) Revenue = quantity × price
�(�) = � × �
�(�) = �(1000 − �)
�(�) = 1000� − � �
b) Profit = Total Revenue - Total Cost
P(x) = R(x)- C(x)
P(x) = 1000x- x2- (3000 + 20x)
P(x) = - x2+ 980x - 3000
c) P′(x) = -2x + 980 = 0
-2x = -980
x = 490
Since there is only one critical value, we can use the second derivative to
determine whether or not it yields a maximum or minimum.
P’’(x) = -2
Since P’’(x) is negative, x = 490 yields a maximum.
Thus, profit is maximized when 490 units are produced and sold.
d) The maximum profit is given by
P(490) = -(490)2+ 980(490) - 3000
P(490) = 237,100.
Thus, the stereo manufacturer makes a maximum profit of 237,100 when 490
units are produced and sold.
e) The price per unit to achieve this maximum profit is
p(490) = 1000 - 490
p(490) = 510.

168
 Application of
Check Your Progress 5 Derivatives
1) How do you get profit of a firm?
2) What are the two conditions to be satisfied for profit maximization?
3) Interpret the second order condition of profit maximization.

9.7 LET US SUM UP

This unit deals with application of derivatives to economic and business
studies. For that purpose, it covers some select themes that find frequent use.
Atthe outset, the negative slope of downward sloping demand curve and
positive slope of a supply curve are shown by using the first order derivative.
We have learnt the derivation of elasticity of demand as well as supply
function. Introducing the concept, it is said that elasticity refers to the
responsiveness of the dependent variable of a function to change in the
independent variable. We have seen the derivation of price elasticity of
� ��
demand as �� = � �� along with small changes in price and quantity.
Another expression for elasticity in terms of log functions has been
explained.
Stating that income elasticity of demand measures the effect of the change in a
consumer’s income on the demand for a specific product, we are also told that
this category of elasticity helps identify normal goods (positive elasticity) and
inferior goods (negative elasticity).
We are exposed to the concept of cross elasticity of demand which is defined as
the responsiveness of demand for a product in relation to the change in the price
of another related product. Use of this idea helps in knowing the elasticity of
substitute goods (positive cross elasticity) and that of complementary goods
(negative cross elasticity). At the last part of the section, the supply elasticity
has been discussed. The ratio of proportionate change inquantity supplied to a
proportionate change in its price is demonstrated using the derivative.
The process of applying derivatives for finding solutions different categories
of cost has been covered. Relation between average and marginal costs has
been derived using differentiation. An attempt is made to deal with revenue
function, which depicts the relation between revenue and output. The rate of
change of revenue per unit change in price is derived through technique of
derivative and relation between marginal revenue, average revenue and
elasticity of demand specified.
In the last part of the unit, the application of derivative to find first and
second order conditions of profit maximization is discussed. We have learnt
to derive the equality of marginal revenue and marginal cost in the first order
condition. The derivation of rate of change in the slope of marginal revenue,
which has to be less than the rate of change in the slope of marginal cost to
satisfy the second order condition is explained.

9.8 KEY WORDS

Complement Goods: A good for which the demand increases as the price of
an associated good decreases.
169
Business Mathematics Cost of Output: Increase in cost as production increase.
Elasticity of Demand: Sensitiveness the demand for a good to changes in
other economic variables, such as prices and income. It is calculated as the
percent change in the quantity demanded divided by a percent change in
another economic variable.
Equilibrium: A situation in which supply and demand are matched and price
remains stable.
Fixed Cost:Cost that remains constant for all levels of output.
Inverse Demand Function: Demand function viewing price as a function of
quantity demanded.
Monopoly: Market, with only one seller selling unique product and earn
super normal profit.
Perfect Competition: A market with a large number of buyers and seller.
Sellers sell homogenous product and earn normal profit. There is free entry
and exit in the market.
Price Elasticity of Supply: Responsiveness to the supply of a good or
service after a change in its market price.
Profit: Excess of total revenue over total costs.
Substitute Goods: As the price of one good increases, the demand for an
alternative good meeting the same consumer needs, increases.
Total Cost: Combination of fixed cost and variable cost.
Total Revenue: Product of price/demand function and output.
Variable Cost: Cost that varies with the level of output.

9.9 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

• K. Sydsaeter and P. Hammond, Mathematics for Economic Analysis,
PearsonEducational Asia, Delhi, 2002.
• Dowling, Edward,T. “Schaum’s Outline Series: Theory and
Problems of Mathematics for Economists”, New York: McGraw Hill
Book Company, 1986.
• Chiang, A. and Kalvin Wainwright, Fundamental Methods of
Mathematical Economics (Paperback), Mac Grow Hill, 2017.
• Varian , Hal R., Intermediate Microeconomics: A Modern Approach,
Springer (India) Pvt. Ltd. India, 2010.

9.10 ANSWER OR HINTS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
1) Read Sub-Section 9.2.2 and answer.
2) Law of diminishing utility, income and substitution effects.
3) Ans.: � = �(�)
Check Your Progress 2
1) Elasticity refers to the responsiveness of the dependent variable in a
function to change in the independent variable.
170
2) Due to requirement of complimentary goods moving together to satisfy Application of
Derivatives
demand.
3) Income elasticity of demand will be less than zero.
4) Cross elasticity of demand is the responsiveness of demand for a product
in relation to the change in the price of another related product.
5) ������� > −1;���������=in between -1 and 0; ���� ������� = −1.
6) Proportionate change inquantity supplied to a proportionate change in
its price.
Check Your Progress 3
1) AC = MC
2) Fixed cost
3) Fixed cost and variable cost.
Check Your Progress 4
1) A function that depicts the relation between revenue and output.
��
2) � d=�����.
∆�� �
3) ∆�
= � �1 − |� |�.
�

4) Firm operating under perfect competition. There is the optimum

situation of P=AR=MR.
Check Your Progress 5
1) Taking the difference between the total revenue and total cost.
2) First order condition of �� = �� and second order condition of
(��)� < (��)�,
3) Slope of marginal revenue must be less than the slope of MC curve at
the profit maximizing output.

9.11 EXERCISES WITH ANSWERS/HINTS

1) The demand function for a commodity is given by p= 20 - 2x. Find
total revenue. Compute average revenue and marginal revenue at
x=3 and interpret the results. Find the output level at which total
revenue is maximum and the maximum revenue. Is marginal
revenue rising at x=3?
2) A manufacturer finds her yearly uniform demand for her product to
be 40,000 units. The cost of setting up a production run is Rs. 200
and the cost of carrying one unit in inventory is Re.1 per annum.
Find the economic lot size that should yield a minimum total cost.
3) A firm produces x number of units at a total cost
C=Rs. (x3/10 – 5x2 +10x+5)
At what level of output will the marginal cost and the average
variable cost attain their respective minimum?
4) The total revenue(R) and total cost(C) functions of a firm are given
by: R= 30x – x2, C=20 + 4x, where x is the output. Find the output
which maximizes profit and the maximum profit.
171
Business Mathematics 5) If f(x) = ax2 + bx +c, show that supply relation is linear. Show that
p must exceed b +2√ac if total costs are to be covered but that, if
only variable costs are to be covered, p need exceed only b.
6) The demand q as a function of income y is given by 30q = 10 +3y.
Obtain the expression for the income elasticity of demand and its
value at y = Rs.250.
7) If MR= 100 and elasticity of demand with respect to output is 3,
find AR.
8) For what value of q, the elasticity of demand for the given demand
function p = 4 – 3q2becomes unitary.
9) What is the marginal revenue for a demand curve which has infinite
elasticity?
Find out the elasticity of demand whenthe demand curve is p =
50/(x +3).
10) Given the total cost function C = x3 –6x2+15x+10; find the
marginal cost function. At what output will MC be an increasing
function?
11) If the total manufacturing cost 'y' of making x units of a product
is: y = 20x + 5000,
a) What is the variable cost per unit?
b) What is the fixed cost?
c) What is the total cost of manufacturing 4000 units?
d) What is the marginal cost of producing 2000 units?
12) The profit function of a company can be represented by � = � (�) =
� – 0.00001� � , where x is units sold. Find the optimal sales volume
and the amount of profit to be expected at that volume.
13) What does Price Elasticity mean? Elaborate your answer.
14) The corn flakes industry decides to reduce the price of its product, from
Rs.100 to Rs. 75. The company expects that the sales of corn flakes
will increase from 10,000 units a month to 20,000 units a month.
Calculate and comment on the price elasticity of demand.
15) A demand function is given as � = 50 – 5�. Compute the price
elasticity of demand at p=5.
�
16) If the demand curve is x = ; then show that the price elasticity of
√�
demand is constant and equals to -1/2.
Answer of questions
1) x=5, TR=50, yes
2) 4000
3) 50/3; 25
4) x= 13, Rs. 149
5) Hint: p=MC; p≥ minimum AC; p≥ minimum AVC
6) 75/76
7) 150
172
8) 2/3 Application of
Derivatives
9) MR=AR
10) –x/(x+3)
11) We have the cost-output equation: y = 20x + 5000. We know that, if the
production increases, only total variable cost will increase in direct
proportion but the fixed cost will remain unchanged in total. So, the
derivative of y with respect to the increase in x by 1 unit will give the
variable cost per unit.
� �
a) Variable cost per unit =��(cost-output equation)=�� (20x + 5000)
= 20. Variable cost per unit is 20.
b) Total fixed cost will remain unchanged even if we don't produce
any unit. If we don't produce any unit, there will be no variable
cost and only fixed cost will be the total cost. So, if we put x=0 in
the cost-output equation, we will get the fixed cost. Fixed Cost =
y = [20.(0) + 5,000] = 5000
c) If we put x=4000 in the cost-output equation, we will get the total
cost of producing 4,000 units. Total cost of producing 4000 units
= y = 20 (4,000) + 5,000 = 85,000.
d) We know that the marginal cost of 'n'th unit = TCn–TCn–1
Marginal cost of 2000th unit
= TC of 2000 units – TC of (2000–1) units
= [20 (2000) + 5000] – [20 (1999) + 5000] = [45,000 – 44,980] = 20.
12) The necessary condition for the optimal sales volume is that the first
derivative of the profit function is equal to zero and the second
derivative must be negative. Where the profit function is:
P = x – 0.00001� �
�� �
= (x – 0.00001� � )
�� ��
Marginal Profit = 1 – 0.00002x
To get maximum profit now we put marginal profit = 0
So, 1 – 0.00002x = 0
or, 0.00002x = 1
�
So, x = = 50,000 units.
�.�����
The second derivative of profit function, i.e.,
��� �
= (1– 0.00002�)
�� � ��
Now by putting the value of x in profit function we get maximum
profit.
P = x – 0.00001� �
= 50,000 – 0.00001(50,000)2 = 50,000 – 0.00001(2500000000)
MR is defined as the change in the total revenue for the sale of an extra
unit.
173
Business Mathematics = 50,000 – 25,000 = 25,000.
The optimum output for the company will be 50,000 units of x and
maximum profit at that volume will be 25,000.
13) Price elasticity of demand is defined as the negative of the ratio of
proportionate change in quantity demanded to a proportionate
change in price,
������������� ������ �� ������
i.e., �� = (-) ������������� ������ �� �����

∆�/�
= (-) ∆�/�
� ∆� � ��
= (-) � ∆� or =(-) � ��

For price elasticity of demand, we will use the relevant formula.

14) First, we need to calculate the percentage change in quantity demanded
and percentage change in price. So,
% Change in Price = (Rs. 75-100)/(Rs.100) = -25%
% Change in Demand = (20,000-10,000)/(10,000) = 100%
Therefore, the Price Elasticity of Demand = 100%/-25% = -4.
This means the demand is relatively elastic.
15) The given demand function is
� = 50 – 5�
Differentiating w.r.t.’�’, we get
��
��
= −5
Hence, elasticity of demand is:
� ��
�� = (-)� ��
� �� �
= (-)����� . �
= ����
� �
When p=5; then �� = ���� = � = 1

16) Given the demand curve,

�
x= = 9 p-1/2
√�
�
�� �
��
= − � � ��
�
� �
� �� � � � �� �
�� = − � �� = − � . − � � � = ��
�
�
�� � �
= � = �which is a constant.
�
��� �

174
Contents 13
Integration
13.1 Basic Concepts of Integration 2

13.2 Definite Integrals 14

13.3 The Area Bounded by a Curve 24

13.4 Integration by Parts 33

13.5 Integration by Substitution and Using Partial Fractions 40

13.6 Integration of Trigonometric Functions 48

Learning outcomes
In this Workbook you will learn about integration and about some of the common techniques
employed to obtain integrals. You will learn that integration is the inverse operation to
differentiation and will also appreciate the distinction between a definite and an indefinite
integral. You will understand how a definite integral is related to the area under a curve.
You will understand how to use the technique of integration by parts to obtain integrals
involving the product of functions. You will also learn how to use partial fractions and
trigonometric identities in integration.
Basic Concepts  

of Integration 13.1 

Introduction
df
When a function f (x) is known we can differentiate it to obtain its derivative . The reverse process
dx
is to obtain the function f (x) from knowledge of its derivative. This process is called integration.
Applications of integration are numerous and some of these will be explored in subsequent Sections.
First, what is important is to practise basic techniques and learn a variety of methods for integrating
functions.

 

Prerequisites • thoroughly understand the various techniques

of differentiation
Before starting this Section you should . . .

' 
$
• evaluate simple integrals by reversing the
process of differentiation

• use a table of integrals

Learning Outcomes
• explain the need for a constant of integration
On completion you should be able to . . . when finding indefinite integrals

• use the rules for finding integrals of sums of

functions and constant multiples of functions
& %

2 HELM (2008):
Workbook 13: Integration
 ®

1. Integration as differentiation in reverse

dy
Suppose we differentiate the function y = x2 . We obtain = 2x. Integration reverses this process
dx
2
and we say that the integral of 2x is x . Pictorially we can regard this as shown in Figure 1:

differentiate

x2 2x

integrate
Figure 1
The situation is just a little more complicated because there are lots of functions we can differentiate
to give 2x. Here are some of them: x2 + 4, x2 − 15, x2 + 0.5
All these functions have the same derivative, 2x, because when we differentiate the constant term we
obtain zero. Consequently, when we reverse the process, we have no idea what the original constant
term might have been. So we include in our answer an unknown constant, c say, called the constant
of integration. We state that the integral of 2x is x2 + c.
d
When we want to differentiate a function, y(x), we use the notation as an instruction to differ-
dx
d

entiate, and write y(x) . In a similar way, when we want to integrate a function we use a special
Z dx
notation: y(x) dx.
Z
The symbol for integration, , is known as an integral sign. To integrate 2x we write

!
2x dx = x2 + c
integral
sign
this term is constant of integration
called the
integrand there must always be a
term of the form dx

Note that along with the integral sign there is a term of the form dx, which must always be written,
and which indicates the variable involved, in this case x. We say that 2x is being integrated with
respect to x . The function being integrated is called the integrand. Technically, integrals of this
sort are called indefinite integrals, to distinguish them from definite integrals which are dealt with
subsequently. When you find an indefinite integral your answer should always contain a constant of
integration.

Exercises
1. (a) Write down the derivatives of each of: x3 , x3 + 17, x3 − 21
Z
(b) Deduce that 3x2 dx = x3 + c.
2. Explain why, when finding an indefinite integral, a constant of integration is always needed.

HELM (2008): 3
Section 13.1: Basic Concepts of Integration
Answers
1. (a) 3x2 , 3x2 , 3x2 (b) Whatever the constant, it is zero when differentiated.
2. Any constant will disappear (i.e. become zero) when differentiated so one must be reintroduced
to reverse the
process.

2. A table of integrals
We could use a table of derivatives to find integrals, but the more common ones are usually found
in a ‘Table of Integrals’ such as that shown below. You could check the entries in this table using
your knowledge of differentiation. Try this for yourself.

Table 1: Integrals of Common Functions

function indefinite
Z integral
f (x) f (x) dx

constant, k
kx + c
1 2
x 2
x +c
1 3
x2 3
x +c
xn+1
xn + c, n 6= −1
n+1
1
x−1 (or ) ln |x| + c
x
cos x sin x + c
sin x − cos x + c
1
cos kx sin kx + c
k
1
sin kx − cos kx + c
k
1
tan kx ln | sec kx|+c
k
ex ex + c
e−x −e−x + c
1 kx
ekx e +c
k

When dealing with the trigonometric functions the variable x must always be measured in radians
and not degrees. Note that the fourth entry in the Table, for xn , is valid for any value of n, positive
or negative, whole number or fractional, except n = −1. When n = −1 use the fifth entry in the
Table.

4 HELM (2008):
Workbook 13: Integration
 ®

Example 1 Z
7
Use Table 1 to find the indefinite integral of x : that is, find x7 dx

Solution
xn+1
Z
From Table 1 note that xn dx = + c. In words, this states that to integrate a power
n+1
of x, increase the power by 1, and then divide the result by the new power. With n = 7 we find
Z
1
x7 dx = x8 + c
8

Example 2 Z
Find the indefinite integral of cos 5x: that is, find cos 5x dx

Solution
Z
sin kx
From Table 1 note that cos kx dx = +c
k
Z
1
With k = 5 we find cos 5x dx = sin 5x + c
5

In Table 1 the independent variable is always given as x. However, with a little imagination you will
be able to use it when other independent variables are involved.

Example
Z 3
Find cos 5t dt

Solution
We integrated cos 5x in the previous example. Now the independent variable is t, so simply use
Table 1 and replace every x with a t. With k = 5 we find
Z
1
cos 5t dt = sin 5t + c
5
It follows immediately that, for example,
Z Z
1 1
cos 5ω dω = sin 5ω + c, cos 5u du = sin 5u + c and so on.
5 5

HELM (2008): 5
Section 13.1: Basic Concepts of Integration
 Example 4 Z
1 1
Find the indefinite integral of : that is, find dx
x x

Solution
This integral deserves special mention. You may be tempted
Z to try to write the integrand as x−1
n+1
x
and use the fourth row of Table 1. However, the formula xn dx = + c is not valid when
n+1
n = −1 as Table 1 makes clear. ZThis is because we can never divide by zero. Look to the fifth
entry of Table 1 and you will see x−1 dx = ln |x| + c.

Example
Z 5 Z
Find 12 dx and 12 dt

Solution
In this Example we are integrating a constant, 12. Using Table 1 we find
Z Z
12 dx = 12x + c Similarly 12 dt = 12t + c.

Task Z
Find t4 dt

Your solution

Answer
Z
1
t4 dt = t5 + c.
5

6 HELM (2008):
Workbook 13: Integration
 ®

Task Z
1
Find dx using the laws of indices to write the integrand as x−5 and then use
x5
Table 1:

Your solution

Answer
1 1
− x−4 + c = − 4 + c.
4 4x

Task Z
Find e−2x dx using the entry in Table 1 for integrating ekx :

Your solution

Answer
1
e−2x dx = − e−2x + c.
R
With k = −2, we have
2

Exercises
1. Integrate each of the following functions with respect to x: √
(a) x9 , (b) x1/2 , (c) x−3 , (d) 1/x4 , (e) 4, (f) x, (g) e4x
Z Z Z Z
2
2. Find (a) t dt, (b) 6 dt, (c) sin 3t dt, (d) e7t dt.

Answers
1 10 2 3/2 1 1
1 (a) x + c, (b) x + c, (c) − x−2 + c, (d) − x−3 + c, (e) 4x + c,
10 3 2 3
1
(f) same as (b), (g) e4x + c
4
1 3 1 1 7t
2. (a) t + c, (b) 6t + c, (c) − cos 3t + c, (d) e +c
3 3 7

HELM (2008): 7
Section 13.1: Basic Concepts of Integration
3. Some rules of integration
To enable us to find integrals of a wider range of functions than those normally given in a table of
integrals we can make use of the following rules.

The integral of k f (x ) where k is a constant

A constant factor in an integral can be moved outside the integral sign as follows:

Key Point 1
Z Z
k f (x) dx = k f (x) dx

Example 6 Z
2
Find the indefinite integral of 11x : that is, find 11x2 dx

Solution
 3
11x3
Z Z 
2 2 x
11x dx = 11 x dx = 11 +c = +K where K is a constant.
3 3

Example 7 Z
Find the indefinite integral of −5 cos x; that is, find −5 cos x dx

Solution
Z Z
−5 cos x dx = −5 cos x dx = −5 (sin x + c) = −5 sin x + K where K is a constant.

8 HELM (2008):
Workbook 13: Integration
 ®

x) + g (x
The integral of f (x x) − g (x
x) and of f (x x)
When we wish to integrate the sum or difference of two functions, we integrate each term separately
as follows:

Key Point 2
Z Z Z
[ f (x) + g(x) ] dx = f (x) dx + g(x) dx
Z Z Z
[ f (x) − g(x) ] dx = f (x) dx − g(x) dx

Example
Z 8
Find (x3 + sin x) dx

Solution
Z Z Z
1
(x + sin x) dx = x dx + sin x dx = x4 − cos x + c
3 3
4
Note that only a single constant of integration is needed.

Task Z √
Find (3t4 + t) dt

Use Key Points 1 and 2:

Your solution

Answer
3 5 2 3/2
t + t +c
5 3

HELM (2008): 9
Section 13.1: Basic Concepts of Integration
 Task
The hyperbolic sine and cosine functions, sinh x and cosh x, are defined as follows:
ex − e−x ex + e−x
sinh x = cosh x =
2 2
Note that they are combinations of the exponential functions ex and e−x .
Find the indefinite integrals of sinh x and cosh x.

Your solution Z 
ex − e−x
Z 
sinh x dx = dx =
2

ex + e−x
Z Z  
cosh x dx = dx =
2

Answer
Z Z Z
1 1 1 1 1
x
e−x dx = ex + e−x + c = ex + e−x + c = cosh x + c.


sinh x dx = e dx −
2 2 2 2 2
Z
Similarly cosh x dx = sinh x + c.

Further rules for finding more complicated integrals are dealt with in subsequent Sections.

10 HELM (2008):
Workbook 13: Integration
  

Definite Integrals 13.2

 

Introduction
When you were first introduced to integration as the reverse of differentiation, the integrals you dealt
with were indefinite integrals. The result of finding an indefinite integral is usually a function plus a
constant of integration. In this Section we introduce definite integrals, so called because the result
will be a definite answer, usually a number, with no constant of integration. Definite integrals have
many applications, for example in finding areas bounded by curves, and finding volumes of solids.

 
• understand integration as the reverse of
Prerequisites differentiation
Before starting this Section you should . . . • be able to use a table of integrals

 

• find simple definite integrals
Learning Outcomes
• handle some integrals involving an infinite
On completion you should be able to . . . limit of integration
 

14 HELM (2008):
Workbook 13: Integration
 ®

1. Definite integrals
Z
We saw in the previous Section that f (x) dx = F (x) + c where F (x) is that function which, when
dF
differentiated, gives f (x). That is, = f (x). For example,
dx
Z
cos(3x)
sin(3x) dx = − +c
3
Here, f (x) = sin(3x) and F (x) = − 13 cos(3x) We now consider a definite integral which is simply
an indefinite integral but with numbers written to the upper and lower right of the integral sign. The
quantity
Z b
f (x) dx
a

is called the definite integral of f (x) from a to b. The numbers a and b are known as the lower
limit and upper limit respectively of the integral. We define
Z b
f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a)
a

so that a definite integral is usually a number. The meaning of a definite integral will be developed
in later Sections. For the present we concentrate on the process of evaluating definite integrals.

2. Evaluating definite integrals

When you evaluate a definite integral the result will usually be a number. To see how to evaluate a
definite integral consider the following Example.

Example 9 Z 4
2
Find the definite integral of x from 1 to 4; that is, find x2 dx
1

Solution
Z
x2 dx = 13 x3 + c
3
Here f (x) = x2 and F (x) = x3 . Thus, according to our definition
Z 4
43 13
x2 dx = F (4) − F (1) = − = 21
1 3 3

HELM (2008): 15
Section 13.2: Definite Integrals
Writing F (b) − F (a) each time we calculate a definite integral becomes laborious so we replace this
 b
difference by the shorthand notation F (x) . Thus
a
 b
F (x) ≡ F (b) − F (a)
a

Thus, from now on, we shall write

Z b  b
f (x) dx = F (x)
a a

so that, for example

Z 4  3 4
2 x 43 13
x dx = = − = 21
1 3 1 3 3

Example 10 Z π/2
π
Find the definite integral of cos x from 0 to ; that is, find cos x dx.
2 0

Solution
R
Since cos x dx = sin x + c then
Z π/2  π/2
cos x dx = sin x
0
π  0
= sin − sin 0 = 1 − 0 = 1
2

Always remember, that if you use a calculator to evaluate any trigonometric functions, you must
work in radian mode.

Task Z 2
2
Find the definite integral of x + 1 from 1 to 2; that is; find (x2 + 1) dx
1

First perform the integration:

Your solution

Answer
 2
1 3
x +x .
3 1

16 HELM (2008):
Workbook 13: Integration
 ®

Now insert the limits of integration, the upper limit first, and hence evaluat the integral:

Your solution

Answer
   
8 1 10
+2 − +1 = or 3.333 (3 d.p.).
3 3 3

Task Z 1
Find (x2 + 1) dx.
2

This Task is very similar to the previous Task. Note the limits have been interchanged:

Your solution

Answer
 1    
1 3 1 8 10
x +x = +1 − +2 =− .
3 2 3 3 3

Note from these two Tasks that interchanging the limits of integration, changes the sign of the
answer.

Key Point 3
If you interchange the limits, you must change the sign:
Z b Z a
f (x) dx = − f (x) dx
a b

HELM (2008): 17
Section 13.2: Definite Integrals
i.e. the curves join smoothly.
The second derivatives, though, are not equal (zero in one case). In the theoretical limit as θ → ∞
2π
T = τ R3
3 Y
so this is the total torsional torque which can be carried by the bar. (The critical torque above is
three-quarters of this value.) However, clearly θ → ∞ is merely a theoretical limit since the bar
would, in fact, shear at a finite value of θ.

3. Some integrals with infinite limits

On occasions, and notably when dealing with Laplace and Fourier transforms, you will come across
integrals in which one of the limits is infinite. We avoid a rigorous treatment of such cases here and
instead give some commonly occurring examples.

Example 11 Z ∞
Find the definite integral of e −x
from 0 to ∞; that is, find e−x dx.
0

Solution
Z ∞  ∞
−x −x
The integral is found in the normal way: e dx = −e
0 0

There is no difficulty in evaluating the square bracket at the lower limit. We obtain simply −e−0 =
−1. At the upper limit we must examine the behaviour of −e−x as x gets infinitely large. This is
where it is important that you are familiar with the properties of the exponential function. If you
refer to the graph (Figure 5) you will see that as x tends to infinity e−x tends to zero.
Consequently the contribution to the integral from the upper limit is zero. So

! ∞ " #∞
−x −x
e dx = −e
0 0
= (−e ) − (−e−0 )
−∞ e−x
= (0) − (−e−0 )
= 1 x

Figure 5
Z ∞
Thus the value of e−x dx is 1.
0

Another way of achieving this result is as follows:

We change the infinite limit to a finite limit, b, say and then examine the behaviour of the integral
as b tends to infinity, written as

22 HELM (2008):
Workbook 13: Integration
 ®

Z ∞ Z b
−x
e dx = lim e−x dx
0 b→∞ 0
Z b  b
−x −x
= −e−b − −e−0 = −e−b + 1



Now, e dx = −e
0 0
−b
Then as b tends to infinity −e tends to zero, and the resulting integral has the value 1, as before.
Many integrals having infinite limits cannot be evaluated in a simple way like this, and many cannot
be evaluated at all. Fortunately, most of the integrals you will meet will exhibit the sort of behaviour
seen in the last example.

Exercise
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞
−x −2x −3x 4
Evaluate (a) e dx (b) e dx (c) e dx (d) dt
1 0 2 1 t2
Answer
(a) e−1 ∼ 0.368 (b) 1
2
(c) 13 e−6 = 0.0008 (4 d.p.) (d) 4

HELM (2008): 23
Section 13.2: Definite Integrals
The Area Bounded  

by a Curve 13.3 

Introduction
One of the important applications of integration is to find the area bounded by a curve. Often such
an area can have a physical significance like the work done by a motor, or the distance travelled by
a vehicle. In this Section we explain how such an area is calculated.

' $
• understand integration as the reverse of
differentiation

• be able to use a table of integrals

Prerequisites • be able to evaluate definite integrals
Before starting this Section you should . . . • be able to sketch graphs of common
functions including polynomials, simple
rational functions, exponential functions and
trigonometric functions
& %
 
• find the area bounded by a curve and the
Learning Outcomes x-axis
On completion you should be able to . . . • find the area between two curves
 

24 HELM (2008):
Workbook 13: Integration
 ®

1. Calculating the area under a curve

Let us denote the area under y = f (x) between a fixed point a and a variable point x by A(x):

y area is A(x)
y = f (x)

a x x

Figure 6
A(x) is clearly a function of x since as the upper limit changes so does the area. How does the area
change if we change the upper limit by a very small amount δx? See Figure 7 below.

y
y = f (x)

f (x) area is A( x+δx) A( x)

a x x + δx x

Figure 7
To a good approximation the change in the area is:
A(x + δx) − A(x) ≈ f (x)δx
[This is because the shaded area is approximately a rectangle with base δx and height f (x).] This
approximation gets better and better as δx gets smaller and smaller. Rearranging gives:
A(x + δx) − A(x)
f (x) ≈
δx
Clearly, in the limit as δx → 0 we have
A(x + δx) − A(x)
f (x) = lim
δx→0 δx
But this limit on the right-hand side is the derivative of A(x) with respect to x so
dA(x)
f (x) =
dx
Thus A(x) is an indefinite integral of f (x) and we can therefore write:
Z
A(x) = f (x)dx

Now the area under the curve from a to b is clearly A(b) − A(a). But remembering our shorthand
notation for this difference, introduced in the last Section we have, finally
 b Z b
A(b) − A(a) ≡ A(x) = f (x)dx
a a

We conclude that the area under the curve y = f (x) from a to b is given by the definite integral of
f (x) from a to b.

HELM (2008): 25
Section 13.3: The Area Bounded by a Curve
2. The area bounded by a curve lying above the x-axis
Consider the graph of the function y = f (x) shown in Figure 8. Suppose we are interested in
calculating the area underneath the graph and above the x-axis, between the points where x = a
and x = b. When such an area R b lies entirely above the x-axis, as is clearly the case here, this area is
given by the definite integral a f (x) dx.

y area required
y = f (x)

a b x
Figure 8

Key Point 4
Z b
The area under the curve y = f (x), between x = a and x = b is given by f (x) dx
a
when the curve lies entirely above the x-axis between a and b.

Example 12
Calculate the area bounded y = x−1 and the x-axis, between x = 1 and x = 4.

Solution
Below is a graph of y = x−1 . The area required is shaded; it lies entirely above the x-axis.
y 1
y=
x area required
1

x
O 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 9

Z 4  4
1
area = dx = ln |x| = ln 4 − ln 1 = ln 4 = 1.386 (3 d.p.)
1 x 1

26 HELM (2008):
Workbook 13: Integration
 ®

Task
Find the area bounded by the curve y = sin x and the x-axis between x = 0 and
x = π. (The required area is shown in the figure. Note that it lies entirely above
the x-axis.)

y y =sinx

area required

O π x

Your solution

Answer
Z π  π
sin x dx = − cos x = 2.
0 0

Task
Find the area under f (x) = e2x from x = 1 to x = 3 given that the exponential
function e2x is always positive.

Your solution

Answer
Z 3  3
2x 1 2x
area = e dx = e = 198 to 3 significant figures.
1 2 1

HELM (2008): 27
Section 13.3: The Area Bounded by a Curve
 Example 13
The figure shows the graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 21 π. The two
graphs intersect at the point where x = 14 π. Find the shaded area.

y
y =cos x

area required y =sinx

π
2 x

Figure 10

Solution
To find the shaded area we could calculate the area under the graph of y = sin x for x between
0 and 14 π, and subtract this from the area under the graph of y = cos x between the same limits.
Alternatively the two processes can be combined into one and we can write
Z π/4
shaded area = (cos x − sin x)dx
0
 π/4
= sin x + cos x
0
1 1


= sin + cos 4
π− (sin 0 + cos 0)
4
π
1 1 2 √
= ( √ + √ ) − (0 + 1) = √ − 1 = 2 − 1
2 2 2

So the numeric value of the integral is √2

− 1 = 0.414 to 3 d.p.. (Alternatively you can use your
2
π π
calculator to obtain this result directly by evaluating sin and cos .)
4 4

Exercises
In each question you should check that the required area lies entirely above the horizontal axis.
1. Find the area under the curve y = 7x2 and above the x-axis between x = 2 and x = 5.
2. Find the area bounded by the curve y = x3 and the x-axis between x = 0 and x = 2.
3. Find the area bounded by the curve y = 3t2 and the t-axis between t = −3 and t = 3.
4. Find the area under y = x−2 between x = 1 and x = 10.
Answer
1. 273, 2. 4, 3. 54, 4. 0.9.

28 HELM (2008):
Workbook 13: Integration
 ®

3. The area bounded by a curve, not entirely above the x-axis

Figure 11 shows a graph of y = −x2 + 1.

y
y =−x2 +1

-2 -1 1 2 3 x

area required

Figure 11
The shaded area is bounded
R2 by the x-axis and the curve, but lies entirely below the x-axis. Let us
2
evaluate the integral 1 (−x + 1)dx.

Z 2  3 2
2 x
(−x + 1)dx = − + x
1 3
 3 1  3 
2 1
= − +2 − − +1
3 3
7 4
= − +1=−
3 3
The evaluation of the area yields a negative quantity. There is, of course, no such thing as a negative
area. The area is actually 43 , and the negative sign is an indication that the area lies below the x-axis.
(However, in applications of integration such as work/energy or distance travelled in a given direction
negative values can be meaningful.)
If an area contains parts both above and below the horizontal axis, care must be taken when calcu-
lating this area. It is necessary to determine which parts of the graph lie above the horizontal axis
and which lie below. Separate integrals need to be calculated for each ‘piece’ of the graph. This idea
is illustrated in the next Example.

HELM (2008): 29
Section 13.3: The Area Bounded by a Curve
 Example 14
Find the total area enclosed by the curve y = x3 −5x2 +4x and the x-axis between
x = 0 and x = 3.

Solution
We need to determine which parts of the graph lie above and which lie below the x-axis. To do this
it is helpful to consider where the graph cuts the x-axis. So we consider the function x3 − 5x2 + 4x
and look for its zeros
x3 − 5x2 + 4x = x(x2 − 5x + 4) = x(x − 1)(x − 4)
So the graph cuts the x-axis when x = 0, x = 1 and x = 4. Also, when x is large and positive,
y is large and positive since the term involving x3 dominates. When x is large and negative, y is
large and negative for the same reason. With this information we can sketch a graph showing the
required area:

1 2 3 4 x

y =x3 −5x2 +4x

area required

Figure 12
From the graph we see that the required area lies partly above the x-axis (when 0 ≤ x ≤ 1) and
partly below (when 1 ≤ x ≤ 3). So we evaluate the integral in two parts: Firstly:
Z 1  4 1 
5x3 4x2

3 2 x 1 5 7
(x − 5x + 4x)dx = − + = − + 2 − (0) =
0 4 3 2 0 4 3 12
This is the part of the required area which lies above the x-axis. Secondly:
3 3
x4 5x3 4x2
Z 
3 2
(x − 5x + 4x)dx = − +
1 4 3 2 1
   
81 135 1 5 22
= − + 18 − − +2 =−
4 3 4 3 3

This represents the part of the required area which lies below the x-axis. The actual area is 22
3
.
Combining the results of the two separate calculations we can find the total area bounded by the
curve:
7 22 95
area = + =
12 3 12

30 HELM (2008):
Workbook 13: Integration
 ®

Task
(a) Sketch the graph of y = sin 2x for 0 ≤ x ≤ π.
(b) Find the total area bounded by the curve and the x-axis between x = 13 π
and x = 43 π.

(a) Sketch the graph and indicate the required area noting where the graph crosses the x-axis:

Your solution

Answer
y

π 3π
2 4 x
π π
3
y =sin 2x

(b) Perform the integration in two parts to obtain the required area:

Your solution

Answer
Z π/2 Z 3π/4
1 1
sin 2x dx = and sin 2xdx = − .
π/3 4 π/2 2
1 1 3
The required area is + = .
4 2 4

HELM (2008): 31
Section 13.3: The Area Bounded by a Curve
 Exercises
1. Find the total area enclosed between the x-axis and the curve y = x3 between x = −1 and
x = 1.

2. Find the area under y = cos 2t from t = 0 to t = 0.5.

3. Find the area enclosed by y = 4 − x2 and the x axis

(a) from x = 0 to x = 2, (b) from x = −2 to x = 1, (c) from x = 1 to x = 3.

4. Calculate the area enclosed by the curve y = x3 and the line y = x.

5. Find the area bounded by y = ex , the y-axis and the line x = 2.

6. Find the area enclosed between y = x(x − 1)(x − 2) and the x axis.
Answers
16 1
1. 0.5 2. 0.4207 3. (a) 3
, (b) 9, (c) 4 4. 0.5 5. e2 − 1 6. 2

32 HELM (2008):
Workbook 13: Integration
 ®

 

Integration by Parts 13.4

 

Introduction
Integration by Parts is a technique for integrating products of functions. In this Section you will learn
to recognise when it is appropriate to use the technique and have the opportunity to practise using
it for finding both definite and indefinite integrals.

' $
• understand what is meant by definite and
indefinite integrals
Prerequisites • be able to use a table of integrals
Before starting this Section you should . . .
• be able to differentiate and integrate a range
of common functions
& %
' $
• decide when it is appropriate to use the
method known as integration by parts

Learning Outcomes • apply the formula for integration by parts to

definite and indefinite integrals
On completion you should be able to . . .
• perform integration by parts repeatedly if
appropriate
& %

HELM (2008): 33
Section 13.4: Integration by Parts
1. Indefinite integration
The technique known as integration by parts is used to integrate a product of two functions, such
as in these two examples:
Z Z 1
(i) 2x
e sin 3x dx (ii) x3 e−2x dx
0

Note that in the first example, the integrand is the product of the functions e2x and sin 3x, and in
the second example the integrand is the product of the functions x3 and e−2x . Note also that we
can change the order of the terms in the product if we wish and write
Z Z 1
(i) 2x
(sin 3x) e dx (ii) e−2x x3 dx
0

What you must never do is integrate each term in the product separately and then multiply - the
integral of a product is not the product of the separate integrals. However, it is often possible to
find integrals involving products using the method of integration by parts - you can think of this as
a product rule for integrals.
The integration by parts formula states:

Key Point 5
Integration by Parts for Indefinite Integrals
For indefinite integrals, given functions f (x) and g(x):
Z Z Z  Z 
df
f · g dx = f · g dx − · gdx dx
dx

Alternatively, given functions u and v:

Z Z
dv du
u dx = u.v − v dx
dx dx

Study the formula carefully and note the following observations. Firstly, to apply the formula we must
df
be able to differentiate the function f to find , and we must be able to integrate the function, g.
dx
Secondly the formula replaces one integral, the one on the left, with a different integral, that on the
far right. The intention is that the latter, whilst it may look more complicated in the formula above,
is simpler to evaluate. Consider the following Example:

34 HELM (2008):
Workbook 13: Integration
 ®

Example 15 R
Find the integral of the product of x with sin x; that is, find x sin x dx.

Solution
Compare the required integral with the formula for integration by parts: we choose
f =x and g = sin x
It follows that
Z Z
df
=1 and g dx = sin x dx = − cos x
dx
(When integrating g there is no need to worry about a constant of integration. When you become
confident with the method, you may like to think about why this is the case.)
Applying the formula we obtain
Z Z Z  Z 
df
x sin x dx = f · g dx − · gdx dx
dx
Z
= x(− cos x) − 1(− cos x) dx
Z
= −x cos x + cos x dx = −x cos x + sin x + c

Task Z
Find (5x + 1) cos 2x dx.

Z
df
Let f = 5x + 1 and g = cos 2x. Now calculate and g dx:
dx

Your solution

Answer Z
df 1
= 5 and cos 2x dx = sin 2x.
dx 2
Substitute these results into the formula for integration by parts and complete the Task:

Your solution

HELM (2008): 35
Section 13.4: Integration by Parts
 Answer Z
1 1 1 5
(5x + 1)( sin 2x) − 5( sin 2x)dx = (5x + 1) sin 2x + cos 2x + c
2 2 2 4

Sometimes it is necessary to apply the formula more than once, as the next Example shows.

Example
Z 16
Find 2x2 e−x dx

Solution
Z
df
2
We let f = 2x and g = e . Then −x
= 4x and gdx = −e−x
dx
Using the formula for integration by parts we find
Z Z Z
2x e dx = 2x (−e ) − 4x(−e )dx = −2x e + 4xe−x dx
2 −x 2 −x −x 2 −x

We now need to find 4xe−x dx using integration by parts again. We get

R

Z Z
4xe dx = 4x(−e ) − 4(−e−x )dx
−x −x

Z
= −4xe + 4e−x dx = −4xe−x − 4e−x
−x

Altogether we have
Z
2x2 e−x dx = −2x2 e−x − 4xe−x − 4e−x + c = −2e−x (x2 + 2x + 2) + c

Exercises
In some questions
Z below it will be necessary
Z to apply integration
Z by parts more than once.
3t
1. Find (a) x sin(2x)dx, (b) te dt, (c) x cos x dx.
Z
2. Find (x + 3) sin x dx.
Z
3. By writing ln x as 1 × ln x find ln x dx.
Z Z Z
−1
4. Find (a) tan x dx, (b) −7x cos 3x dx, (c) 5x2 e3x dx,
Z Z
5. Find (a) x cos kx dx, where k is a constant (b) z 2 cos kz dz, where k is a constant.
Z Z
−st
6. Find (a) te dt where s is a constant, (b) Find t2 e−st dt where s is a constant.

36 HELM (2008):
Workbook 13: Integration
 ®

Answers
1 1 1 1
1. (a) sin 2x − x cos 2x + c, (b) e3t ( t − ) + c, (c) cos x + x sin x + c
4 2 3 9
2. −(x + 3) cos x + sin x + c.
3. x ln x − x + c.
1 7 7 5
4. (a) x tan−1 x − ln(x2 + 1) + c, (b) − cos 3x − x sin 3x + c, (c) e3x (9x2 − 6x + 2) + c,
2 9 3 27
cos kx x sin kx 2z cos kz z 2 sin kz 2 sin kz
5. (a) + + c, (b) + − + c.
k2 k k2 k k3
−e−st (st + 1) −e−st (s2 t2 + 2st + 2)
6. (a) + c, (b) + c.
s2 s3

2. Definite integration
When dealing with definite integrals the relevant formula is as follows:

Key Point 6
Integration by Parts for Definite Integrals
For definite integrals, given functions f (x) and g(x):
Z b  Z b Z b  Z 
df
f · g dx = f · g dx − · gdx dx
a a a dx
Z b  b Z b
dv du
Alternatively, given functions u and v: u dx = uv − v dx
a dx a a dx

Example 17
Z 2
Find xex dx.
0

Solution
Z
df
We let f = x and g = e . Then = 1 and g dx = ex . Using integration by parts we obtain
x
dx
Z 2  2 Z 2  2
x x
xe dx = xe − 1.e dx = 2e − ex = 2e2 −[e2 −1] = e2 +1
x 2
(or 8.389 to 3 d.p.)
0 0 0 0

Sometimes it is necessary to apply the formula more than once as the next Example shows.

HELM (2008): 37
Section 13.4: Integration by Parts
 Example 18 Z 2
2 x
Find the definite integral of x e from 0 to 2; that is, find x2 ex dx.
0

Solution
Z
df
2
We let f = x and g = e . Then x
= 2x and g dx = ex . Using integration by parts:
dx
Z 2  2 Z 2 Z 2
2 x 2 x x 2
x e dx = x e − 2xe dx = 4e − 2 xex dx
0 0 0 0

The remainingZ integral must be integrated by parts also but we have just done this in the example
2
above. So x2 ex dx = 4e2 − 2[e2 + 1] = 2e2 − 2 = 12.778 (3 d.p.)
0

Task Z π/4
Find (4 − 3x) sin x dx.
0

What are your choices for f, g?

Your solution

Answer
Take f = 4 − 3x and g = sin x.
Now complete the integral:

Your solution
Z π/4
(4 − 3x) sin x dx =
0

Answer
Z π/4  π/4 Z π/4
(4 − 3x) sin x dx = (4 − 3x)(− cos x) −3 cos x dx
0 0 0
 π/4  π/4
= (4 − 3x)(− cos x) −3 sin x
0 0
= 0.716 to 3 d.p.

38 HELM (2008):
Workbook 13: Integration
 ®

Exercises
Z 1 Z π/2 Z 1
1. Evaluate the following: (a) x cos 2x dx, (b) x sin 2x dx, (c) te2t dt
Z 2 0 0 −1

2. Find (x + 2) sin x dx
1
Z 1
3. Find (x2 − 3x + 1)ex dx
0

Answers
1. (a) 0.1006, (b) π/4 = 0.7854, (c) 1.9488.
2. 3.3533.
3. −0.5634.

HELM (2008): 39
Section 13.4: Integration by Parts
Integration by
Substitution and Using  

Partial Fractions 13.5

 

Introduction
The first technique described here involves making a substitution to simplify an integral. We let
a new variable equal a complicated part of the function we are trying to integrate. Choosing the
correct substitution often requires experience. This skill develops with practice.
Often the technique of partial fractions can be used to write an algebraic fraction as the sum of simpler
fractions. On occasions this means that we can then integrate a complicated algebraic fraction. We
shall explore this approach in the second half of the section.

' $
• be able to find a number of simple definite
and indefinite integrals

Prerequisites • be able to use a table of integrals

Before starting this Section you should . . . • be familiar with the technique of expressing
an algebraic fraction as the sum of its partial
fractions
&
' %
$
• make simple substitutions in order to find
definite and indefinite integrals

• understand the technique

Z 0used for evaluating
Learning Outcomes f (x)
integrals of the form dx
On completion you should be able to . . . f (x)
• use partial fractions to express an algebraic
fraction in a simpler form and integrate it
& %

40 HELM (2008):
Workbook 13: Integration
 ®

1. Making a substitution
The technique described here involves making a substitution in order to simplify an integral. We let
a new variable, u say, equal a more complicated part of the function we are trying to integrate. The
choice of which substitution to make often relies upon experience: don’t worry if at first you cannot
see an appropriate substitution. This skill develops with practice. However, it is not simply a matter
of changing the variable - care must be taken with the differential form dx as we shall see. The
technique is illustrated in the following Example.

Example 19
Z
Find (3x + 5)6 dx.

Solution
First look at the function we are trying to integrate: (3x + 5)6 . It looks quite complicated to
integrate. Suppose we introduce a new variable, u, such that u = 3x + 5. Doing this means that
the function we must integrate becomes u6 . Would you not agree that this looks a much simpler
function to integrate than (3x + 5)6 ? There is a slight complication however. The new function of
u must be integrated with respect to u and not with respect to x. This means that we must take
care of the term dx correctly.
du dx 1
Long Method u = 3x + 5 so = 3, or =
dx du 3

Z Z
6
Let I= (3x + 5) dx = u6 dx (substituting for 3x + 5)
Z
dx
= u6 du (to change from x to u)
du
Z
1 dx
= u6 . du (substituting for )
3 du
u7
Z
1
= u6 dx = + constant
3 21
du 1
Short Method u = 3x + 5 so = 3, so dx = du
dx 3
u7
Z Z Z Z
1 1
Let I = (3x + 5)6 dx = u6 dx = u6 . . du = u6 du = + constant
3 3 21
To finish off we must rewrite this answer in terms of the original variable x and replace u by 3x + 5:
(3x + 5)7
Z
(3x + 5)6 dx = +c
21

HELM (2008): 41
Section 13.5: Integration by Substitution and Using Partial Fractions
In practice the short method is generally used but mathematicians don’t like to separate the ‘dx’
1
from the ‘du’ as in the statement ‘dx = du’ as it is meaningless mathematically (but it works!). In
3
the future we will use the short method, with apologies to the mathematicians!

Task Z
By making the substitution u = sin x find cos x sin2 x dx

du
You are given the substitution u = sin x. Find :
dx
Your solution

Answer
du
= cos x
dx

Now make the substitution, simplify the result, and finally perform the integration:

Your solution

Answer
Z Z
1
cos x sin x dx simplifies to u2 du. The final answer is sin3 x + c.
2
3

Exercise
Use suitable substitutions to find
Z Z
(a) (4x + 1) dx (b) t2 sin(t3 + 1)dt
7
(Hint: you need to simplify sin(t3 + 1))

Answer
(4x + 1)8 cos(t3 + 1)
(a) +c (b) − +c
32 3

42 HELM (2008):
Workbook 13: Integration
 ®

2. Substitution and definite integration

If you are dealing with definite integrals (ones with limits of integration) you must be particularly
careful when you substitute. Consider the following example.

Example 20 Z 3
Find the definite integral t sin(t2 )dt by making the substitution u = t2 .
2

Solution
du du
Note that if u = t2 then = 2t so that dt = . We find
dt 2t
Z t=3 Z t=3
1 t=3
Z
2 du
t sin(t )dt = t sin u = sin u du
t=2 t=2 2t 2 t=2
An important point to note is that the limits of integration are limits on the variable t, not u. To
emphasise this they have been written explicitly as t = 2 and t = 3. When we integrate with respect
to the variable u, the limits must be written in terms of u. From the substitution u = t2 , note that
when t = 2 then u = 4 and when t = 3 then u = 9 so the integral becomes
9
1 u=9
Z 
1 1
sin u du = − cos u = (− cos 9 + cos 4) = 0.129 to 3 d.p.
2 u=4 2 4 2

Exercise
Z 2 Z 1
7 3
Use suitable substitutions to find (a) (2x + 3) dx, (b) 3t2 et dt.
1 0

Answer
(a) u = 2x + 3 is suitable; 3.359 × 105 to 4 sig. figs. (b) 1.718 to 3 d.p.

HELM (2008): 43
Section 13.5: Integration by Substitution and Using Partial Fractions
3. Integrals giving rise to logarithms

Example 21
3x2 + 1
Z
Find dx
x3 + x + 2

Solution
Let us consider what happens when we make the substitution z = x3 + x + 2. Note that
dz
= 3x2 + 1 so that we can write dz = (3x2 + 1)dx
dx
Then
3x2 + 1
Z Z
1
3
dx = dz = ln |z| + c = ln |x3 + x + 2|
x +x+2 z

Note that in the last Example, the numerator of the integrand (3x2 + 1) is the derivative of the
denominator (x3 + x + 2). The result is the logarithm of the denominator. This is a special case of
the following rule:

Key Point 7
f 0 (x)
Z
dx = ln |f (x)| + c
f (x)
Note that it is the modulus of f (x) in the answer.

Task
Write
Z down, purely by inspection,
Z the following Z
integrals:
1 2x 1
(a) dx, (b) 2
dx, (c) dx.
x+1 x +8 x−3

Hint: In each case the numerator of the integrand is the derivative of the denominator.

Your solution

(a) (b) (c)

Answer
(a) ln |x + 1| + c, (b) ln |x2 + 8| + c, (c) ln |x − 3| + c

44 HELM (2008):
Workbook 13: Integration
 ®

Task 4
3t2 + 2t
Z
Evaluate the definite integral dt.
2 t3 + t2 + 1

Your solution

Answer
 4
3 2
ln |t + t + 1| = ln 81 − ln 13 = 1.83
2

Sometimes it is necessary to make slight adjustments to the integrand to obtain a form for which
the rule in Key Point 7 is suitable. Consider the next Example.

Example 22
x2
Z
Find the indefinite integral dx.
x3 + 1

Solution
In this Example the derivative of the denominator is 3x2 whereas the numerator is just x2 . We
adjust the numerator as follows:
x2 3x2
Z Z
1
dx = dx and integrate by the rule to get 13 ln |x3 + 1| + c
x3 + 1 3 x3 + 1

Note that the sort of procedure in the last Example is only possible because we can move constant
factors through the integral sign. It would be wrong to try to move terms involving the variable x
in a similar way.

Exercise

Write
Z down the result
Z of finding the following
Z integrals. Z
1 2t 1 2
(a) dx, (b) 2
dt, (c) dx, (d) dx.
x t +1 2x + 5 3x − 2
Answer
1 2
(a) ln |x| + c, (b) ln |t2 + 1| + c, (c) 2
ln |2x + 5| + c, (d) 3
ln |3x − 2| + c.

HELM (2008): 45
Section 13.5: Integration by Substitution and Using Partial Fractions
4. Integration using partial fractions
Sometimes expressions which at first sight look impossible to integrate using the techniques already
met may in fact be integrated by first expressing them as simpler partial fractions, and then using
the techniques described earlier in this Section. Consider the following Task.

Task
23 − x
Express as the sum of its partial fractions.
(x − 5)(x + 4)
23 − x
Z
Hence find dx
(x − 5)(x + 4)

A B
First produce the partial fractions. Write the fraction in the form + and find A, B.
x−5 x+4
Your solution

Answer
A = 2, B = −3
Now integrate each term separately:

Your solution
23 − x
Z Z Z
A B
dx = dx + dx =
(x − 5)(x + 4) x−5 x+4

Answer
2 ln |x − 5| − 3 ln |x + 4| + c

46 HELM (2008):
Workbook 13: Integration
 ®

Exercises
By expressing the following in partial fractions, evaluate each integral:
Z
1
1. 3
dx
x +x
13x − 4
Z
2. dx
6x2 − x − 2
Z
1
3. dx
(x + 1)(x − 5)
Z
2x
4. dx
(x − 1)2 (x + 1)

Answers
1
1. ln |x| − ln |x2 + 1| + c
2
3 2
2. ln |2x + 1| + ln |3x − 2| + c
2 3
1 1
3. ln |x − 5| − ln |x + 1| + c
6 6
1 1 1
4. − ln |x + 1| + ln |x − 1| − +c
2 2 x−1

HELM (2008): 47
Section 13.5: Integration by Substitution and Using Partial Fractions
Integration of
Trigonometric  

Functions 13.6
 

Introduction
Integrals involving trigonometric functions are commonplace in engineering mathematics. This is
especially true when modelling waves and alternating current circuits. When the root-mean-square
(rms) value of a waveform, or signal is to be calculated, you will often find this results in an integral
of the form
Z
sin2 t dt

In this Section you will learn how such integrals can be evaluated.

' $
• be able to find a number of simple definite
and indefinite integrals
Prerequisites • be able to use a table of integrals
Before starting this Section you should . . .
• be familiar with standard trigonometric
identities
&
 %

• use trigonometric identities to write
Learning Outcomes integrands in alternative forms to enable
On completion you should be able to . . . them to be integrated
 

48 HELM (2008):
Workbook 13: Integration
 ®

1. Integration of trigonometric functions

Simple integrals involving trigonometric functions have already been dealt with in Section 13.1. See
what you can remember:

Task
Write
Z down the following
Z integrals: Z Z
(a) sin x dx, (b) cos x dx, (c) sin 2x dx, (d) cos 2x dx

Your solution
(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Answer
1 1
(a) − cos x + c, (b) sin x + c, (c) − cos 2x + c, (d) sin 2x + c.
2 2

The basic rules from which these results can be derived are summarised here:

Key Point 8
Z Z
cos kx sin kx
sin kx dx = − +c cos kx dx = +c
k k

In engineering applications it is often necessary to integrate functions involving powers of the trigono-
metric functions such as
Z Z
2
sin x dx or cos2 ωt dt

Note that these integrals cannot be obtained directly from the formulas in Key Point 8 above.
However, by making use of trigonometric identities, the integrands can be re-written in an alternative
form. It is often not clear which identities are useful and each case needs to be considered individually.
Experience and practice are essential. Work through the following Task.

HELM (2008): 49
Section 13.6: Integration of Trigonometric Functions
 Task
1
Use the trigonometric identity sin2 θ ≡ (1 − cos 2θ) to express the integral
Z 2
2
sin x dx in an alternative form and hence evaluate it.

(a) First use the identity:

Your
Z solutionZ
2
sin x dx =

Answer Z
1
The integral can be written (1 − cos 2x)dx.
2
Note that the trigonometric identity is used to convert a power of sin x into a function involving
cos 2x which can be integrated directly using Key Point 8.
(b) Now evaluate the integral:
Your solution

Answer
1
x − 12 sin 2x + c = 21 x − 14 sin 2x + K where K = c/2.


2

Task Z
Use the trigonometric identity sin 2x ≡ 2 sin x cos x to find sin x cos x dx

(a) First use the identity:

Your
Z solution Z
sin x cos x dx =

Answer
1
The integrand can be written as 2
sin 2x
(b) Now evaluate the integral:
Your solution

Answer
Z 2π Z 2π  2π
1 1 1 1 1 1
sin x cos x dx = sin 2x dx = − cos 2x + c = − cos 4π + cos 0 = − + = 0
0 0 2 4 0 4 4 4 4

This result is one example of what are called orthogonality relations.

50 HELM (2008):
Workbook 13: Integration