Knowledge extraction

Knowledge extraction is the creation of knowledge from structured (relational databases, XML) and unstructured (text, documents, images) sources. The
resulting knowledge needs to be in a machine-readable and machine-interpretable format and must represent knowledge in a manner that facilitates inferencing.
Although it is methodically similar to information extraction (NLP) and ETL (data warehouse), the main criterion is that the extraction result goes beyond the
creation of structured information or the transformation into a relational schema. It requires either the reuse of existing formal knowledge (reusing identifiers or
ontologies) or the generation of a schema based on the source data.

The RDB2RDF W3C group [1] is currently standardizing a language for extraction of resource description frameworks (RDF) from relational databases. Another
popular example for knowledge extraction is the transformation of Wikipedia into structured data and also the mapping to existing knowledge (see DBpedia and
Freebase).

Overview
After the standardization of knowledge representation languages such as RDF and OWL, much research has been conducted in the area, especially regarding
transforming relational databases into RDF, identity resolution, knowledge discovery and ontology learning. The general process uses traditional methods from
information extraction and extract, transform, and load (ETL), which transform the data from the sources into structured formats.

The following criteria can be used to categorize approaches in this topic (some of them only account for extraction from relational databases):[2]

Source Which data sources are covered: Text, Relational Databases, XML, CSV

Exposition How is the extracted knowledge made explicit (ontology file, semantic database)? How can you query it?

Is the knowledge extraction process executed once to produce a dump or is the result synchronized with the source? Static or dynamic. Are
Synchronization
changes to the result written back (bi-directional)
The tool is able to reuse existing vocabularies in the extraction. For example, the table column 'firstName' can be mapped to foaf:firstName.
Reuse of vocabularies
Some automatic approaches are not capable of mapping vocab.

Automatization The degree to which the extraction is assisted/automated. Manual, GUI, semi-automatic, automatic.

Requires a domain
A pre-existing ontology is needed to map to it. So either a mapping is created or a schema is learned from the source (ontology learning).
ontology

Examples

Entity linking
1. DBpedia Spotlight, OpenCalais, Dandelion dataTXT (http://dandelion.eu/datatxt/), the Zemanta API, Extractiv (http://www.extractiv.com/demo.
html) and PoolParty Extractor (http://poolparty.biz/products/poolparty-extractor/) analyze free text via named-entity recognition and then
disambiguates candidates via name resolution and links the found entities to the DBpedia knowledge repository[3] (Dandelion dataTXT demo
(https://dandelion.eu/products/datatxt/nex/demo/?exec=true#results) or DBpedia Spotlight web demo (http://spotlight.dbpedia.org/rest/annotat
e?text=President%20Obama%20called%20Wednesday%20on%20Congress%20to%20extend%20a%20tax%20break%20for%20students%
20included%20in%20last%20year%27s%20economic%20stimulus%20package,%20arguing%20that%20the%20policy%20provides%20mor
e%20generous%20assistance.&confidence=0.2&support=20) or PoolParty Extractor Demo (http://poolparty.biz/demozone/?url=http%3A%2
F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fw%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DKnowledge_extraction%26printable%3Dyes&domain=ssw)).

President Obama (http://dbpedia.org/resource/Barack_Obama) called Wednesday on Congress (http://dbpedia.org/resource/United_States_Congress)

to extend a tax break for students included in last year's economic stimulus package, arguing that the policy provides more generous assistance.

As President Obama is linked to a DBpedia LinkedData resource, further information can be retrieved automatically and a Semantic
Reasoner can for example infer that the mentioned entity is of the type Person (http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/Person) (using FOAF (software))
and of type Presidents of the United States (http://dbpedia.org/class/yago/PresidentsOfTheUnitedStates) (using YAGO). Counter examples:
Methods that only recognize entities or link to Wikipedia articles and other targets that do not provide further retrieval of structured data and
formal knowledge.

Relational databases to RDF

1. Triplify, D2R Server, Ultrawrap (https://capsenta.com/#section-ultrawrap), and Virtuoso RDF Views are tools that transform relational
databases to RDF. During this process they allow reusing existing vocabularies and ontologies during the conversion process. When
transforming a typical relational table named users, one column (e.g.name) or an aggregation of columns (e.g.first_name and last_name) has
to provide the URI of the created entity. Normally the primary key is used. Every other column can be extracted as a relation with this entity.[4]
Then properties with formally defined semantics are used (and reused) to interpret the information. For example, a column in a user table
called marriedTo can be defined as symmetrical relation and a column homepage can be converted to a property from the FOAF Vocabulary
called foaf:homepage (http://xmlns.com/foaf/spec/#term_homepage), thus qualifying it as an inverse functional property. Then each entry of
the user table can be made an instance of the class foaf:Person (http://xmlns.com/foaf/spec/#term_Person) (Ontology Population). Additionally
domain knowledge (in form of an ontology) could be created from the status_id, either by manually created rules (if status_id is 2, the entry
belongs to class Teacher ) or by (semi)-automated methods (ontology learning). Here is an example transformation:

Name marriedTo homepage status_id

Peter Mary http://example.org/Peters_page 1

Claus Eva http://example.org/Claus_page 2
 :Peter :marriedTo :Mary .
:marriedTo a owl:SymmetricProperty .
:Peter foaf:homepage <http://example.org/Peters_page> .
:Peter a foaf:Person .
:Peter a :Student .
:Claus a :Teacher .

Extraction from structured sources to RDF

1:1 Mapping from RDB Tables/Views to RDF Entities/Attributes/Values

When building a RDB representation of a problem domain, the starting point is frequently an entity-relationship diagram (ERD). Typically, each entity is
represented as a database table, each attribute of the entity becomes a column in that table, and relationships between entities are indicated by foreign keys. Each
table typically defines a particular class of entity, each column one of its attributes. Each row in the table describes an entity instance, uniquely identified by a
primary key. The table rows collectively describe an entity set. In an equivalent RDF representation of the same entity set:

Each column in the table is an attribute (i.e., predicate)

Each column value is an attribute value (i.e., object)
Each row key represents an entity ID (i.e., subject)
Each row represents an entity instance
Each row (entity instance) is represented in RDF by a collection of triples with a common subject (entity ID).

So, to render an equivalent view based on RDF semantics, the basic mapping algorithm would be as follows:

1. create an RDFS class for each table

2. convert all primary keys and foreign keys into IRIs
3. assign a predicate IRI to each column
4. assign an rdf:type predicate for each row, linking it to an RDFS class IRI corresponding to the table
5. for each column that is neither part of a primary or foreign key, construct a triple containing the primary key IRI as the subject, the column IRI
as the predicate and the column's value as the object.

Early mentioning of this basic or direct mapping can be found in Tim Berners-Lee's comparison of the ER model to the RDF model.[4]

Complex mappings of relational databases to RDF

The 1:1 mapping mentioned above exposes the legacy data as RDF in a straightforward way, additional refinements can be employed to improve the usefulness of
RDF output respective the given Use Cases. Normally, information is lost during the transformation of an entity-relationship diagram (ERD) to relational tables
(Details can be found in object-relational impedance mismatch) and has to be reverse engineered. From a conceptual view, approaches for extraction can come
from two directions. The first direction tries to extract or learn an OWL schema from the given database schema. Early approaches used a fixed amount of
manually created mapping rules to refine the 1:1 mapping.[5][6][7] More elaborate methods are employing heuristics or learning algorithms to induce schematic
information (methods overlap with ontology learning). While some approaches try to extract the information from the structure inherent in the SQL schema[8]
(analysing e.g. foreign keys), others analyse the content and the values in the tables to create conceptual hierarchies[9] (e.g. a columns with few values are
candidates for becoming categories). The second direction tries to map the schema and its contents to a pre-existing domain ontology (see also: ontology
alignment). Often, however, a suitable domain ontology does not exist and has to be created first.

XML
As XML is structured as a tree, any data can be easily represented in RDF, which is structured as a graph. XML2RDF (http://rhizomik.net/html/redefer/xml2rdf/) is
one example of an approach that uses RDF blank nodes and transforms XML elements and attributes to RDF properties. The topic however is more complex as in
the case of relational databases. In a relational table the primary key is an ideal candidate for becoming the subject of the extracted triples. An XML element,
however, can be transformed - depending on the context- as a subject, a predicate or object of a triple. XSLT can be used a standard transformation language to
manually convert XML to RDF.

Survey of methods / tools

Req.
Data Data Mapping Vocabulary Mapping Uses
Name Data Source Domain
Exposition Synchronisation Language Reuse Automat. GUI
Ontology

A Direct Mapping of Relational

Data to RDF (http://www.w3.or Relational Data SPARQL/ETL dynamic — false automatic false false
g/TR/rdb-direct-mapping/)

CSV2RDF4LOD (http://logd.tw.
CSV ETL static RDF true manual false false
rpi.edu/technology/csv2rdf4lod)
automatic (domain-
specific, for use
CoNLL-RDF (https://github.co SPARQL/ cases in language
TSV, CoNLL static none true false false
m/acoli-repo/conll-rdf) RDF stream technology,
preserves relations
between rows)

Convert2RDF (http://www.mind
swap.org/~mhgrove/ConvertTo Delimited text file ETL static RDF/DAML true manual false true
RDF/)

D2R Server (http://www4.wiwis

RDB SPARQL bi-directional D2R Map true manual false false
s.fu-berlin.de/bizer/d2r-server/)
DartGrid (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20090428013624/http://c own query
RDB dynamic Visual Tool true manual false true
cnt.zju.edu.cn/projects/dartgri language
d/)

DataMaster (http://protegewiki.
RDB ETL static proprietary true manual true true
stanford.edu/wiki/DataMaster)

Google Refine's RDF

Extension (https://web.archive.
org/web/20120621115715/htt CSV, XML ETL static none semi-automatic false true
p://lab.linkeddata.deri.ie/2010/g
refine-rdf-extension/)
Krextor (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20170718122006/https:// XML ETL static xslt true manual true false
kwarc.info/projects/krextor/)

MAPONTO (http://www.cs.toro
nto.edu/semanticweb/mapont RDB ETL static proprietary true manual true false
o/)
proprietary xml
METAmorphoses (https://meta
RDB ETL static based mapping true manual false true
morphoses.sourceforge.net/)
language

MappingMaster (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/2011072304215
CSV ETL static MappingMaster true GUI false true
5/http://protege.cim3.net/cgi-bi
n/wiki.pl?MappingMaster)

ODEMapster (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20160304121216/ht
RDB ETL static proprietary true manual true true
tp://neon-toolkit.org/wiki/ODEM
apster)
OntoWiki CSV Importer Plug-in
- DataCube & Tabular (https://
The RDF Data
web.archive.org/web/20110724 CSV ETL static true semi-automatic false true
Cube Vocaublary
231333/http://aksw.org/Project
s/Stats2RDF)

Poolparty Extraktor (PPX) (htt

p://poolparty.biz/products/poolp XML, Text LinkedData dynamic RDF (SKOS) true semi-automatic true false
arty-extractor/)

RDBToOnto (https://web.archiv
automatic, the user
e.org/web/20160816225339/htt
furthermore has the
p://tao-project.eu/researchandd RDB ETL static none false false true
chance to fine-tune
evelopment/demosanddownloa
results
ds/RDBToOnto.html)
RDF 123 (http://ebiquity.umbc.
CSV ETL static false false manual false true
edu/project/html/id/82/RDF123)

RDOTE (https://sourceforge.ne
RDB ETL static SQL true manual true true
t/projects/rdote/)

Relational.OWL (https://source
forge.net/projects/relational-ow RDB ETL static none false automatic false false
l/)
T2LD (http://ebiquity.umbc.ed
u/paper/html/id/480/T2LD-An-a
utomatic-framework-for-extracti CSV ETL static false false automatic false false
ng-interpreting-and-representin
g-tables-as-Linked-Data)
 The RDF Data Cube
Vocabulary (https://web.archiv
Multidimensional
e.org/web/20110630083409/htt Data Cube
statistical data in true manual false
p://publishing-statistical-data.g Vocabulary
spreadsheets
ooglecode.com/svn/trunk/spec
s/src/main/html/cube.html)
TopBraid Composer (https://we
b.archive.org/web/2011071707
4012/http://www.topquadrant.c CSV ETL static SKOS false semi-automatic false true
om/products/TB_Composer.ht
ml)

Triplify (http://triplify.org) RDB LinkedData dynamic SQL true manual false false

Ultrawrap (https://capsenta.co
RDB SPARQL/ETL dynamic R2RML true semi-automatic false true
m/#section-ultrawrap)
Virtuoso RDF Views (http://virt Meta Schema
RDB SPARQL dynamic true semi-automatic false true
uoso.openlinksw.com) Language

structured and
Virtuoso Sponger (http://virtuos Virtuoso PL &
semi-structured SPARQL dynamic true semi-automatic false false
o.openlinksw.com) XSLT
data sources

VisAVis (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20130514044520/http://
RDB RDQL dynamic SQL true manual true true
www.cn.ntua.gr/~nkons/essays
_en.html#t)
XLWrap: Spreadsheet to RDF
(https://xlwrap.sourceforge.ne CSV ETL static TriG Syntax true manual false false
t/)

XML to RDF (http://rhizomik.ne

XML ETL static false false automatic false false
t/html/redefer/#XML2RDF)

Extraction from natural language sources

The largest portion of information contained in business documents (about 80%[10]) is encoded in natural language and therefore unstructured. Because
unstructured data is rather a challenge for knowledge extraction, more sophisticated methods are required, which generally tend to supply worse results compared
to structured data. The potential for a massive acquisition of extracted knowledge, however, should compensate the increased complexity and decreased quality of
extraction. In the following, natural language sources are understood as sources of information, where the data is given in an unstructured fashion as plain text. If
the given text is additionally embedded in a markup document (e. g. HTML document), the mentioned systems normally remove the markup elements
automatically.

Linguistic annotation / natural language processing (NLP)

As a preprocessing step to knowledge extraction, it can be necessary to perform linguistic annotation by one or multiple NLP tools. Individual modules in an NLP
workflow normally build on tool-specific formats for input and output, but in the context of knowledge extraction, structured formats for representing linguistic
annotations have been applied.

Typical NLP tasks relevant to knowledge extraction include:

part-of-speech (POS) tagging

lemmatization (LEMMA) or stemming (STEM)
word sense disambiguation (WSD, related to semantic annotation below)
named entity recognition (NER, also see IE below)
syntactic parsing, often adopting syntactic dependencies (DEP)
shallow syntactic parsing (CHUNK): if performance is an issue, chunking yields a fast extraction of nominal and other phrases
anaphor resolution (see coreference resolution in IE below, but seen here as the task to create links between textual mentions rather than
between the mention of an entity and an abstract representation of the entity)
semantic role labelling (SRL, related to relation extraction; not to be confused with semantic annotation as described below)
discourse parsing (relations between different sentences, rarely used in real-world applications)

In NLP, such data is typically represented in TSV formats (CSV formats with TAB as separators), often referred to as CoNLL formats. For knowledge extraction
workflows, RDF views on such data have been created in accordance with the following community standards:

NLP Interchange Format (NIF, for many frequent types of annotation)[11][12]

Web Annotation (WA, often used for entity linking)[13]
CoNLL-RDF (for annotations originally represented in TSV formats)[14][15]

Other, platform-specific formats include

LAPPS Interchange Format (LIF, used in the LAPPS Grid)[16][17]

NLP Annotation Format (NAF, used in the NewsReader workflow management system)[18][19]

Traditional information extraction (IE)

Traditional information extraction[20] is a technology of natural language processing, which extracts information from typically natural language texts and
structures these in a suitable manner. The kinds of information to be identified must be specified in a model before beginning the process, which is why the whole
process of traditional Information Extraction is domain dependent. The IE is split in the following five subtasks.
 Named entity recognition (NER)
Coreference resolution (CO)
Template element construction (TE)
Template relation construction (TR)
Template scenario production (ST)

The task of named entity recognition is to recognize and to categorize all named entities contained in a text (assignment of a named entity to a predefined
category). This works by application of grammar based methods or statistical models.

Coreference resolution identifies equivalent entities, which were recognized by NER, within a text. There are two relevant kinds of equivalence relationship. The
first one relates to the relationship between two different represented entities (e.g. IBM Europe and IBM) and the second one to the relationship between an entity
and their anaphoric references (e.g. it and IBM). Both kinds can be recognized by coreference resolution.

During template element construction the IE system identifies descriptive properties of entities, recognized by NER and CO. These properties correspond to
ordinary qualities like red or big.

Template relation construction identifies relations, which exist between the template elements. These relations can be of several kinds, such as works-for or
located-in, with the restriction, that both domain and range correspond to entities.

In the template scenario production events, which are described in the text, will be identified and structured with respect to the entities, recognized by NER and
CO and relations, identified by TR.

Ontology-based information extraction (OBIE)

Ontology-based information extraction [10] is a subfield of information extraction, with which at least one ontology is used to guide the process of information
extraction from natural language text. The OBIE system uses methods of traditional information extraction to identify concepts, instances and relations of the used
ontologies in the text, which will be structured to an ontology after the process. Thus, the input ontologies constitute the model of information to be extracted.[21]

Ontology learning (OL)

Ontology learning is the automatic or semi-automatic creation of ontologies, including extracting the corresponding domain's terms from natural language text. As
building ontologies manually is extremely labor-intensive and time consuming, there is great motivation to automate the process.

Semantic annotation (SA)

During semantic annotation,[22] natural language text is augmented with metadata (often represented in RDFa), which should make the semantics of contained
terms machine-understandable. At this process, which is generally semi-automatic, knowledge is extracted in the sense, that a link between lexical terms and for
example concepts from ontologies is established. Thus, knowledge is gained, which meaning of a term in the processed context was intended and therefore the
meaning of the text is grounded in machine-readable data with the ability to draw inferences. Semantic annotation is typically split into the following two subtasks.

1. Terminology extraction
2. Entity linking

At the terminology extraction level, lexical terms from the text are extracted. For this purpose a tokenizer determines at first the word boundaries and solves
abbreviations. Afterwards terms from the text, which correspond to a concept, are extracted with the help of a domain-specific lexicon to link these at entity
linking.

In entity linking [23] a link between the extracted lexical terms from the source text and the concepts from an ontology or knowledge base such as DBpedia is
established. For this, candidate-concepts are detected appropriately to the several meanings of a term with the help of a lexicon. Finally, the context of the terms is
analyzed to determine the most appropriate disambiguation and to assign the term to the correct concept.

Note that "semantic annotation" in the context of knowledge extraction is not to be confused with semantic parsing as understood in natural language processing
(also referred to as "semantic annotation"): Semantic parsing aims a complete, machine-readable representation of natural language, whereas semantic annotation
in the sense of knowledge extraction tackles only a very elementary aspect of that.

Tools

The following criteria can be used to categorize tools, which extract knowledge from natural language text.
Source Which input formats can be processed by the tool (e.g. plain text, HTML or PDF)?

Access Paradigm Can the tool query the data source or requires a whole dump for the extraction process?

Data Synchronization Is the result of the extraction process synchronized with the source?
Uses Output Ontology Does the tool link the result with an ontology?

Mapping Automation How automated is the extraction process (manual, semi-automatic or automatic)?

Requires Ontology Does the tool need an ontology for the extraction?
Uses GUI Does the tool offer a graphical user interface?

Approach Which approach (IE, OBIE, OL or SA) is used by the tool?

Extracted Entities Which types of entities (e.g. named entities, concepts or relationships) can be extracted by the tool?
Applied Techniques Which techniques are applied (e.g. NLP, statistical methods, clustering or machine learning)?

Output Model Which model is used to represent the result of the tool (e. g. RDF or OWL)?
 Supported Domains Which domains are supported (e.g. economy or biology)?
Supported Languages Which languages can be processed (e.g. English or German)?

The following table characterizes some tools for Knowledge Extraction from natural language sources.
 Uses
Access Data Mapping Requires Uses Extracted Applied Output S
Name Source Output Approach
Paradigm Synchronization Automation Ontology GUI Entities Techniques Model
Ontology

plain text, named

[1] (http://www.roc
HTML, entities, linguistic d
ketsoftware.com) dump no yes automatic yes yes IE proprietary
[24] XML, relationships, rules in
SGML events

AlchemyAPI (http
s://web.archive.or
g/web/201605131 plain text,
automatic yes SA
14853/http://www. HTML
alchemyapi.com/
api) [25]

ANNIE (http://gat
e.ac.uk/sale/tao/s finite state
plain text dump yes yes IE
plitch6.html#cha algorithms
p:annie) [26]

ASIUM (http://ww
w-ai.ijs.si/~ilpnet concepts,
semi- NLP,
2/systems/asium. plain text dump yes OL concept
automatic clustering
hierarchy
html) [27]

Attensity
Exhaustive
Extraction (http
s://web.archive.or
g/web/201207112 named
32021/http://www. entities,
automatic IE NLP
attensity.com/pro relationships,
ducts/technology/ events
semantic-server/e
xhaustive-extracti
on/) [28]

Dandelion API (htt plain text, named

statistical d
ps://dandelion.e HTML, REST no no automatic no yes SA entities, JSON
methods in
u/) URL concepts

DBpedia Spotlight
annotation to NLP,
(https://web.archi
each word, statistical
ve.org/web/20120 plain text, dump, d
yes yes automatic no yes SA annotation to methods, RDFa
712015122/http:// HTML SPARQL in
non- machine
dbpedia.org/spotli
stopwords learning
ght) [29]

annotation to
EntityClassifier.eu each word,
plain text, IE, OL, rule-based d
(http://entityclassi dump yes yes automatic no yes annotation to XML
HTML SA grammar in
fier.eu) non-
stopwords
(multi-)word
NIF or
EarMark
annotation,
predicates,
instances,
compositional
IE, OL, semantics,
SA, concept NLP,
FRED (http://wit.i ontology taxonomies, machine
stc.cnr.it/stlab-too dump, d
plain text yes yes automatic no yes design frames, learning, RDF/OWL
REST API in
ls/fred/) [30] patterns, semantic heuristic
frame roles, rules
semantics periphrastic
relations,
events,
modality,
tense, entity
linking, event
linking,
sentiment

iDocument (http:// instances,

idocument.opendf HTML, p
SPARQL yes yes OBIE property NLP
PDF, DOC b
ki.de) [31] values

plain text,
XML,
NetOwl Extractor HTML, named
JSON,
(http://www.netow XML, entities, m
dump No Yes Automatic yes Yes IE NLP RDF-
SGML, relationships, d
l.com/) [32] OWL,
PDF, MS events
others
Office

OntoGen (http://o semi- yes OL concepts, NLP,

ntogen.ijs.si) [33] automatic concept machine
hierarchy, learning,
non- clustering
taxonomic
 relations,
instances

OntoLearn (http:// concepts,

NLP,
wwwusers.di.uniro plain text, concept d
dump no yes automatic yes no OL statistical proprietary
ma1.it/~velardi/C HTML hierarchy, in
methods
L.pdf) [34] instances

OntoLearn
Reloaded (http://w
concepts,
wwusers.di.uniro NLP,
plain text, concept d
ma1.it/~navigli/pu dump no yes automatic yes no OL statistical proprietary
HTML hierarchy, in
bs/IJCAI_2011_N methods
instances
avigli_Velardi_Far
alli.pdf)
OntoSyphon (htt
p://turing.cs.wash dump,
concepts, NLP,
ington.edu/paper HTML, search d
no yes automatic yes no OBIE relations, statistical RDF
s/iswc2006McDo PDF, DOC engine in
instances methods
queries
well-final.pdf) [35]

ontoX (http://ieg.if instances,

heuristic-
s.tuwien.ac.at/pro semi- datatype d
plain text dump no yes yes no OBIE based proprietary
automatic property in
jects/ontox) [36] methods
values
annotation to
entities,
OpenCalais (htt plain text, NLP,
annotation to d
p://www.opencalai HTML, dump no yes automatic yes no SA machine RDF
events, in
s.com/) XML learning
annotation to
facts

named
PoolParty entities,
NLP,
Extractor (http://w plain text, concepts,
machine
ww.semantic-web. HTML, relations, RDF, d
dump no yes automatic yes yes OBIE learning,
at/de/poolparty-ex DOC, concepts that OWL in
statistical
ODT categorize
tractor) [37] the text,
methods
enrichments
named entity
extraction,
entity
resolution,
plain text, relationship
HTML, extraction, XML,
NLP,
Rosoka (http://ww XML, attributes, JSON, m
dump Yes Yes Automatic no Yes IE machine
w.rosoka.com/) SGML, concepts, POJO, d
learning
PDF, MS multi-vector RDF
Office sentiment
analysis,
geotagging,
language
identification

SCOOBIE (http instances,

NLP,
s://github.com/be plain text, property RDF, d
dump no yes automatic no no OBIE machine
njamin-adrian/sco HTML values, RDFa in
learning
obie) RDFS types

SemTag (http://w
ww2003.org/cdro
m/papers/referee machine database d
HTML dump no yes automatic yes no SA
d/p831/p831-dill.h learning record in
tml) [38][39]

smart FIX (http:// plain text,

www.insiders-tech HTML, NLP,
named d
nologies.de/produ PDF, dump yes no automatic no yes OBIE machine proprietary
entities in
kte/smart-produkt DOC, e- learning
e/smart-fix/) Mail

concepts,
NLP,
concept
Text2Onto (http statistical
hierarchy,
s://code.google.c plain text, methods,
semi- non- d
om/p/text2onto/) HTML, dump yes no yes yes OL machine OWL
automatic taxonomic in
[40] PDF learning,
relations,
rule-based
instances,
methods
axioms
concepts,
concept
hierarchy,
non-
taxonomic NLP,
Text-To-Onto (http plain text, relations, machine
s://texttoonto.sou HTML, semi- lexical learning,
dump yes yes OL
PDF, automatic entities clustering,
rceforge.net/) [41] PostScript referring to statistical
concepts, methods
lexical
entities
referring to
relations

ThatNeedle (htt Plain Text dump automatic no concepts, NLP, JSON m

p://www.thatneedl relations, proprietary d
hierarchy
 e.com/nlp-api.htm
l)

The Wiki Machine

(https://web.archi annotation to
ve.org/web/20120 plain text, proper nouns,
machine d
719171047/http://t HTML, dump no yes automatic yes yes SA annotation to RDFa
learning in
hewikimachine.fb PDF, DOC common
k.eu/html/index.ht nouns
ml) [42]

ThingFinder (http
s://web.archive.or
named
g/web/201206290
entities,
52702/http://inxig IE
relationships,
htfedsys.com/pro
events
ducts/sdks/tf/)
[43]

Knowledge discovery
Knowledge discovery describes the process of automatically searching large volumes of data for patterns that can be considered knowledge about the data.[44] It is
often described as deriving knowledge from the input data. Knowledge discovery developed out of the data mining domain, and is closely related to it both in
terms of methodology and terminology.[45]

The most well-known branch of data mining is knowledge discovery, also known as knowledge discovery in databases (KDD). Just as many other forms of
knowledge discovery it creates abstractions of the input data. The knowledge obtained through the process may become additional data that can be used for further
usage and discovery. Often the outcomes from knowledge discovery are not actionable, actionable knowledge discovery, also known as domain driven data
mining,[46] aims to discover and deliver actionable knowledge and insights.

Another promising application of knowledge discovery is in the area of software modernization, weakness discovery and compliance which involves
understanding existing software artifacts. This process is related to a concept of reverse engineering. Usually the knowledge obtained from existing software is
presented in the form of models to which specific queries can be made when necessary. An entity relationship is a frequent format of representing knowledge
obtained from existing software. Object Management Group (OMG) developed the specification Knowledge Discovery Metamodel (KDM) which defines an
ontology for the software assets and their relationships for the purpose of performing knowledge discovery in existing code. Knowledge discovery from existing
software systems, also known as software mining is closely related to data mining, since existing software artifacts contain enormous value for risk management
and business value, key for the evaluation and evolution of software systems. Instead of mining individual data sets, software mining focuses on metadata, such as
process flows (e.g. data flows, control flows, & call maps), architecture, database schemas, and business rules/terms/process.

Input data
Databases
Relational data
Database
Document warehouse
Data warehouse
Software
Source code
Configuration files
Build scripts
Text
Concept mining
Graphs
Molecule mining
Sequences
Data stream mining
Learning from time-varying data streams under concept drift
Web

Output formats
Data model
Metadata
Metamodels
Ontology
Knowledge representation
Knowledge tags
Business rule
Knowledge Discovery Metamodel (KDM)
Business Process Modeling Notation (BPMN)
Intermediate representation
Resource Description Framework (RDF)
 Software metrics

See also
Cluster analysis
Data archaeology

Further reading
Chicco, D; Masseroli, M (2016). "Ontology-based prediction and prioritization of gene functional annotations" (https://doi.org/10.1109/TCBB.2
015.2459694). IEEE/ACM Transactions on Computational Biology and Bioinformatics. 13 (2): 248–260. doi:10.1109/TCBB.2015.2459694 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1109%2FTCBB.2015.2459694). PMID 27045825 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27045825). S2CID 2795344 (https://api.se
manticscholar.org/CorpusID:2795344).

References
1. RDB2RDF Working Group, Website: 12. Hellmann, Sebastian; Lehmann, Jens; Auer, Sören; Brümmer,
http://www.w3.org/2001/sw/rdb2rdf/, charter: Martin (2013). Alani, Harith; Kagal, Lalana; Fokoue, Achille; Groth,
http://www.w3.org/2009/08/rdb2rdf-charter, R2RML: RDB to RDF Paul; Biemann, Chris; Parreira, Josiane Xavier; Aroyo, Lora; Noy,
Mapping Language: http://www.w3.org/TR/r2rml/ Natasha; Welty, Chris (eds.). "Integrating NLP Using Linked Data"
2. LOD2 EU Deliverable 3.1.1 Knowledge Extraction from Structured (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-41338-4_7). The Semantic
Sources http://static.lod2.eu/Deliverables/deliverable-3.1.1.pdf Web – ISWC 2013. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Berlin,
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110827231506/http://static. Heidelberg: Springer. 7908: 98–113. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-41338-
lod2.eu/Deliverables/deliverable-3.1.1.pdf) 2011-08-27 at the 4_7 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-41338-4_7). ISBN 978-
Wayback Machine 3-642-41338-4.
3. "Life in the Linked Data Cloud" (https://web.archive.org/web/200911 13. Verspoor, Karin; Livingston, Kevin (July 2012). "Towards Adaptation
24182935/http://www.opencalais.com/node/9501). of Linguistic Annotations to Scholarly Annotation Formalisms on the
www.opencalais.com. Archived from the original (http://www.openca Semantic Web" (https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/W12-3610).
lais.com/node/9501) on 2009-11-24. Retrieved 2009-11-10. Proceedings of the Sixth Linguistic Annotation Workshop. Jeju,
"Wikipedia has a Linked Data twin called DBpedia. DBpedia has Republic of Korea: Association for Computational Linguistics: 75–
the same structured information as Wikipedia – but translated into a 84.
machine-readable format." 14. acoli-repo/conll-rdf (https://github.com/acoli-repo/conll-rdf), ACoLi,
4. Tim Berners-Lee (1998), "Relational Databases on the Semantic 2020-05-27, retrieved 2020-06-05
Web" (http://www.w3.org/DesignIssues/RDB-RDF.html). Retrieved: 15. Chiarcos, Christian; Fäth, Christian (2017). Gracia, Jorge; Bond,
February 20, 2011. Francis; McCrae, John P.; Buitelaar, Paul; Chiarcos, Christian;
5. Hu et al. (2007), "Discovering Simple Mappings Between Hellmann, Sebastian (eds.). "CoNLL-RDF: Linked Corpora Done in
Relational Database Schemas and Ontologies", In Proc. of 6th an NLP-Friendly Way" (https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/97
International Semantic Web Conference (ISWC 2007), 2nd Asian 8-3-319-59888-8_6). Language, Data, and Knowledge. Lecture
Semantic Web Conference (ASWC 2007), LNCS 4825, pages 225‐ Notes in Computer Science. Cham: Springer International
238, Busan, Korea, 11‐15 November 2007. Publishing. 10318: 74–88. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-59888-8_6 (http
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download? s://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-59888-8_6). ISBN 978-3-319-
doi=10.1.1.97.6934&rep=rep1&type=pdf 59888-8.
6. R. Ghawi and N. Cullot (2007), "Database-to-Ontology Mapping 16. Verhagen, Marc; Suderman, Keith; Wang, Di; Ide, Nancy; Shi,
Generation for Semantic Interoperability". In Third International Chunqi; Wright, Jonathan; Pustejovsky, James (2016). Murakami,
Workshop on Database Interoperability (InterDB 2007). Yohei; Lin, Donghui (eds.). "The LAPPS Interchange Format" (http
http://le2i.cnrs.fr/IMG/publications/InterDB07-Ghawi.pdf s://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-31468-6_3).
Worldwide Language Service Infrastructure. Lecture Notes in
7. Li et al. (2005) "A Semi-automatic Ontology Acquisition Method for
Computer Science. Cham: Springer International Publishing. 9442:
the Semantic Web", WAIM, volume 3739 of Lecture Notes in
33–47. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-31468-6_3 (https://doi.org/10.1007%
Computer Science, page 209-220. Springer.
2F978-3-319-31468-6_3). ISBN 978-3-319-31468-6.
doi:10.1007/11563952_19 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F11563952_1
9) 17. "The Language Application Grid | A web service platform for natural
8. Tirmizi et al. (2008), "Translating SQL Applications to the Semantic language processing development and research" (http://www.lapps
grid.org/). Retrieved 2020-06-05.
Web", Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Volume 5181/2008
(Database and Expert Systems Applications). 18. newsreader/NAF (https://github.com/newsreader/NAF),
NewsReader, 2020-05-25, retrieved 2020-06-05
http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download;jsessionid=15E8AB2A37BD06DAE59255A1AC3095F0?
doi=10.1.1.140.3169&rep=rep1&type=pdf 19. Vossen, Piek; Agerri, Rodrigo; Aldabe, Itziar; Cybulska, Agata; van
9. Farid Cerbah (2008). "Learning Highly Structured Semantic Erp, Marieke; Fokkens, Antske; Laparra, Egoitz; Minard, Anne-Lyse;
Repositories from Relational Databases", The Semantic Web: Palmero Aprosio, Alessio; Rigau, German; Rospocher, Marco
Research and Applications, volume 5021 of Lecture Notes in (2016-10-15). "NewsReader: Using knowledge resources in a
Computer Science, Springer, Berlin / Heidelberg http://www.tao- cross-lingual reading machine to generate more knowledge from
project.eu/resources/publications/cerbah-learning-highly-structured- massive streams of news" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.knosys.201
semantic-repositories-from-relational-databases.pdf Archived (http 6.07.013). Knowledge-Based Systems. 110: 60–85.
s://web.archive.org/web/20110720172603/http://www.tao-project.e doi:10.1016/j.knosys.2016.07.013 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.kno
u/resources/publications/cerbah-learning-highly-structured-semanti sys.2016.07.013). ISSN 0950-7051 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0
c-repositories-from-relational-databases.pdf) 2011-07-20 at the 950-7051).
Wayback Machine 20. Cunningham, Hamish (2005). "Information Extraction, Automatic",
10. Wimalasuriya, Daya C.; Dou, Dejing (2010). "Ontology-based Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 2, p. 665 - 677,
information extraction: An introduction and a survey of current http://gate.ac.uk/sale/ell2/ie/main.pdf (retrieved: 18.06.2012).
approaches", Journal of Information Science, 36(3), p. 306 - 323, 21. Chicco, D; Masseroli, M (2016). "Ontology-based prediction and
http://ix.cs.uoregon.edu/~dou/research/papers/jis09.pdf (retrieved: prioritization of gene functional annotations" (https://doi.org/10.110
18.06.2012). 9/TCBB.2015.2459694). IEEE/ACM Transactions on
11. "NLP Interchange Format (NIF) 2.0 - Overview and Documentation" Computational Biology and Bioinformatics. 13 (2): 248–260.
(https://persistence.uni-leipzig.org/nlp2rdf/). persistence.uni- doi:10.1109/TCBB.2015.2459694 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTCB
leipzig.org. Retrieved 2020-06-05. B.2015.2459694). PMID 27045825 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go
v/27045825). S2CID 2795344 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corp
usID:2795344).
22. Erdmann, M.; Maedche, Alexander; Schnurr, H.-P.; Staab, Steffen 36. Yildiz, Burcu; Miksch, Silvia (2007). "ontoX - A Method for Ontology-
(2000). "From Manual to Semi-automatic Semantic Annotation: Driven Information Extraction", Proceedings of the 2007
About Ontology-based Text Annotation Tools", Proceedings of the international conference on Computational science and its
COLING, http://www.ida.liu.se/ext/epa/cis/2001/002/paper.pdf applications, 3, p. 660 - 673, http://publik.tuwien.ac.at/files/pub-
(retrieved: 18.06.2012). inf_4769.pdf (retrieved: 18.06.2012).
23. Rao, Delip; McNamee, Paul; Dredze, Mark (2011). "Entity Linking: 37. semanticweb.org (2011). "PoolParty Extractor",
Finding Extracted Entities in a Knowledge Base", Multi-source, http://semanticweb.org/wiki/PoolParty_Extractor Archived (https://w
Multi-lingual Information Extraction and Summarization, eb.archive.org/web/20160304185625/http://semanticweb.org/wiki/P
http://www.cs.jhu.edu/~delip/entity-linking.pdf (retrieved: oolParty_Extractor) 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine (retrieved:
18.06.2012). 18.06.2012).
24. Rocket Software, Inc. (2012). "technology for extracting intelligence 38. Dill, Stephen; Eiron, Nadav; Gibson, David; Gruhl, Daniel; Guha,
from text", http://www.rocketsoftware.com/products/aerotext R.; Jhingran, Anant; Kanungo, Tapas; Rajagopalan, Sridhar;
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130621113445/http://www. Tomkins, Andrew; Tomlin, John A.; Zien, Jason Y. (2003). "SemTag
rocketsoftware.com/products/aerotext) 2013-06-21 at the Wayback and Seeker: Bootstraping the Semantic Web via Automated
Machine (retrieved: 18.06.2012). Semantic Annotation", Proceedings of the 12th international
25. Orchestr8 (2012): "AlchemyAPI Overview", conference on World Wide Web, p. 178 - 186,
http://www.alchemyapi.com/api Archived (https://web.archive.org/we http://www2003.org/cdrom/papers/refereed/p831/p831-dill.html
b/20160513114853/http://www.alchemyapi.com/api) 2016-05-13 at (retrieved: 18.06.2012).
the Wayback Machine (retrieved: 18.06.2012). 39. Uren, Victoria; Cimiano, Philipp; Iria, José; Handschuh, Siegfried;
26. The University of Sheffield (2011). "ANNIE: a Nearly-New Vargas-Vera, Maria; Motta, Enrico; Ciravegna, Fabio (2006).
Information Extraction System", "Semantic annotation for knowledge management: Requirements
http://gate.ac.uk/sale/tao/splitch6.html#chap:annie (retrieved: and a survey of the state of the art", Web Semantics: Science,
18.06.2012). Services and Agents on the World Wide Web, 4(1), p. 14 - 28,
http://staffwww.dcs.shef.ac.uk/people/J.Iria/iria_jws06.pdf,
27. ILP Network of Excellence. "ASIUM (LRI)", http://www-
(retrieved: 18.06.2012).
ai.ijs.si/~ilpnet2/systems/asium.html (retrieved: 18.06.2012).
28. Attensity (2012). "Exhaustive Extraction", 40. Cimiano, Philipp; Völker, Johanna (2005). "Text2Onto - A
http://www.attensity.com/products/technology/semantic- Framework for Ontology Learning and Data-Driven Change
server/exhaustive-extraction/ Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/ Discovery", Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of
20120711232021/http://www.attensity.com/products/technology/se Applications of Natural Language to Information Systems, 3513, p.
mantic-server/exhaustive-extraction/) 2012-07-11 at the Wayback 227 - 238,
Machine (retrieved: 18.06.2012). http://www.cimiano.de/Publications/2005/nldb05/nldb05.pdf
(retrieved: 18.06.2012).
29. Mendes, Pablo N.; Jakob, Max; Garcia-Sílva, Andrés; Bizer;
41. Maedche, Alexander; Volz, Raphael (2001). "The Ontology
Christian (2011). "DBpedia Spotlight: Shedding Light on the Web of
Extraction & Maintenance Framework Text-To-Onto", Proceedings
Documents", Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on
of the IEEE International Conference on Data Mining,
Semantic Systems, p. 1 - 8, http://www.wiwiss.fu-
http://users.csc.calpoly.edu/~fkurfess/Events/DM-KM-01/Volz.pdf
berlin.de/en/institute/pwo/bizer/research/publications/Mendes-
(retrieved: 18.06.2012).
Jakob-GarciaSilva-Bizer-DBpediaSpotlight-ISEM2011.pdf Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20120405211554/http://www.wiwiss.fu 42. Machine Linking. "We connect to the Linked Open Data cloud",
-berlin.de/en/institute/pwo/bizer/research/publications/Mendes-Jako http://thewikimachine.fbk.eu/html/index.html Archived (https://web.ar
b-GarciaSilva-Bizer-DBpediaSpotlight-ISEM2011.pdf) 2012-04-05 chive.org/web/20120719171047/http://thewikimachine.fbk.eu/html/i
at the Wayback Machine (retrieved: 18.06.2012). ndex.html) 2012-07-19 at the Wayback Machine (retrieved:
30. Gangemi, Aldo; Presutti, Valentina; Reforgiato Recupero, Diego; 18.06.2012).
Nuzzolese, Andrea Giovanni; Draicchio, Francesco; Mongiovì, 43. Inxight Federal Systems (2008). "Inxight ThingFinder and
Misael (2016). "Semantic Web Machine Reading with FRED", ThingFinder Professional", http://inxightfedsys.com/products/sdks/tf/
Semantic Web Journal, doi:10.3233/SW-160240 (https://doi.org/10. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120629052702/http://inxig
3233%2FSW-160240), http://www.semantic-web- htfedsys.com/products/sdks/tf/) 2012-06-29 at the Wayback
journal.net/system/files/swj1379.pdf Machine (retrieved: 18.06.2012).
31. Adrian, Benjamin; Maus, Heiko; Dengel, Andreas (2009). 44. Frawley William. F. et al. (1992), "Knowledge Discovery in
"iDocument: Using Ontologies for Extracting Information from Text", Databases: An Overview", AI Magazine (Vol 13, No 3), 57-70
http://www.dfki.uni-kl.de/~maus/dok/AdrianMausDengel09.pdf (online full version:
(retrieved: 18.06.2012). http://www.aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/article/viewArticle/1011
32. SRA International, Inc. (2012). "NetOwl Extractor", Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054249/http://www.
http://www.sra.com/netowl/entity-extraction/ Archived (https://web.ar aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/article/viewArticle/1011) 2016-
chive.org/web/20120924081059/http://www.sra.com/netowl/entity-e 03-04 at the Wayback Machine)
xtraction/) 2012-09-24 at the Wayback Machine (retrieved: 45. Fayyad U. et al. (1996), "From Data Mining to Knowledge
18.06.2012). Discovery in Databases", AI Magazine (Vol 17, No 3), 37-54 (online
full version:
33. Fortuna, Blaz; Grobelnik, Marko; Mladenic, Dunja (2007).
http://www.aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/article/viewArticle/1230
"OntoGen: Semi-automatic Ontology Editor", Proceedings of the
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160504232218/http://www.
2007 conference on Human interface, Part 2, p. 309 - 318,
aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/article/viewArticle/1230) 2016-
http://analytics.ijs.si/~blazf/papers/OntoGen2_HCII2007.pdf
(retrieved: 18.06.2012). 05-04 at the Wayback Machine
34. Missikoff, Michele; Navigli, Roberto; Velardi, Paola (2002). 46. Cao, L. (2010). "Domain driven data mining: challenges and
"Integrated Approach to Web Ontology Learning and Engineering", prospects". IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data
Computer, 35(11), p. 60 - 63, Engineering. 22 (6): 755–769. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.190.8427 (https://ci
http://wwwusers.di.uniroma1.it/~velardi/IEEE_C.pdf (retrieved: teseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.190.8427).
18.06.2012). doi:10.1109/tkde.2010.32 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2Ftkde.2010.3
2). S2CID 17904603 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:179
35. McDowell, Luke K.; Cafarella, Michael (2006). "Ontology-driven 04603).
Information Extraction with OntoSyphon", Proceedings of the 5th
international conference on The Semantic Web, p. 428 - 444,
http://turing.cs.washington.edu/papers/iswc2006McDowell-final.pdf
(retrieved: 18.06.2012).

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Knowledge_extraction&oldid=1149901938"