HISTORY NOTES

FORM 1 SIMPLIFIED VERSION

QUICK REVISION GUIDE

An Updated Well-Organized Detailed Learning Notes for the

Current Form 1 Syllabus.

A Comprehensive Summary Analysis of

History & Government Evolving World Work.

SERIES 1

Past KCSE Topical Questions Available At The End Of This Book.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 THE MEANING OF HISTORY .......................................................................... 7
Periods in history............................................................................................................... 7
Branches of history ........................................................................................................... 8
IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING HISTORY ................................................................. 8
2.1 THE MEANING OF GOVERNMENT .............................................................. 9
Forms of government ........................................................................................................ 10
IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING GOVERNMENT ..................................................... 11
3.1 SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT 11
Unwritten sources....................................................................................................................... 12
Electronic sources....................................................................................................................... 20
Written sources........................................................................................................................... 21
EARLY MAN ..................................................................................................................... 23
Origin of man..................................................................................................................... 23
Oral traditions ............................................................................................................................ 23
Creation theory........................................................................................................................... 23
Evolution theory ......................................................................................................................... 23
Stages through which man evolved ................................................................................. 27
Culture and economic practices of early man ............................................................... 35
The Old Stone Age (Lower-Palaeolithic) ................................................................................. 37
The Middle Stone Age (Middle-Paleolithic) ............................................................................ 41
The new stone age (Neolithic) ................................................................................................... 46
Revision Questions. .................................................................................................................... 49
DEVELOPMENT IN AGRICULTURE ......................................................................... 50
Development of early Agriculture ................................................................................... 50
Definition of Agriculture ........................................................................................................... 50
Origin of Agriculture ................................................................................................................. 50
The beginning of domestication of animals .................................................................... 51
The beginning of crop growing ................................................................................................. 51
Early Agriculture in Egypt............................................................................................... 53
Factors that lead to early Agriculture in Egypt ...................................................................... 53
Impacts of early Agriculture in Egypt ..................................................................................... 55
Early Agriculture in Mesopotamia.................................................................................. 56
Factors that led to early Agriculture in Mesopotamia ........................................................... 58
Impacts of early agriculture in Mesopotamia ......................................................................... 59
The Agrarian revolution ................................................................................................... 59
Characteristics of agriculture in Europe before the agrarian revolution............................ 59
Agrarian revolution in Britain......................................................................................... 60
Factors that led to agrarian revolution in Britain .................................................................. 63
Results of agrarian revolution in Britain .................................................................................. 64
The agrarian revolution in the United States of America ............................................ 66
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Factors that led to agrarian revolution in united states of America ................................... 66

Effects of agrarian revolution in United States of America .................................................. 67
The food situation in Africa and the rest of the developing world .............................. 68
Factors that have contributed to shortage of food in the developing world ....................... 68
Effects of food shortage in the developing world ................................................................... 70
Solutions to food shortages in the developing world .............................................................. 71
Revision Questions ..................................................................................................................... 71
THE PEOPLES OF KENYA UP TO THE 19TH CENTURY ....................................... 71
Background to the people of Kenya ................................................................................ 72
Origin of the people of Kenya ................................................................................................... 74
Migration and settlement of the people of Kenya .................................................................. 74
The Bantu ........................................................................................................................... 74
Factors for migration ................................................................................................................. 74
Western Bantu ............................................................................................................................ 74
Eastern Bantu ............................................................................................................................. 78
Effects of their migration .......................................................................................................... 86
The Nilotes ......................................................................................................................... 86
River and Lake Nilotes .............................................................................................................. 87
Factors for migration ................................................................................................................. 89
Effects of their migration .......................................................................................................... 90
The plain Nilotes ......................................................................................................................... 91
Factors for migration ................................................................................................................. 91
Effects of their migration .......................................................................................................... 95
Highland Nilotes ......................................................................................................................... 95
Factors for migration ................................................................................................................. 98
Effects of their migration .......................................................................................................... 98
Effects of Nilotes’ migration...................................................................................................... 99
Cushites .............................................................................................................................. 99
Southern Cushites .................................................................................................................... 100
Eastern Cushites ....................................................................................................................... 100
Factors for migration ............................................................................................................... 101
Effects of their migration ........................................................................................................ 102
Effects of Cushites migration .................................................................................................. 103
Revision Questions ............................................................................................................ 105
SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF KENYAN SOCIETIES
IN THE 19TH CENTURY ............................................................................................. 106
The Bantu ........................................................................................................................... 106
The Agikuyu ....................................................................................................................... 106
The Ameru ......................................................................................................................... 108
The Akamba ....................................................................................................................... 110
The Abagusii ...................................................................................................................... 112
The Mijikenda ................................................................................................................... 114
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The Nilotes ......................................................................................................................... 116

The Luo ......................................................................................................................................116
The Nandi ...................................................................................................................................118
The Maasai ................................................................................................................................ 120
The Eastern Cushites ........................................................................................................ 122
The Borana................................................................................................................................ 122
The Somali ................................................................................................................................ 123
Revision Questions ............................................................................................................ 125
CONTACTS BETWEEN EAST AFRICA AND THE OUTSIDE WORLD UP TO THE 19TH
CENTURY ..................................................................................................................... 126
Sources of information on the history of the East coast of Africa ............................... 126
Early visitors to the coast up to 1500 .............................................................................. 127
Reasons for the coming of early visitors ................................................................................ 129
Trade between East Africa and the outside world -Indian Ocean trade .................... 131
Development of trade ............................................................................................................... 131
Organisation of trade ............................................................................................................... 133
Impacts of the trade ................................................................................................................. 134
Coastal city states .............................................................................................................. 135
Factors for the rise of the coastal city states ......................................................................... 135
Features of the coastal city states ........................................................................................... 136
Factors for the decline of the coastal city states ............................................................ 138
The coming of the Portuguese.......................................................................................... 139
Portuguese conquest and rule and rule of the East coast of Africa .................................... 141
Reasons for Portuguese success .............................................................................................. 143
Portuguese rule .................................................................................................................. 143
Decline of the Portuguese rule ................................................................................................ 144
Impacts of the Portuguese rule ............................................................................................... 147
Oman rule .......................................................................................................................... 149
Seyyid Said’s reign 1804-1856 ................................................................................................ 150
Effects of Oman rule ................................................................................................................ 152
Plantation farming ............................................................................................................ 153
Factors for the development of plantation farming ............................................................. 153
Effects of plantation farming .................................................................................................. 154
Long distance trade........................................................................................................... 154
Development ............................................................................................................................. 156
Organisation ............................................................................................................................. 157
Impacts ...................................................................................................................................... 159
International trade ............................................................................................................ 160
Factors that promoted international trade along the East African coast .......................... 160
Trade goods ............................................................................................................................... 160
Impacts of international trade ................................................................................................ 161
Christianity ........................................................................................................................ 161
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Reasons for the coming of Christian missionaries ............................................................... 161

Missionary activities in Kenya ................................................................................................ 162
Challenges faced by Christian missionaries .......................................................................... 165
Effects of missionary activities in Kenya ............................................................................... 166
CITIZENSHIP................................................................................................................... 169
Meaning of citizenship ...................................................................................................... 170
Methods of becoming a Kenya citizen ............................................................................ 170
Revocation of citizenship .................................................................................................. 171
Types of citizenship ........................................................................................................... 171
Rights and freedoms of a Kenyan citizen ....................................................................... 172
Responsibilities/ duties of a Kenyan citizen ................................................................... 176
Values of a good citizen/elements of a good citizen ....................................................... 177
Revision Questions. .................................................................................................................. 178
NATIONAL INTEGRATION .......................................................................................... 178
Importance of national integration ........................................................................................ 179
National unity .................................................................................................................... 179
Factors promoting national unity ........................................................................................... 179
Factors limiting national unity ............................................................................................... 182
Conflict resolution ............................................................................................................. 182
Definition of conflict resolution .............................................................................................. 183
Causes of conflicts .................................................................................................................... 183
Types of Conflicts ..................................................................................................................... 183
Categories of conflicts .............................................................................................................. 184
Methods of conflict resolution................................................................................................. 184
Process of resolving conflicts................................................................................................... 185
Effects of conflicts .................................................................................................................... 187
Revision questions ............................................................................................................. 187

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT
1.1 THE MEANING OF HISTORY
2010 1. Give the meaning of history
 The study of man’s past events/activities 1 x 1 = 1 mark

2013 p2 1 Give the relationship between “History” and “Government”. (1 mark)

- History is the study of man’s past activities while Government is the study of how people are
governed.
 History refers to the study of the past events and developments of man.
 History is the study of Man’s past chronological account and record of events in relation to
his environment. Or:
 It is a social science concerned with past human actions, pursued by interpretation of
evidence for the sake of human self-knowledge.

PERIODS IN HISTORY
 Pre- history- Period before the development of writing where we depend on unwritten
sources to reconstruct History e.g. archaeology. It relies on scientific and laboratory
examinations to excavate materials and fossils. Pre-history are the activities in which human
beings engaged before the invention of writing and drawing for storing information.
 History- this is the study of man’s recent times. This is the time within the memorable past

The characteristics of historical events

 Historical events should contain elements of truth either from first-hand information or from
second-hand information.
 Historical events mainly dwell on past happenings.
 All historical events must concern man. This implies that they must somehow be connected
with man.
 Historical information may exist in either written or oral form.
 All historical events must have evidence for them to qualify to be true.
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BRANCHES OF HISTORY
2009 p1 qn 1Identify one branch in the study of History and Government of Kenya
 Social
 Economic
 Political
Political history
This is the study of people’s way of ruling, their leaders and the system of administration.
2011 p2 qn 7 What was the main function of the Council of elders among Africa societies
during the Pre-colonial period? (1 mark)
 They mediated/settled disputes/made peace in the community.

Social history
This is study and understanding of people’s way of life and culture.

Economic history
This is the study of how people make a living, their occupations and modes of production e.g.
peasantry, hunter-gatherer, pastoralism, trade, industry, transport and communication.

IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING HISTORY

 Enables learners to understand the cultural, economic and political organizations of different
people of the world.
 Helps learners appreciate the values of other people and their contribution to civilization hence
respect to other peoples of the world.
 Enables people to appreciate and understand their past way of life and use it to predict the
future and to solve the present problems.
 Enables learners to develop the capacity for critical analysis of historical data, hence develop
the ability to question, acquire and argue rationally.
 Enables the learners to develop a sense of patriotism and national pride is developed, making
them responsible citizen.
 Fosters empathy by appreciating human achievements and aspirations.
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 Provides intellectual fulfilment and an interest in further learning as it is pleasurable and

interesting.
 History leads learners to respected professions such as, law, business management, teaching,
administration and many others.

2013 p1 1 State two ways in which the study of History and Government promotes a sense of
patriotism in the learner. (2 marks)
(i) It enables one to acquire a positive attitude towards the country.
(ii) It enables one to be a responsible citizen.
(iii) It enables one to become loyal to his/her country.
(iv) It helps one to develop positive values. Any 2 x 1 = 2 marks

2.1 THE MEANING OF GOVERNMENT

 Refers to the way of ruling, administering and controlling people.
 A political organisation, structure and authority.
Characteristics of government
 Rules, which govern members to ensure that life runs smoothly for the benefit of all.
 Sovereignty i.e. the supreme authority of the government to exercise its powers within its
boundaries.
 Jurisdiction i.e. the geographical area within which the government exercises powers and
rules.
 Legitimacy I.e. being acceptable to the people over whom it exercises power.
 Law enforcement i.e. ability to take action against those who break the law.

MAIN ARMS OF GOVERNMENT

 The Legislature (Parliament), which makes laws. The Legislature is made up of the national
assembly and the President.
 The Executive, which is made up of the President, the Cabinet and the Civil Service. It
implements laws.
 The Judiciary (Court system), which ensures that laws made are constitutional, are followed
and those who break them are punished.
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FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
 Dictatorship
Here, the ruler has total power over his/her subjects. Dictators are the sole authority where they
rule. They make the law and execute justice. They exercise their rule forcefully, suppressing
their subjects at will. They impose their will over others and interfere with or limit the freedom
of their subjects. Examples of dictatorship include Germany during the rule of Adolf Hitler,
Italy under Benito Mussolini and Uganda during the rule of Idi Amin Dada.

 Democratic Government,
Here rulers regularly seek public mandate by popular vote, based on free and fair election and on
the fact that elected officials represent the wishes and aspirations of the people. In such a
government, matters of national importance stem from freedoms and rights provided for in the
Constitution, which governs the law of the nation.

 Aristocracy
In this, a group of people from the highest social classes in a society rule over others. The queen
or king is the head of government, whose senior positions are held by privileged members of
the royal family, who are considered as a rear breed of people and who are considered superior
to other human beings because of the wealthy family background they are born into in addition
to their superior education.

 Monarchy
In this, democracy is practised, but aristocratic power is respected. In such government,
Parliament is the supreme organ, but the king and the royal family are retained in power as a
tradition. The King or Queen is therefore respected as head of state.
Categories into which Monarchical government is classified.
 Absolute Monarchy, whereby the head of state is dictatorial since his/her power is
unrestricted.
 Constitutional Monarchy, whereby the power of the King or Queen is restricted, based on
the provisions in the constitution.

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IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING GOVERNMENT

2007 p1 qn 1. Give two reasons for studying government. (2marks)
i. To understand how different organs of government function.
ii. To understand how laws are made/enforced
iii. To have knowledge of the duties/responsibilities of citizens.
iv. To enable citizens know their rights.
v. To be able to compare political systems of the world.
vi. Learn how development projects are designed and implemented.
vii. Learn how conflicts in society are solved peacefully.
viii. Understand how the government raises revenue and the checks and balances on government
expenditure.
ix. Understand how laws are made.
x. Learn the democratic principles that govern most countries

3.1 SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON HISTORY AND

GOVERNMENT
Identify the sources of prehistoric information.
 Songs,
 Myths,
 Stories,
 Artefacts,
 Fossils,
 The language of a people.

1996 p2 qn1 Identify two sources of information which historians use to write the History of
Africa (marks)
i. Archaeology
ii. Oral traditions
iii. Anthropology
iv. Botany/Zoology /biology/Genetics
v. Written records
vi. Geology
vii. Local paintings/sculpture (2marks)

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2006 p1 qn 1 Identify two source of Kenyan Historic

i. Archaeology/ Palaeontology
ii. Anthropology ( Myth & Legends)
iii. Linguistics
iv. Oral tradition
v. Written sources
vi. Geology
vii. Rock paintings/ art
viii. Genetics
ix. Electronic sources

2007 p2 qn 1Give two sources of information in history and government (2 marks)

i. Archaeology / palaeontology.
ii. Oral tradition, Linguistics.
iii. Anthropology
iv. Genetics / Botany / Zoology / Biology
v. Written records,
vi. Geology.
vii. Electronic sources.

UNWRITTEN SOURCES
2011 p1 qn 1 Give two unwritten sources of information on History and Government. (2 mks)
(i) Oral traditions/oral source
(ii) Archaeology/palaeontology
(iii) Genetics
(iv) Linguistics
(v) Anthropology Any 2x1 = 2 marks

ORAL TRADITIONS
2001 p2 qn 1. What is oral tradition as a source of History?
i. Oral tradition as a source of History involves the study of historical information based on what
has been handed down from one generation to another by word of mouth/ verbally. (1 mark)

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FORMS OF ORAL TRADITIONS

They Include:
 Myths
 Legends
 Proverbs
 Songs
 Folktales
 Poems
Advantages of oral traditions
 It is important in the study of history within other social studies
 They integrate the study of history with other social studies
 It is cheap since it doesn’t require experts or special equipment.
 It compliments other sources of history.

Disadvantages of oral traditions

2000 qn 1 Give two shortcomings of oral traditions as a source of History. (2 marks)
i. They may contain biases and exaggerations
ii. They may be inconsistent and inaccurate due to handling down from one generation to another
by word of mouth
iii. It may be difficult to distinguish what was real from what was imaginary
iv. Omissions of facts due to failure in memory
 It is difficult to give correct dates and chronology of events.

LINGUISTICS
 This is the scientific study of languages
 People who speak similar languages are assumed to be from the same family.

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How the form, content, vocabulary and the historical experience of the people who
speak a given language could be illustrated.
 Distribution of languages. The smaller the distribution, the less influential or younger the
language. The more widespread it is, the stronger or older it might be.
 Relationship between languages. People who speak related languages might have a common
origin, be connected, or have close contact sometime in the past.
 Variations between languages of the same family indicate how long ago the break in contact
occurred. Greater variations show longer periods of separation.

Advantages
 Makes it easy to trace peoples interactions and course of movement
 It is easier to identify groups with similar language traits e.g. Khoisan
 Information is easy to obtain as language is a cultural phenomenon.
 It is cheap since only needs to travel to an area of study.

Disadvantages
 Some words could be omitted or distorted while translating the language.
 It is time consuming. Delayed acquisition of information since it takes long to learn a
particular language.
 Where loan words corrupt the parental language, inaccuracies may occur. Various languages
may have similar words but with different meanings.
 The borrowing of words might corrupt or interfere with the parent-language.
 Some languages have become extinct.

ARCHAEOLOGY
 Archaeology is the study of the antiquity, is the study of material remains from the past human
life and culture.
 These materials can be artefacts or Eco facts.
 Artefacts are material remains of what early man used or that influenced his way of life. They
include the following:

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1999 p2 qn 17(a) What things do archaeologists use to reconstruct the activities of

people who live in prehistoric time.
 The remains of the weapons that they used
 The remains of the tools that they used
 The remains of humans bones
 The remains of animals found at the prehistoric sites
 The remains of plants the lived on
 The remains of their dwelling places
 The remains of their artwork e.g. rock painting
 The remains of traditional craft e.g. pottery
 The remains of beads
 The remains of cans
 The remains of garments
 The remains of churred tree trunks/ charcoal and carbonized seeds.
Any 5 points, 1 mark (5 marks)

2012 p2 qn 1. Identify one type of artefact that is likely to be found in an archaeological site
(1 mark)
i. Tools
ii. Weapons
iii. Pottery
iv. Garments
v. Coins (1mark)
 Eco facts are remains of the plants and animal especially the pollen grains, bones, coprolites
etc.

2008 p1 qn 1 Identify two ways through which archaeologists obtain information on the
history of Kenya.
i. Excavating the sites
ii. Dating the fossils
iii. Recording the findings
iv. Locating pre-sites
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2011 p2 qn1 Give two archaeological sources of information on History and Government.
i. Tools/utensils/ornaments/onions used by man
ii. Weapons used by man
iii. Settlements/ruins of the past/rock paintings
iv. Remains of human/animals
v. Plant remains.
vi. Garments/ornaments
vii. Coins used by man Any 2x1 =2 marks

How archaeologists and palaeontologists discover historical sites.

 They look for areas where faulting or erosion have occurred, exposing surfaces that may give
some clues to the point of finding fossils and artefacts. Sometimes they have to dig deep to
find physical remains.
 Identification or differentiation of the physical features of an area from those of the ground in
places around. For example, a small part of an early settlement, such as a few stones in a
regular pattern may be seen on the surface in such an area.
 Enquiries on sites mentioned in a historical document or an oral narrative of the geography and
other historical features of the area cited. This may lead to important insights to past
civilizations, such as Troy, Ur, Babylon, Omo River valley and Olduvai Gorge.
 Long experience in identifying a potential site for archaeological excavation.
 Accidental exposure of ancient objects during cultivation and building construction, which
could arouse the curiosity of researchers.

How Archaeological study and analysis is done.

 The Archaeologist studies what evidence remains of the material culture of a people’s past.
 Activities of prehistoric people are reconstructed from various evidence, e.g. traces of weapons
and tools they used, clothing, bones, earthworks, dwelling-places, etc.
 Concepts or understanding of a people’s civilization at the time the artefacts were in use are
formulated. E.g. hunting and pastoralism could be indicated by rock paintings of certain
animals on cave-walls.
 Man’s relationship with his environment is interpreted and dated. Here, the archaeologist
works with Palaeontologists, Geologists, Ecologists, Chemists, Physicists and other natural
scientists.
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METHODS OF DATING FOSSILS.

 Geological periods, characterised by climatic changes and the successive types of plants and
animals found.
 Chemical dating. This is of two kinds i.e. Radio-Carbon dating and Potassium-Argon method.
Radio-Carbon dating measures organic substances and the rate of decay of carbon-14 in
fossils. Potassium-Argon method measures the amount of potassium and the amount of Argon-
40 to assist in dating volcanic ash and minerals.
 Stratigraphy i.e. the study and interpretation of the layers of rock successively deposited at
one place. It is useful in determining dates for areas affected by sedimentation.
 Fission Track dating. This is useful in dating Pleistocene samples. The age of glass and other
mineral objects is determined through this method.
 Statistical dating. This helps in determining the length of a generation for a particular society
by estimating dates for events associated with certain generations.
 Lexico Statistics dating. This is the statistical study of the vocabulary of languages to
determine their age and historical links with other languages. It is based on the assumption that
all languages have a basic vocabulary that will gradually change at a common rate for all
languages at all times.
 Glotto-Chronology, which is a subdivision of Lexico Statistics, attempts to establish that
languages are historically related. It helps in expressing rates of language-development by
formulae precise enough to enable dates when change occurred to be calculated.

Why excavation and analysis of artefacts is an expensive venture .

a) Labourers have to be hired to excavate a site.
b) Transportation of artefacts to laboratories for analysis is often a cumbersome, complex and
delicate venture.
c) Archaeological equipment’s are often costly and scarce.
d) The cost of staff-upkeep is very high.
e) Analysis of and dating artefacts is very hard.

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Advantages
2004 p2 qn 1 Give one contribution of archaeology to the study of History. (1 mark)
i. It provides information on the origin of human/ cradles/ earliest human beings
ii. It provides information on the people’s way of life
iii. It helps people to locate historical sites
iv. It provides information on the chronological order of historical events/ dating
v. It provides pre-history information
vi. It gives accurate information
vii. It links history to laboratory-based sciences
viii. It has a sense of reality as artefacts can be seen or touched.
ix. It gives a sense of time through dating of artefacts.

Disadvantages
a) It requires experts
b) Limited to study of the antiquity. One cannot study present materials or events.
c) Archaeological information could be inaccurate as it is often based on conclusions and
reconstructions.
d) It is difficult to trace archaeological sites.
e) Archaeology estimates but does not provide precise dates.
f) It is a time-consuming venture since preparation for an excavation and transportation of
artefacts to laboratories for analysis is long and laborious processes.
g) There are few archaeological experts to interpret data.
h) Some materials are fragile and could easily break, thereby misleading analysts.
i) It is expensive to excavate and analyse artefacts.

ANTHROPOLOGY
This is the study of a person’s origins, development, customs and beliefs.
Explain why anthropologists must live among the people who they study.
 One would experience the people’s way of life.
 One understands and explains social and other structures within their society of study.
 One explains aspects of the economy on which a given community depend.
 One is able to determine a people’s cultural past.
 One has a deeper understanding of a particular aspect of a people’s culture.

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Advantages
 It enables historians determine the cultural past of a community.
 Information is easily obtained from the surrounding.
 It compliments others sources.

Disadvantages
 It is expensive as it involves living with the people on who research is conducted.
 It is time-consuming.
 Researchers may not adapt to new environments.
 The researcher may miss vital information as the people being studied may behave differently
in the presence of the researcher.
 The researcher risks losing his or her own culture on adapting to the environment of study.

2012 p1 qn 1. Give any two limitations of using anthropology as a source of information on

History and Government. (2 marks)
i. It is time consuming
ii. It is an expensive method
iii. Information collected may be inaccurate/distorted
iv. Information collected may be biased (2marks)
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GENETICS
Genetics is the scientific study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics.
Advantages
 Information is accurate as real materials and remains are analysed.
 Information can be obtained for millions of years ago.
 Enables Historians to trace the origin of domestication and spread of crops and animals.
 Compliments other sources of History.

Disadvantages
 It is expensive.
 Researchers may not adapt to new environments due to health and other risks.
 It is technologically demanding as it requires a lot of sophisticated material and equipment.
 It is time-consuming. Apart from much fieldwork, one spends a lot more time training before
becoming a Genetics specialist.

ELECTRONIC SOURCES
These are audio-visual media which are operated by electronic power.
Name any three Electronic sources of information on history & Government.
 Microfilms,
 Films,
 Videos,
 Radio,
 Television
 Computerised data-bases.

Advantages
 They can be clearly read when magnified.
 They capture words and emotions of an event as it happens.
 They combine sound, picture and motion.

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 They facilitate instant retrieval of and access to information.

 Most are not bulky.

Limitations
 They are subject to bias as they mostly contain foreign (European and American) material.
 They are too expensive to buy and run. Many people cannot afford to buy radios, television
sets and videos. The cost of electricity for operating this equipment is high.
 Some acted films are unrealistic for they contain exaggerated information.
 There is a lot of permissiveness, largely caused by improper use of electronic material.

WRITTEN SOURCES
2009 p2 qn 1Name two types of written materials used by historians as a source of
history and government
They Include:
i. Books/ charts/ maps/ scrolls/ painting/ clay labels/ stone table
ii. Newspapers/ magazines
iii. Diaries/ biographies
iv. Journals/ periodicals
v. Official/ government records

ADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN MATERIALS

2002 p2 qn . State one advantage of written materials as a source of history
i. Written materials ensure relatively permanent storage of Historical events/for future reference.
ii. Written materials can be easily translated to different languages relatively accurate storage of
historical events.
iii. They relatively provide accurate storage of historical events.
iv. Written materials cannot be easily distorted/interfered with/not easily changed.
Disadvantages of written materials

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2008 p2 qn1. Identify two limitations of using written records as a source of information on
History and Government. (2 marks)
i. May contain biases/exaggerations
ii. Information may be misinterpreted/misunderstood by readers
iii. There may be factual errors/omissions/contradiction by the authors
iv. These sources are limited to literate members of the society
v. They are expensive to obtain/procure
Any 2x 1= 2 marks

1997 p2 qn 1 Give two limitations of using written records as source of African History.
(2marks)
i. Most of the written records on African History were by foreigners who built their biases in the
records.
ii. Some written records on African History contain inaccurate information
iii. Some of the records are not reality available for case of reference
iv. Written records are limited only to those who can read and write.
Any 2x1 =2 marks
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. What are the characteristics of historical events?
2. What do you understand by the following terms:
i) History
ii) Government
3. Explain the methods historians use to obtain historical information.
4. Give the limitations of:
i) Oral tradition
ii) Archaeology
iii) Linguistics
5. Give reasons why written records are regarded as the best sources of historical information.
6. Explain why history and government is studied in Kenyan schools and some colleges.
7. What are the limitations of using written records?

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EARLY MAN
Origin of man
1997 p2 qn 15 (a) Describe two theories about the origin of human beings (4 marks)
i. Scientific maintain that Human beings evolved from ape- like creatures and developed through
adaptation over a long period of time.
ii. The creation theory- according to many world religious e.g. Christianity Islam and Judaism the
human race was created by God at a specific time in history to fulfil God’s purpose.
iii. The Mythical (traditional) Theory. This is an attempt by individuals or communities of people
to explain their origin. It is given through Oral Traditions, myths and legends. It mainly states
that the first people were created by God.
2005 p2 qn 1. State one theory that explains the origin of people
i. The evolution theory.
ii. The creation theory.
iii. Mythical or traditional theory/ oral traditions theory. ( Any 1 x 1 = 1 mark)

Oral traditions
 This is an attempt by individuals or communities of people to explain their origin. It is given
through Oral Traditions, myths and legends. It mainly states that the first people were created
by God.
Creation theory
2012 p2 qn2. Name one source of information on the Creation Theory (1 mark)
i. Bible
ii. The Koran (1x1=1mark)

Evolution theory
2010 p2 qn 1. State the scientific theory that explains the origin of human beings.
- The Evolution theory/Darwin 1x 1 = 1 mark
2009 p2 qn 3 explain Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution
Simple life forms gradually develop into higher forms of life over millions of years

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What is evolution?
 Evolution is a natural process of gradual and continuous change of living organisms from a
lower (simpler) state to a better-adapted (complex) and superior one.
Identify four distinct stages in which evolution took place according to Charles Darwin.
 Mutation- is an abrupt change in the form of a living thing as dictated by the climatic or
genetic components of the living thing involved.
 Natural selection- is an instinct by which the stronger species out-compete the weaker ones
for resources.
 Isolation.
 Adaptation.

State the principles of Natural Selection.

 All organisms are uniquely different, based on hereditary factors each has from birth.
 Although many organisms are produced, few manage to develop to maturity.
 Only organisms that constantly adapt to the existing environment manage to grow to maturity
and reproduce. For instance, the Amoeba, which may have survived only in water, changed by
mutation and cast a protective shell (cyst) around its body, which enabled it to survive when
the climate changed and became dry.
 Even after mutation, only the fittest organisms could survive as the weak became extinct due
to limited resources. This theory came to be popularly known as Survival for the Fittest.
 As species emerging from mutation and natural selection increase in number, search for basic
needs intensifies. Some few species take on a significantly different form through adaptation
to the new environment as they get isolated from the rest.
 Darwin’s theory of evolution is supported by almost all scientists, particularly
palaeontologists. It holds that human beings belong to the Animal Kingdom and that Man is a
primate as are apes like gorillas, chimpanzees and monkeys, although apes belong to the
family Pongidae while human beings are in the Hominidae family.


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ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN EAST AFRICA

Name the archaeological sites in Kenya.
 Rusinga Island,
 Fort Ternan near Kericho,
 Kariandusi near Elmentaita,
 Gambles Cave,
 Olorgesailie,
 Koobi-Fora near Lake Turkana,
 Hyrax Hill,
 Kanjiri
 Njoro River Cave.

NAME THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN TANZANIA.

 Garusi,
 Olduvai Gorge,
 Peninj,
 Apis Rock,
 Isimila
 Eyasi.

NAME THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN UGANDA.

 Nsongezi,
 Nyero,
 Napaka,
 Magosi,
 Paraa,
 Ishango,
 Mweya,
 Nyabusora.

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IDENTIFY/NAME ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES OUTSIDE EAST

AFRICA.
 Fayum depression in Egypt.
 Taung in Botswana.
 Omo River valley in Ethiopia.
 The Afar depression in Ethiopia.
 Hadar in Ethiopia.
 Tenerife in Algeria.
 Bodo in Ethiopia.
 Matupi cave in Shaba province of Congo DRC.
 Kalambo falls in Zambia.
 Orangia in southern Africa.
 Dar Es Sultan cave in southern Africa.
 Apollo II caves in Orange state in South Africa.

2005 p1 qn 1Name two pre- historic sites in Kenya. (2 marks)

i. Olorgesaille
ii. Kariandusi
iii. Fort Ternan
iv. Koobi Fora/Turkana
v. Hyrax Hill.
vi. Rusinga Island
vii. Gambles Cave (Njoro) Any 2x1 = (2marks)

2008 p1 qn 1 Identify two ways through which archaeologists obtain information on the
history of Kenya.
i. Excavating the sites
ii. Dating the fossils
iii. Recording the findings
iv. Locating pre-sites

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Why Africa is considered the cradle of man

 There are several archaeological sites in Africa.
 The open savannah provided man with good hunting grounds.
 The warm tropical climate was suitable for modern man.
 Geographically Africa was at the centre of the pangea.
 The all seasons rivers in Africa provided man with fresh water
2008 p2 qn 2. Give one reason why early people moved from the forests to settle in the
grasslands (1 mark)
i. There were more wild animals in the grasslands/availability of food
ii. The climate in the grasslands was warmer
iii. The grasslands provided much needed water
Any 1x 1 = 1 mark

Stages through which man evolved

 Aegyptopithecus
 Dryopithecus africanus (proconsul)
 Kenyapithecus (Ramapithecus)
 Australopithecines
 Homo habilis
 Homo erectus
 Homo sapiens
 Homo sapiens sapiens

2009 p2 qn 18 (a) Give three stages in the evolution of man before Homo Erectus
i. Aegytopithecus/ Egyptian ape
ii. Dryopithecus/ Africans/ Proconsul/ woodland ape
iii. Kenyapithecus/ Ramapithecus/ woodland ape/ Kenya ape/ Asian ape
iv. Australopithecus/ Southern ape/ man ape/ Zinyanthropus/ Nut erect man
v. Homohabilis/ Handy man/ practical man
Note any order of responses earns marks (any 3 x 1 = 3 marks)

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2006 p2 qn 18(a) What were the physical changes which occurred in early human beings
as they evolved from ape- like creature to modern people?
i. The skull was enlarged
ii. The jaws and teeth became smaller
iii. The arms and hands become shorter
iv. The creatures assumed an upright posture
v. The feet and toes reduced in size
vi. The creatures had less hair on the body
vii. They became taller
viii. They had slander body
ix. The brain became bigger

AEGYPTOPITHECUS
The name Aegyptopithecus means Egyptian Ape. Aegyptopithecus’ 33 million year-old 4kg small
skull-remains were found in the Fayum depression. He lived at a time when Egypt was a
forested area.
Features/Characteristics of Aegyptopithecus
 Walked on four limbs.
 Had a tail
 Weighed four kilograms.
 He was a monkey like creature: the earliest probable ancestor of both Man and Ape.
 He had stereoscopic vision and hands with which he would skilfully jump from one tree to
another.
 His teeth were those of an herbivore.

Dryopithecus africanus (proconsul)

The twenty million year-old skull of this hominid was found on Rusinga Island within the Kenya
part of the Lake Victoria region in 1948 by Mary and Louis Leakey. He was the earliest
evidence that Africa was Man’s first home, for he occupied the entire East African forest,
though he was also found in Europe and South-East Asia. The term Dryopithecus means
Woodland Ape. He was chimpanzee like
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Characteristics of Dryopithecus Africanus

 Had projecting face.
 He had a smooth forehead.
 He had long teeth like those of other animals.
 He mainly ate fruits.
Kenyapithecus (Ramapithecus)
The 15-12 million year-old remains of Ramapithecus were found by Mary and Louis Leakey at
Fort Ternan near kericho and also at Samburu hills and in the Lakes Turkana and Baringo
basins. Ramapithecus and other manlike creatures were also discovered in Europe, India and
China.
Characteristics of Ramapithecus
 He was manlike.
 He had small teeth i.e. canines.
 He was quadrapedal (he moved on his four limbs), though he occasionally walked on two legs.
 Had a larger brain.
Australopithecines
Remains of Australopithecus were found at Taung in Botswana in 1924 by Raymond Dart, at
Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania by Mary Leakey in 1959 and throughout Eastern Africa e.g.
regions around Lake Natron in Tanzania, Lake Turkana in Kenya and Omo River valley in
Ethiopia.

Species of australopithecines
 Australopithecus anamensis, whose four-million year old remains, were found at Kenapoi and
Alliabay in the Lake Turkana region.
 Australopithecus afarensis, which was bipedal and small in stature. His four to three million
year old remains were found at Laetoli in Tanzania and Tugen Hills in Baringo district: Kenya.
The name Afarensis is derived from the Afar depression in Ethiopia.
 Australopithecus africanus (or A. Gracilis), who lived between three to two and a half million
years ago and was small, light, slender and a metre and a half tall, with a small brain, but
larger teeth, jaws and skull.

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 Australopithecus robustus, which was strongly built, with massive jaws and powerful teeth,
weighed 68kg and was the biggest and most recent type of Australopithecus. He lived between
two and one and a half million years ago in South Africa and was apparently vegetarian. He
ate fruits, nuts and raw tubers. The Eastern African
 Australopithecus Robustus was named Australopithecus Boisei. Found in Lake Turkana.
2.5million years old

CHARACTERISTICS OF AUSTRALOPITHECUS
 He was bipedal (walked on two limbs).
 Could grasp objects with ease.
 May have been hairy, short and strong.
 Had a large face and low forehead and had stereoscopic vision.
 Had much larger teeth, skull and jaws.
 His brain was smaller than modern man’s, but larger than that of the most intelligent ape: the
Gorilla about 500cc.
 Weighted between thirty to sixty eight kilograms
 Was short in stature with a small slender body of about four feet tall.

HOMO HABILIS (PRACTICAL MAN).

This was the first species of the genus Homo. His two and a half to one and a half million-year
old remains were found at Olduvai Gorge by Jonathan Leakey in 1964, Hadar and Omo River
valley in Ethiopia and Koobi-For a in the lake Turkana area in 1972.
2006 p2 qn1 Give one reason why Homo habilis was referred to as “able” man
i. Because of the ability to make tools (Any 1 x 1 = 1 mark)
Characteristics of Homo habilis
 He was five feet tall.
 Large brain capacity of about 775cc
 He had a skull similar to modern man’s in shape.
 He was omnivorous.
 He could grasp objects.
 Had an elementary communication speech.
 Teeth like modern man.
 Well-developed thumb like that of modern man hence He made and used tools.
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HOMO ERECTUS
Homo erectus lived between two million to two hundred thousand years ago.
He was called Homo erectus because he walked in two limbs.
He made more refined tools.
He discovered fire.
He was discovered in Hadar in Ethiopia.
 He was five and a half feet tall.
 He was bipedal (walked on two legs).
 He made and used tools, such as hand-axes, crude spears and arrowheads from stone, bone and
wood.

In what ways was Homo erectus different from earlier hominids?

Homo erectus was different from hominids that came before him in the following ways:
 He had a bigger brain.
 He had a long skull.
 He had long protruding jaws.
 He could communicate by speech.
 He made and used fire.
 He had some form of home.

2002 p2 qn 2. Give one characteristics of Homo Erectus.

i. Homo Erectus was upright/bipedal/waked upright /walked in two legs
ii. Homo Erectus was more intelligent than the earlier apes/higher thinking capacity
iii. Homo Erectus had a bigger bran capacity/775-1225 cc
iv. Homo Erectus had more developed hand for grasping tools.
v. Homo Erectus had more developed hand for grasping tools.
vi. Homo erectus had a long skull
vii. Homo Erectus had long protruding jaws.

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2011 p2 qn 18 (a) Give three physical characteristics of the Home erectus. (3

marks)
i. Had upright posture/bipedal
ii. Had protruding jaws
iii. Was about 5 feet tall/1.5 m
iv. Had slopping forehead
v. Had deep set eyes/deep eye sockets
vi. Had hairy body (any 3x1 = 3 marks)
Name the places where remains of Homo erectus were found.

The remains of Homo erectus were found:

 At Hadar and Omo river valley in Ethiopia,
 At Nariokotone River on the north-western shore of Lake Turkana,
 At Olorgesailie near Lake Magadi.
 At Isimila near Iringa in Tanzania,
 In Tenerife in Algeria,
 In morocco.
 In South Africa.
Homo erectus also lived in France, Spain, India, Indonesia, Hungary and Brazil. In Asia, he is
referred to as Java man or Peking Man.

1999 p2 qn 17(b) Explain five ways in which Homo erectus attempted to improve his
way of life?
i. Improved stone tools through the use of Levallois method
ii. Invented fire which was used for cooking, lighting, warming and protecting against wild
animals.
iii. Made and lived in caves for more permanent settlement and security
iv. Made clothes out of animal skins by scrapping them clean, using efficient stools.
v. Created leisure activities such as artwork
vi. Developed language for effective communication
vii. Migrated to warmer areas or regions

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HOMO SAPIENS
Homo sapiens appeared between two hundred thousand and a hundred and fifty thousand years
ago.
Characteristics of Homo sapiens
 He was under six feet tall
 He had small teeth.
 He had a steep and well-rounded forehead.
 He had long straight legs.
 He made a variety of more refined tools i.e. microliths.
 He was a fisherman and hunter-gatherer.
 He domesticated plants and animals.
2000 p2 qn 2. State one characteristics of Homo Sapiens (1 mark)
i. Home sapiens had a large brain
ii. Walked upright/ had upright posture
iii. Had refined speech
iv. Had smaller jaws compared to earlier
v. Had well- developed thumb for grasping

Remains of Homo sapiens were found at:

 Eliye springs near Lake Turkana,
 Kanjera and Kanam in Kenya,
 Bodo and Omo river valley in Ethiopia,
 Ngaloba in Tanzania.

Three subspecies of Homo sapiens have been identified. These are:

 The Rhodesian Man, discovered in northern Rhodesia (present-day Zambia). he was still more
apelike, with ridges over his eyes and a backward sloping forehead. But he had straight legs
and walked with long strides, with a skull and brain like modern man’s. He made and used
scrapping and cutting tools from bone and stone.
 Neanderthal Man, discovered in Neander valley in Germany in 1856 and in Asia, north Africa,
France, Belgium, Gibraltar, Italy, former Yugoslavia and other parts of Europe. He was a
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hunter-gatherer. Though heavily built with a thick skull, broad shoulders and bushy eye-brows
like an ape, he made and used skilfully chipped stone tools and practised ceremonial burial just
like modern man.
 Cro-Magnon Man, discovered in Europe. This one cooked using fire and was a hunter-
gatherer, painter and cave dweller. He resembled modern man, except that he was taller,
stronger and with bushy eyebrows.
Homo sapiens sapiens
These may have appeared around fifty thousand years ago and are associated with new
inventions in military technology, medicine, agriculture and industries.

Homo sapiens Sapiens are different from Homo sapiens in the following ways:
 They have a more advanced faculty for curiosity and intelligence,
 They plan ahead,
 They make accurate forecasts,
 They study stars and galaxies,
 They think and invent.

More recent discoveries of early man include:

 The Millennium man, discovered in 2000 in Baringo: Kenya, which dates back to six million
years ago.
 The 6-7 million years old Trumai, found in Chad in 2002AD, which indicates that man may
have started evolving separately from apes much earlier than currently thought.
Using their superior technology, Homo sapiens were able to disperse and adapt to areas where
other hominids would not have survived, leading to emergence of various races of people with
distinct characteristics in skin colour, hair and facial appearance, probably due to isolation of
various human populations and their adaptation to different environments.
Features
 High intellectual capacity with a large brain of over 200cc.
 Spoke with well refined speech.
 Had small jaws and teeth.
 He was about 6 feet tall.
 Had well developed thumb for grasping objects.
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Races of mankind
There are three main races of mankind. These are:
 The Negroid, which largely comprises Africans, who mainly occupy Africa.
 The Caucasoid, (Caucasians), which is made up of Whites and Indians. These are mainly
found in Europe, Asia and North America.
 The Mongoloids, who include Chinese, Japanese, Koreans and the natives of the Americas.

Culture and economic practices of early man

EARLY MAN’S WAY OF LIFE
Why is the period of early man referred to as the Stone Age?
It was called so because man’s material culture mainly comprised stone. Man’s tools, weapons
and other equipment were mainly made from stone.
List the three stages into which the Stone Age period has been divided.
 The Old Stone Age, also known as the Lower Palaeolithic, which lasted between 450,000 to
50,000 years ago and was mainly characterised by making a few simple tools.
 The Middle Stone Age (Middle Palaeolithic), also called the Mesolithic, which lasted between
2, 00,000-10,000 years ago and is mainly associated with Homoerectus and Homo sapiens.
 The New Stone Age (Upper Palaeolithic), also known as the Late Stone Age, which lasted
between 15,000-1500 years ago and is associated with Homo sapiens and Homo sapiens
Sapiens.

1996 p2 qn 2 List two economic activities of early man during the stone Age period
(2marks)
i. Hunting wild animals
ii. Gathering wild fruits, roots and vegetables
iii. Fishing
iv. Crop farming
v. Administration
vi. Trading
vii. Making stone implements
viii. Pottery (2mrks)

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1997 p2 qn 2 Identify two aspects of the culture of the early man that had their origins in the
late Stone Age. (2marks)
i. Growing crops/ agriculture
ii. Establishing permanent settlements
iii. Making microlithic composite tools e.g. spears
iv. Domesticating animals
v. Beginning of religion and government
vi. Beginning of government
vii. Pottery and basketing

2003 p2 qn 1. Identify two ways in which early man used stone tools.
i. For digging up roots
ii. For constructing shelter/caves
iii. Skinning/scaping/peeling
iv. Cutting/chopping
v. Sewing
vi. Making containers
vii. Sharpening
viii. For protection against enemies/weapons
ix. For hunting and gathering

2005 p2 qn 18. (a) What were the stages in the development of tools by early people?(3 mks)
i. The earliest tools were made from stones
ii. People hunted animals and used bones and ivory to make tools
iii. Later people used sharpened sticks as tools
iv. As people improved in technology they developed iron tools

2007 p2 qn 2. State two methods used by Early Man to find food during the Stone Age
period. (2marks)
i. Hunting
ii. Gathering
iii. Farming
iv. Fishing

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2009 p2 qn 2State two ways in which the early man obtains food
i. Hunting
ii. Gathering
iii. Growing crops/ farming
iv. Livestock keeping/ rearing animals
v. Fishing

2011 p2 qn2 Give two reasons that made early human beings to live in groups during the
Stone Age Period. (2 marks)
i. For companionship
ii. For security
iii. To share resources
iv. To help one another Any 2x1 =2 marks

2012 p2 qn 18. (a) State disadvantages of hunting as an economic activity of the early man.
(3 marks)
i. It is difficult to locate/spot the animals
ii. Animals are a threat/dangerous to humans
iii. It requires many people
iv. Hunting is time consuming
v. It is tiresome/cumbersome
vi. Animals run faster than man

The Old Stone Age (Lower-Palaeolithic)

Describe two phases into which the Old Stone Age was divided.
 The First Phase, which is associated with Olduwan (pebble) tools.
 The Second Phase, which was characterised by making and use of Acheullian tools.
Name/describe the technique by which early man made weapons and tools during the Old Stone
Age.
 It was “La Vallois” Technique (shaping flint by blows), characterised by use of easily available
material such as stone in making weapons and tools.
Name/describe the earliest well finished manmade tool.
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It was the Fist-Hatchet, which was a Flint-stone that was broad at one end but narrow and sharp
at the other and basically served as a cutting tool, though it was multipurpose.
Identify/describe two types of tools made/used by early man during the Old Stone Age.
 Olduwan (pebble) tools, made from fairly large round stones. They were made and used only
in Africa by Australopithecus and Homohabilis.
 Acheullian tools, which were first discovered at Saint Acheul valley in northern France, which
explains the background of their name. They appeared in East Africa about one and a half
million years ago.
Outline three examples of Olduwan tools.
 Flakes,
 Choppers,
 Fist-hatchets.

Identify the places where Olduwan tools were found.

 Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania,
 Koobi-Fora near Lake Turkana in Kenya,
 Omo river valley in Ethiopia,
 Kafu valley in Uganda,
 Shaba province in the Democratic republic of Congo,
 Algeria,
 Morocco,
 Tunisia.
Olduwan tools were widely spread in south, central and North Africa.
In what places were Acheullian tools found?
Acheullian tools appeared in East Africa about one and a half million years ago and have been
found in
 Tanzania
 Uganda,
 Malawi,
 Zambia,
 Zimbabwe,
 Mozambique,
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 South Africa,
 North Africa,
 Kenya,
 The Mediterranean basin,
 The Middle East,
 India,
 England.
In Kenya, Acheullian tools were found at:
 Kariandusi,
 Olorgesailie,
 Kilombe,
 Chesowanja,
 Mtongwe,
 Isenya,
 Lewa downs.

Explain how Acheullian tools were made.

Acheullian tools, which are associated with Homo erectus, were made by flaking the core-stone
on both sides to produce a sharp-pointed end and longer cutting edges.
Identify any two Acheullian tools.
 Hand-axes
 Cleavers.
State the uses of Acheullian tools.
 Cutting,
 Digging,
 Skinning,
 Scrapping.
Describe Man’s life during the Old Stone Age with regard to:
(a) Climate and Clothes,
(b) Shelter and food.

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CLIMATE AND CLOTHES

In Old Stone Age, man walked naked because:
 He had not yet learned how to make clothes.
 The open grassland in the Savannah (in which early man lived) had climate that was warm
enough to make lack of clothes bearable.
 He had a hairy body.
 Stone Age must have been colder than it is today, which explains why man’s body was hairy.

SHELTER AND FOOD

 Man slept on trees, in tree-trunks, stone-caves and rock-shelters for protection from predators.
He had not yet learnt how to build houses.
 Man fed on plants, birds’ eggs and insects, which he ate raw since fire-making had not yet
been invented.
 He had a kind of home-base, where he often brought some of his food.
Describe man’s hunting methods during the Old Stone Age period.
 Chasing and throwing stone bolars to entangle and catch the escaping prey.
 Digging large pits in the path of big animals to trap them as they went to drink water.
 Chasing or herding animals over steep cliffs or into muddy or swampy lakes for easy catching.
Man then skinned his prey and ate the meat raw.
 Hunting was a group activity. It was a kind of life that required strong people.
 As men hunted, women gathered fruits and berries.
Name the hominids that the Old Stone Age is associated with.
 Australopithecus,
 Homo habilis,
 Homo erectus.

2006 p1 qn 18 b)Describe the way of life of early Human Beings during the
Old Stone Age Period
(i) They made simple stone tools for domestic use/ oldulvan tools
(ii) They lived in small groups in order to assist each other
(iii) They obtained their food through hunting and gathering

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(iv) They used simple hunting methods such as chasing wild animals and laying traps
(v) They ate raw food because fire had not been discovered
(vi) They had no specific dwelling places
(vii) They sheltered from predators by climbing trees and hiding in caves
(viii) They wore no clothing but their hairy bodies kept them warm
(ix) They lived near rivers and lakes
(x) They communicated by use of gestures and whistling
(Any 5 x 2 = 10 marks)

THE MIDDLE STONE AGE (MIDDLE-PALEOLITHIC)

Name the hominids that the Middle Stone Age is associated with.
 Homo erectus,
 Homo sapien.
Identify three types of tools made and used during the Middle Stone Age.
 Sangoan tools, some of which were found at Sango bay on the western side of Lake Victoria in
Tanzania, which explains why they bear the name Sangoan tools.
 Specialized stone-tools, made through the Mousterian style.
 The Tang, which may have been the first tool with a handle and was invented and used in
North Africa about 40,000 years ago.

Identify the techniques used in tool making during the Middle Stone Age.
 “La Vallois” technique, used in making Sangoan tools.
 The Mousterian style, which was used in making specialized stone-tools.
Identify the discoveries or inventions made by Homoerectus during the Middle Stone Age.
 Invention and use of fire.
 Invention and use of better weapons and hunting methods.
 Cooking of food, which rendered previously poisonous kinds edible.
 Man wore animal skins, shells and necklaces as clothing and ornaments instead of walking
naked.
 Development of language for communication, which strengthened man’s culture and social
bonds.

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 Development of Rock art. Man painted pictures of the animals he hunted on cave-walls, as is
illustrated at Kondoa and Singida areas in north-central Tanzania and Apollo ii) caves in
Orange state in South Africa.
Identify any three Sangoan tools.
 Side-scrappers,
 Chisel peaks,
 Plane peaks,
 Hand-axes,
 Flake-tools,
 Knives,
 Spear-points,
 Choppers,
 Daggers.

STATE THE IMPORTANCE OF FIRE TO EARLY MAN.

(in what ways did the invention and use of fire change man’s way of life?)
 It provided warmth, particularly during cold spells.
 It provided lighting, mainly at night.
 Man could now cook his food, which rendered previously poisonous varieties edible.
 iv)) Hunting became easier and shorter, as bush-fires pushed animals into confined areas.
 Wild animals were frightened and kept away.
 It was used in hardening tips of wooden tools, which greatly improved tool making.
 It was used in signalling and communication.
 It was used in preserving food, e.g. in drying fish and meat.
 Man was able to move from the warm Savannah to other areas.
 Pottery was baked and hardened.

Describe Man’s life during the Middle Stone Age with regard to:
(A) Food and Clothes,
(b) Shelter.

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FOOD AND CLOTHES

 Better weapons and hunting methods were used. Large animals like elephants, deer, rhinos,
pigs, buffaloes, hippopotamus and the grazing antelopes were caught.
 Food could now be cooked.
 Fruits, birds’ eggs, insects and fish were eaten in addition to meat.
 Animal skins, shells and necklaces were worn as clothing and ornaments.
 People painted themselves with red ochre and oil.

SHELTER
(a) Man started to identify and have particular places where his family could retire and rest after
the day’s activities.
(b) For security, man later lived in caves, which had their entrances covered with animal-skins to
keep away wind and rain as fire burnt at such entrances at night to keep off wild animals.
Identify examples of places where Middle Stone Age man and his family could retire and rest
after the day’s activities.
 An open site with at lEast six semi-circular stone-settings, which was found at Orangia in
southern Africa.
 The rock-shelters that were scooped out to form hollows, found at Olorgesailie near Nakuru in
Kenya.
Identify examples of caves that were used as shelters by Man during the Middle Stone Age.
 Matupi Cave in the Democratic Republic of Congo,
 Gambles cave near Lake Nakuru in Kenya,
 Dar Es Sultan cave in southern Africa.
Explain the advances made by early man during the Middle Stone Age with regard to:
(a) Language and Rock art.
(b) Social organization.

LANGUAGE AND ROCK-ART

 Man developed language for communication, which strengthened his culture and social bonds.
 Man painted pictures of the animals he hunted on cave-walls, as is illustrated at Kondoa and
Singida areas in north-central Tanzania and Apollo ii) caves in Orange state in South Africa.

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SOCIAL ORGANNIZATION
 Families lived in small groups for security reasons.
 There was efficient group organization, especially during hunting expeditions.
 With the invention of language, early man’s culture and social bonds were strengthened.

In what two ways was Rock art important to early man during the Middle Stone Age?
 Cave-paintings showed keen observation of animal life.
 It implied development of some belief in magic. Man believed that his drawings could control
his chances over his prey and that by painting such animal pictures, the hunt would be
successful. Indeed, some pictures contained arrows piercing the animals he hoped to get for his
food.

1997 p2 qn 15(b) Discuss the benefits of the discovery of fire to the earlyman (11 marks)
i. The discovery and use of fire made it possible for early man to keep warm during cold nights
and seasons.
ii. Fire enhanced the security of early man as it was kept burning to keep away wild animals and
other possible sources of danger.
iii. It was a source of lighting at night, which facilitated other productive activities at night
iv. Fire improved hunting activities of early man as it was used to harden the tips of the tools for
hunting
v. Early man used to extract poison from plants. Which they used for hunting
vi. Fire was used as a source of food preservation method for Example drying meat or fish.
vii. Fire was used to cook food and make it palatable and more nutrition.
viii. Fire was used to bake and harden wood for special use e.g. stools and hoe - sticks
ix. Fire was used as a means of communication

2003 p2 qn 17.a) What were the advantages of the discovery of fire by the early man?
i. It enabled early man to cook food
ii. Fire was used to keep people warm
iii. It was used to protect people against wild animals/security.
iv. Fire was used to clear bushes to facilitate settlement
v. Fire was used for lighting at night
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vi. Fire was used to sharpen the tips of tools

vii. Fire was used for hunting
viii. Hardening pots
ix. Extracting poison from plants
x. Communication
Any 3 points 1 mark=3marks

2004 p2 qn 2 State two uses of fire by early man. (2 marks)

i. It provides warmth
ii. It was used to scare animals/ security
iii. It was used for cooking/ roasting/ preserving food
iv. It was used for providing light
v. It was used for hardening tools/ pots
vi. It was used for communication
vii. It was used for hunting
viii. It was used for extracting poison.

2007 p1 qn2. State two advantages of the discovery of fire by early man. (2marks)
i. Man used fire to cook food.
ii. Fire provided light at night.
iii. Man used fire to keep himself warm
iv. Fire was used to harden tips of tools.
v. Fire was used to frighten/keep off dangerous animals. (Any 2x1=2marks)

2009 p2 qn 18 (b) Describe six ways in which the discovery of fire by Early Man
improved his way of life
i. The fire was used to roast/ cook thus he stopped eating raw food
ii. Fire was used to provide warmth at night when it was cold
iii. Fire was used to provide light in the dwelling/ sites/ caves
iv. Fire improved hunting as man could use it to push animals to confined areas thus kill them
easily.
v. Fire was used to frighten animals from man’s dwelling places thus improved security
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vi. Tool making was improved through the use of fire to harden sharpen tips of tools
vii. Communication between people living at different places was made possible by the of fire and
smoke signals
viii. Early man preserved food by drying it over the fire
ix. Fire enabled man to harden pottery which was used for storage / cooking/ trade
(Any 6 x 2 = 12 marks)
Regional Variation in Middle Stone Age of Africa (courtesy J.D. Clark)

THE NEW STONE AGE (NEOLITHIC)

Name two hominids with who the New Stone Age was associated.
 Homo sapiens
 Homo sapiens Sapiens.
Describe the main tool whose use marked the New Stone Age.
The New Stone age was marked by use of microliths i.e. small pieces of sharp stone fitted and
glued into wood or bone handles, e.g. the Crescent or lunette. Several microliths were fixed
together in wooden or bone shafts to make “composite” tools.
Identify other tools that were used during the New Stone Age apart from Microliths.
 Arrowheads,
 Sickles,
 Spears,
 Bows,
 Arrows,
 Slings,
 Harpoons,
 Knives,
 Swords,
 Bone needles,
 Daggers.
Describe the culture of early Man during the new Stone Age with regard to:
(a) Food and agriculture,
(b) Language and religion.

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FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

 With better tools and weapons, man’s fishing techniques improved, although he continued
hunting and gathering fruits and roots for food.
 Domestication of plants and animals began, which improved man’s life.
 Adequate and balanced diet, due to which man’s population increased tremendously.

LANGUAGE AND RELIGION

 Man began to depend more on natural forces such as rain for fertility and productivity of land,
aware that drought could easily cause their ruin.
 Man began to ponder over issues such as life after death.
 Man performed rites and ceremonies believing that they could influence rain, drought, death
and other natural forces.
Identify Archaeological sites in Kenya where evidence of New Stone age religious
practices was found.
 At Hyrax hill,
 Njoro river cave near Nakuru.
Apart from human fossil remains, identify other New Stone Age items that were discovered at the
places you’ve mentioned.
 Tools,
 Seeds,
 Food.

Describe the social organization/advances of early man during the New Stone age.
1. Man settled in villages, each of which comprised about 1000 members.
2. Practices such as body decoration developed. Red ochre was used as body make-up while
beads made of seeds, bones and ostrich egg-shells were worn.
3. Simple arts and crafts like basketry and smelting of bronze and iron developed. Pots were
made by shaping clay and baking it hard using fire. Man was able to spin and weave clothing
from flax and other natural fibres.
4. Man-made shelters using tree branches and grass, decorating walls and roofs with animal
paintings. Other than caves and rock- shelters, man built huts.
5. Language and religion developed as man settled.

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List the economic advances made by early man during the New Stone age.
 Man made and used better tools and weapons,
 Man’s fishing techniques improved, although he continued hunting and gathering fruits and
roots for food.
 Domestication of plants and animals began, which improved man’s life.
 Adequate and balanced diet, due to which man’s population increased tremendously.
Explain early man’s political advances during the New Stone Age.
 As a farmer, man started leading a settled life. He built improved semi-permanent shelters.
 Because of his social way of life, rules and laws were set up, which later formed the basis of
the civil society.
 Because not everyone took up farming, some people specialised in leadership, religion and the
making of crafts.

2010 p2 qn 2. State two uses of stone tools by early people during the Old
Stone Age period.
i. For skinning animals after hunting.
ii. For digging uproots
iii. For cutting meat
iv. For sharpening one/wood
v. For scraping animals skins/softening
vi. For killing animals during hunting
vii. For protecting/defence any 2 x 1 = 2 marks
2011 p2 qn 18(b)Explain six cultural practices of Homo Sapiens during the New Stone
Age (12marks)
i. Made microlithic tools which were small and more efficient that the earlier tools
ii. Lived in rock shelters/cave/hats to protect themselves from harsh weather/wild animals
iii. Decorated shelters with animal paintings/hunting scenes
iv. Began to domesticate animals/plants in order to ensure regular food supply
v. Developed speech which made communication easier
vi. Developed government by setting up rules/laws

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vii. Developed religion as evidence by the practice of burying the dead with their possessions
viii. They practiced simple Art and Craft work/pottery/basketry/weaving
ix. They started a settle way of life where they established villages
x. They were a variety of garments/ clothing
xi. They decorated their bodies with red ochre/wore orama (any 6x2 =12 marks)

2012 p2 qn 18 (b) Explain six benefits of settling in villages during the Late Stone Age period.
There was security as people protect themselves against enemies
i. Living as a large group enabled people to work together hence accomplishing with ease
ii. Settling gin villages assured man of permanent dwelling thereby reducing movement
iii. Man domesticated animals which provided animal products thereby reducing hunting activities
iv. Living in villages promoted interactions thereby increasing social cohesions ideas
v. People were able to exchange goods/services hence getting what they did not have
vi. It enabled them to build better shelter thereby protecting themselves from harsh conditions

Revision Questions.
1. Identify the theories that explain the origin of human beings.
2. Why is Africa regarded to as the home of early man?
3. Discuss the economic and cultural activities which took place during the following:
i) Old Stone Age
ii) Middle Stone Age
iii) Late Stone Age
4. How was fire used during the Middle Stone Age?
5. Discuss the cultural and economic practices of early man during the following evolution
stages:
i) Homo Habilis
ii) Homo erectus
iii) Homo Sapiens

This is a Property of Mwalimu Consultancy Ltd. Contact Mr Isaboke

0746-222-000 for more Educational Materials.

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DEVELOPMENT IN AGRICULTURE
Development of early Agriculture
2011 p2 qn 3 Identify two ways through which early agriculture spread in Africa.(2 marks)
i. Through migration
ii. Through trade
iii. Through intermarriages
iv. Through wars

Definition of Agriculture
Agriculture is the growing of crops and rearing of livestock. Agriculture begun as man begun to
get settled life and stop hunter-gather to settled life.
Origin of Agriculture
Theories that explain how man discovered crop growing and animal keeping.
 The Diffusion theory, which states that crop growing and animal keeping developed in south-
west Asia and then spread to the rest of the world.
 That which states that agriculture must have developed independently in various parts of the
world.
1999 p2 qn 19 (a) What factors favoured the beginning of agriculture during the New Stone
Age?
(i) Development of tools –modernized tools & wooden plough
(ii) Settled life of development of settlements
(iii) Increase of population leading to high demand of food
(iv) Hunting and gathering was becoming tiresome
(v) Change in climate which made natural food scarse
(vi) Availability of seeds in variety e.g. wheat & barley
(Any 3 points, 1 mark) ( 3 marks)

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THE BEGINNING OF DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS

2010 p2 qn3. Identify the method used to plant cereal crops when early agriculture began.
i. The broadcasting method 1 x 1 = 1 mark
NB THE FIRST ANIMAL TO BE DOMESTICATED WAS THE DOG.
Benefits of domestication of animals
 Regular food supply e.g. meat and milk.
 Clothing, beddings and other products from animal skins.
 Hooves and horns, which were used as containers, communication and musical instruments.
 Animal bones for making tools, ornaments, needles and weapons.
 Camels, donkeys and horses enabled man to travel longer distances faster with heavier loads.
 Increased crop yields as oxen and donkeys were used for ploughing.
 Animals provided manure for the crop farms.
 Use of the dog for protection from dangerous animals.
 Man now led a more settled life as hunting was now limited since the animals he needed for
food were at his doorstep.
 Man now lived in families and villages.
Domestication of plants and animals occurred in the Neolithic period, although animal
domestication came first.

THE BEGINNING OF CROP GROWING

Factors for the domestication of animals and crops
1998 p2 qn 1Name two factors which influenced early man to begin domesticating animals? (2
marks)
i. Economy.
ii. Man found some animals friendly.
iii. Changes in climatic conditions resulted in aridity which forced animals to migrate.
iv. Over hunting by early man led to the reduction of animal population.
v. Increase in human population forced the animals to migrate further away.
vi. Adoption of settled life necessitated domestication of animal.
Any 2 points, 1 mark each.

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2010 p2 qn 18.a)State five reasons why early people domesticated crops and animals during
the Neolithic period.
i. Due to increased Human population more food was required.
ii. There was competition for food between human beings and animals.
iii. Over hunting developed stocks of animal on which human beings relied on for food.
iv. Hunting and gathering had become tiresome/insecure.
v. Calamities such as bush fire/floods destroyed vegetation/drove away animals.
vi. Some crops and animals had economic value.
vii. Animals were domesticated to provide security.
viii. There was a change in climate which caused aridity/weather sometimes hindered gathering and
hunting. Any 5 x 1 = 5 marks

2004 p2 qn 18. (a) What made the early man to domesticate crops and animals? (3 marks)
i. The need to supplement hunting and gathering which was tedious/need to lead a settled life.
ii. The realization that some animals were social e.g. cat
iii. The discovery that some crops took a short time to mature/presence of indigenous crops.
iv. The diminishing/migration in number of wild animals made man to seek an alternative.
v. Climatic changes/natural which caused occasional calamities/poor fruits and root yields.
vi. The development of improved tools which enabled effective cultivation of crops.
vii. Population increase led to demand for food
viii. For Security e.g. dog

2003 p2 qn 17. b) Explain six ways in which early agriculture changed the lives of early
people.
i. Agriculture provided people with a steady source of food instead of depending on hunting and
gathering
ii. People were able to lead settled lives because of the availability of food
iii. Availability of food enabled some people to specialize in skills such as crafts /local
industries/division of labour
iv. Production of excess agricultural products led to the development of trade between
communities
v. It led to an increase in population as people had enough food to eat.

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vi. Concentration of people in settlements led to the development of early urban centres/growth of
towns
vii. People were able to build more permanent houses and this ensured their security.
viii. It led to the development of social satratifaction/classes
ix. Development of political systems/government
Any 6 points, 2 marks =12marks

EARLY AGRICULTURE IN EGYPT

2006 p2 qn 2 Identify one area in Africa where agriculture began
i. Along the Nile Valley in Egypt ( Any 1 x 1= mark)
Factors that lead to early Agriculture in Egypt
Explain the factors that promoted (facilitated) agriculture in ancient Egypt.
 The river Nile, which provided the water needed for irrigation and for domestic use.
 The fertile soil and the warm climate of the Nile Valley.
 Invention and use of irrigation technique, characterised by Shadoof and Basin methods.
 Availability of food crops that had already become indigenous to Egypt, e.g. wheat and barley.
 Availability of many tameable animals in Egypt e.g. goats and sheep.
 Good and able political leaders, who directed agricultural production, distribution of food and
other crafts. The government owned huge granaries and go-downs for storage of grain,
animals, cloth and metals for use in times of scarcity.
 Natural protection of the Nile valley from foreign invasion by the Libyan desert to the west,
the Nubian desert and the Nile cataracts to the south and the harbourless coast of the Nile
delta on the north.
 Egypt’s close proximity to Mesopotamia (the first centre of agricultural development), which
encouraged a lot of borrowing.
 Use of implements like sticks, knives, axes, sickles, wooden and bronze hoes and others of
their kind, which eased farming.
 Farmers had several seasons in a year and, because of irrigation, no longer depended on annual
Nile Valley floods.
 Introduction and adoption of iron technology in Africa by 1000AD, which enabled the
Egyptians to make and use iron tools like ploughs, which made farming more efficient

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1997 p2 qn 3 Identify two factors which favoured the development of crop growing in ancient
Egypt. (2marks)
(i) Availability of reliable source of water
(ii) Existence of indigenous type of grains
(iii) Existence of fertile soils along river Nile
(iv) The invention and use of the Shadoof for irrigation and other form of implements
(v) Existence of a stable government under Pharaoh
(vi) Existence writing helped them to keep accurate records of seasons and volume of food
(vii) Use of slave as currency.
(viii) Invention and use of farm implements.

DESCRIBE FARMING ACTIVITIES IN ANCIENT EGYPT.

 Various crops were grown, such as wheat, barley, fruits, flax, beans, vegetables, cucumbers,
onions,, lentils, dates, figs and grapes.
 The Broadcasting method of planting (scattering seed on land) was used. Animals were driven
over the fields to cover the seed in earth for germination or budding.
 Shifting cultivation was practised before the human population increased, but more settler
cultivation was encouraged as days went by.
 Various animals were kept such as cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, donkeys,, poultry and bees.
 The King was regarded as the guardian for food supply for all. some senior government
officers were assigned the responsibility of ensuring food security.

DESCRIBE THE IRRIGATION METHODS PRACTISED IN ANCIENT EGYPT.

Irrigation technique in ancient Egypt was characterised by Shadoof and Basin methods in
addition to construction of dykes to direct water to the farms during drought. A Shadoof is a
wooden device consisting of a long pole swinging up and down between two supporting
wooden posts. On one end of the pole was hung a heavy weight and a skin bucket at the other.
The bucket was pulled down and dipped in water by a person. The weight on the other side
would then cause the bucket to rise up to another person above, who would empty the water
into the canals, which then directed it to the fields.

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Describe two senior government officers that were assigned the responsibility of
ensuring food security in ancient Egypt.
 The Master of Largesse was responsible for all livestock in the country.
 The head of the exchequer ensured distribution of seeds and livestock when agricultural output
was poor.
2007 p2 qn 3. Give the main reason why early agriculture developed in Egypt (1marks)
i. Availability of water from the River Nile
ii. The River Nile also brought rich fertile silt from the highlands

2008 p2 qn 3. Name one method of irrigation used in the development of early agriculture in
Egypt. (1 mark)
i. Basin
ii. Canal
iii. shadoof
Any 1x1 = 1 mark

IMPACTS OF EARLY AGRICULTURE IN EGYPT

1998 p2 qn 17(b) Explain the results of the development of early Agriculture in Egypt
(10marks)
i. There was increased production, hence food supply was regular.
ii. Sufficient and nutritional foods led to increase in production.
iii. Surplus agricultural production resulted to trade. E.g. food was exchanged with pots and tools.
iv. There was invention of writing, arithmetic and geometry due to the need to keep records i.e.
hieroglyphics.
v. Shadoof irrigation methods were developed that put more land into use.
vi. Urban centres emerged, e.g. Memphis, Thebes.
vii. Farmers settled more permanently and improved their living standards.
viii. Religion developed, e.g. god was associated with farming. Offering to gods was practised.
Any 5x2=10 marks

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2009 p2 qn 9. Give two reasons why the early urban centres in ancient
Egypt developed in the Nile Valley
i. Water from the river was used for transportation
ii. Water from the river was used for domestic use/ industrial use
iii. Nile valley contained fertile soil for farming/ availability of food
iv. Nile valley had cool temperature which encourages settlement
v. Vegetation along the river provided building materials
( Any 2 x 1 = 2 marks)

EARLY AGRICULTURE IN MESOPOTAMIA

In Mesopotamia, which today is part of Iraq, food production began around 8000 BC having
been introduced by settlers from the Iranian plateau. Jarmo in the Kurdish foothills represents
the earliest stage of Agriculture. As men went hunting and gathering, the women they left
behind may have experimented with wild grasses that grew around their compound until they
found out and grew the edible plants, paving the way for organized agriculture.

FACTORS THAT FACILITATED AGRICULTURE IN MESOPOTAMIA

 Use of water from the Tigris and Euphratese for irrigation. At first, Sumer in southern
Mesopotamia was unsuitable for farming as it had very little rain. But the Sumerians skilfully
dug canals to channel water from the two rivers to summer, boosted by the Shadoof or Bucket
method of irrigation.
 The rich fertile silt deposited on the lower Tigris and Euphratese river valleys and soils in the
region, which were mostly fertile.
 Good leadership by, among others, Sargon the great and Hammurabi the law giver.
 Invention and use of farming implements like the ox-drawn plough and the seed-drill in place
of digging sticks and stone hoes fastened with sticky earth onto a short wooden handle for
tilling the land as well as baked clay sickles, baskets and pots in reaping and storing the
harvest.
 The fact that the region was endowed with indigenous crops and animals like wheat, dates,
figs, olives, vines, palms, onions, melons, cucumber, ducks, pigs, gees, horses, cattle, sheep,
goats, a variety of vegetables and a variety of grains.
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 Heavy rains in the Zaggiroes mountains, which caused the much needed floods on the
Euphrates and Tigris river valleys.
 Reclamation of more land for agricultural purposes by skilfully draining and directing water
through dykes, ditches and canals from swampy land to the dry land, making both cultivable.

FARMING ACTIVITIES IN MESOPOTAMIA

 The Sumerian civilization, which was thriving in Mesopotamia by around 3000BC comprised
twelve separate city states. Farming, fishing, crafts making and keeping of livestock were most
practised.
 The city states were surrounded with walls, outside of which were farming fields, on which the
urban people depended.
 Most land was in the form of large estates belonging either to the rulers or to the wealthy
classes. The workers were given small plots and seeds, farm implements and livestock in
return for labour and surplus produce to the land owners.
 Wheeled carts were used to transport farm produce to various storage points.
 Goats and cattle provided milk while sheep supplied wool: Mesopotamia’s main textile fabric.
 City-states often fought over water rights.


WHAT WERE THE CONSEQUENCES/RESULTS OF EARLY

AGRICULTURE IN MESOPOTAMIA?
 Adoption of sedentary lifestyle.
 Invention of writing (Cuneiform) and Arithmetic for better farming management, e.g. accounts
on rents paid by Tennant farmers, the size of the herds, etc.
 Increased food production.
 Population increase, particularly along river valleys, arising from healthy feeding.
 Urbanisation/Emergence of urban centres like Uruk, Eridu, Nippur, Kish and Babylon.
 Trade/Development and expansion of trade due to surplus agricultural produce.
 Division of labour/Specialization in crafts, religion and other non-food producing endeavours,
as not all could engage in farming.
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 Social classes. With a stratified society having majority of the wealth people and the poor.
 Invention and use of the wheel, which improved transport and pottery.
 Education. Development of science and mathematics, particularly in measurement of time,
distance and area.
 Invention and improvement of farming tools such as the plough, which eased and increased
agriculture. For example, it reduced the number of people needed to cultivate a large piece of
land. Discovery and use of metals to make farm tools, which revolutionized agriculture.
Bronze tools were made and used in Mesopotamia as early as 3000BC.
 Development of religion. Development in astronomy, arising from the need to predict rains,
floods and eclipses, which led to the invention of the calendar. Advances in religious practices.
Mesopotamians had many gods, most of who were connected to agriculture, e.g. Ninurta the
god of floods.
 Development of law and government. Government developed from the need for security.
Explain two main factors that facilitated development of law in Mesopotamia.
 Advances in religious practices. Mesopotamians had many gods, most of who were connected
to agriculture, e.g. Ninurta the god of floods.
 Compilation of cords of law to limit conflict in their civilization, e.g. Hammurabi’s law.

FACTORS THAT LED TO EARLY AGRICULTURE IN

MESOPOTAMIA
2012 p2 qn3. State two ways in which the Sumerians in Mesopotamia reclaimed land for
agriculture. (2marks)
i. the built banks /dykes along rivers to stop flooding
ii. They dug ditches to drain water from swamps
iii. They used canals to irrigate the land
iv. They used shadoof to draw water to irrigate the land
(2marks)

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IMPACTS OF EARLY AGRICULTURE IN MESOPOTAMIA

2000 p2 qn 3 Identify two similarities between early agriculture in Mesopotamia and Egypt. (2
marks)
i. In both countries agriculture was practiced along the river valleys
ii. Farmers depended on flood water for farming
iii. They developed systems of irrigation
iv. They used farm implements made of stone, wood and later metal
v. They traded in farm produce
vi. Planted indigenous crops
vii. Used both human and animal labour
viii. Developed a system of storage and preserving of foods

2011 p2 qn 3 Identify two ways through which early agriculture spread in Africa. (2 mks)
i. Through migration
ii. Through trade
iii. Through intermarriages
iv. Through wars

THE AGRARIAN REVOLUTION

 Agrarian Revolution refers to radical changes and improvements in agriculture and animal
domestication.

Characteristics of agriculture in Europe before the agrarian revolution
 Land belonged to the feudal lords, the church and the royal family.
 Land was rented out to peasants, who paid by their labour.
 Paths and cart tracks criss-crossed the land.
 Farmers used the Broadcasting methods of planting.
 Small scale farming and intercropping (growing of more than one crop on a piece of land at
the same time) was practised.
 Farmers practised the Open Field system.

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THE OPEN FIELD SYSTEM

 A piece of land was divided into three portions: one for growing corn and wheat, the second
for beans, peas, barley, oats and bush wheat, while the third was left fallow to regain fertility.
Sometimes, this third piece was left for grazing and homes.
 Each portion of land was divided into several strips, depending on the number of peasants in a
village.
 Each peasant had his own strip, on which he was meant to cultivate just enough for the needs
of his family since agriculture had not yet been commercialized.

Disadvantages of open field system

 It did not allow efficient farming as land was not fully utilized.
 Division of land into small strips discouraged use of farm machinery.
 The existence of fallow pieces of land, cart tracks and paths that went through the unfenced
fields wasted land.
 It was difficult to control diseases or to practise selective breeding since livestock grazed
together.
 The broadcasting method of planting led to wastage of seeds as some were eaten by birds and
rodents.
 Families had to travel long distances to reach their fields as pieces of land were scattered all
over.
 Agricultural yield was low and could not meet the growing urban population’s food demand.

AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN

Characteristics of agrarian revolution
 The land enclosure system (fencing and hedging of plots), which replaced the Open Field
system in 1750.
 Mechanization, i.e. use of new farming methods, which required large farms as opposed to the
previous small strips.
 Abolition of fallows. Farmers could no longer leave the land fallow to regain its fertility as
was the tradition. Increase in population meant demand for more food, which required most of
the land to be put to use.
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 Introduction of crop rotation. Lord Viscount Townsend developed a four-course rotation

system called the Norfolk, which consisted of barley, clover, turnips and wheat on the same
plot of land over a four-year period, by which land retained or gained but would not lose its
fertility.
 The introduction of intercropping. It was discovered that growing crops like maize and beans
on a given piece of land at the same time enabled land to regain fertility, since such crops did
not require the same nutrients from the soil and they grew well if planted together.
 Use of fertilizer. This was pioneered by Lord Viscount Townsend, who recommended
manuring of land to increase yields per hectare.
 Use of machines. This changed agriculture from a small scale subsistence activity to a large
scale business for both subsistence and commercial purposes.
 Selective breeding of livestock. This was invented between 1725-1795 by Robert Bakewell.
 Introduction and all-time availability of cattle feed, which helped ensure supply of fresh meat
all the year round.


The animal breeds that resulted from Robert Bakewell’s Selective Breeding
technique.
 New improved cattle breeds like Devon, the Short-Horn, Hereford, Ayshire and Aberdeen
Angus
 Sheep breeds such as the Leicester, Shropshire, Suffolk and Oxford.
 Pig breeds like Yorkshire, Berkshire and Tamworth.

The inventions/innovations that were made during Agrarian revolution in Britain.

 Jethro Tull’s invention of the Seed Drill and the horse-drawn hoe in 1791,, with which seeds
could be sown in rows, which eased interrow cropping and kept the land between the rows
clean.
 Introduction of the Iron plough in place of the wooden plough in 1825.
 Formation of the Royal Agricultural Society in 1838, which publicised new ideas and
techniques of farming all over Britain. This encouraged adoption of modern methods of
farming.

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 Opening of a super phosphates factory in London in 1843 by Sir john Bennet Lawes,
following the earlier discovery by scientists that Nitrogen Phosphorus (in phosphates) and
Potassium (in Potash) are nutrients for all plants.
 Andrew Meikles’ invention of the Mechanical Thresher in 1876, which improved Patrick
Bell’s earlier invention of the Mechanical Reaper, which replaced the sickle in harvesting
corn. A Binder was added to the reaper so that corn was cut and bound at the same time. Other
modern machines like tractors and the combined harvester could reap and thresh corn
simultaneously.

THE LAND ENCLOSURE SYSTEM

How the Enclosure system serve as an agricultural landmark in Britain
 It was necessitated by use of new farming methods that required large farms as opposed to the
previous small strips.
 Rich farmers bought up all the land and, through the Enclosure Movement, demanded that
land be enclosed by fencing.
 Through the Enclosure act of 1750, the British government mandated farmers to fence their
land. This enabled the rich to acquire a lot more land and created large farms that were easily
managed as farmers could specialize in crop or animal production, which was highly
profitable.
 The farmers that bought up the land got title deeds, which they could use to borrow money
from firms to improve their farms.
 Peasants, who could not buy their own estates were evicted from and lost their land, which
was sold off to rich landlords.
 There was displacement and a lot more hardship for those who lost their land as they had to
sell their labour to the rich farmers and to the factories in the urban as others emigrated to the
USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.
 There were many changes in lifestyle as agriculture was transformed from a simple human
occupation to a complex highly profitable business.
 Fallow land was cultivated and wasteland reclaimed. Food could now be grown round the year
due to increased irrigation.
 Cultivation methods and equipment improved, which meant adequate and surplus food
production.
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 By 1800, all farmland in Britain was enclosed, which greatly reduced the risk of animal and
crop diseases. Aggressive farmers could now increase production without the hindrance of
their neighbours.

Factors that led to agrarian revolution in Britain

1997 p2 qn 5 Name two ways in which the railway transport contributed to the Agrarian
revolution in Western Europe. (2marks)
i. Railway provided efficient and reliable means of transport for agricultural products.
ii. Provided efficient transport for farm machinery and labour and farm implements.
iii. Provided efficient transport of farm tiling.

1998 p2 qn 3 State one way in which the Agrarian Revolution contributed to rural- urban
migration in Europe. (1mark)
i. Mechanization of farming rendered peasants jobless so they migrated to urban centres in search
of jobs opportunities.
ii. The enclosure system made many people landless.
Any 1 point, 1 mark.
1999 p2 qn 2. State one main way in which the Agrarian Revolution contributed to the
development of urban centres in Europe.
i. The enclosure system/ the consolidation of farms forced people to migrate from the rural areas
to urban (1 mark)

1999 p2 qn 19 (b) Explain six factors which promoted plantation farming in Europe
during the agrarian revolution
i. The Invention of machines for extensive farming e.g seedling horse drawn
ii. plough, iron hoe.
iii. Discovery of fertilizers which led to high yields/ manure
iv. Discovery of pesticides and fungicides which facilitate control of crops
v. Diseases.
vi. Improvement in transport especially the railway which facilitate transportation of bulky goods/
farm products and farm workers
vii. High demand for food by rapidly growing urban population.
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viii. Demand for agricultural and industrial raw materials

ix. Development of new breads of crops as a result of research in agriculture
x. The enclosure acts/ system pushed people out of the rural areas and created room for plantation
agriculture.

2000 p2 qn 19 (b) Explain four advantage of the land tenure system in Britain (7 mrks)
i. It led to the development of large scale farming thus bringing more land under production
ii. It led to increased food production since more land was brought under cultivation
iii. Increased food production led to an increase in population
iv. It facilitated the mechanization of agriculture e.g. the use of seed drill mechanical thresher and
combined harvester
v. Increased agricultural production led to the establishment of industries which provided
employment opportunities to the displaced poor.
vi. It enhanced control and spread of pest and diseases and led to the production of high quality
produce.
vii. It led to the appreciation of the value of land
viii. improved transport system to transport agricultural produce to the market
ix. Invention of new methods of maintaining soil fertility e.g. Use of manure, crop rotation and use
fertilizer
x. Led to the establishment of organizations that disseminated information about new agricultural
inventions e.g. Royal agricultural Society
xi. New methods of animal husbandry were practiced e.g. selective breeding of livestock
xii. Mechanization of agriculture led to the growth of local and international trade.

RESULTS OF AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN

The results of Agrarian revolution In Britain
 Improved farming methods, which led to increased food production.
 Population increase as food was abundant. Life expectancy was higher too.
 A large variety of crops e.g. clover, potatoes, beans, maize, vegetables and citrus fruits.
 New animal breeds such as the Friesian cow as well as Leicester and Suffolk sheep, among
others.
 large scale farming in place of subsistence farming.
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 Mechanization of farming as cultivation of large farms was adopted.

 Rural-urban migration as peasants were compelled by the Enclosure movement to sell their
land to rich farmers.
 Availability of raw materials required in the agro based industries, thus contributing to the
industrial revolution.
 Expansion of both local and international trade
 Expansion of the transport network.
 Enhancement of research and scientific innovations.
 Migration of some of the landless to the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South
Africa and other places overseas.
 Minimization of pests, diseases and epidemics.
 high standard of life, particularly for farmers due to increased agricultural income.
 Availability of food and feeds round the year.
 British culture was spread and administered overseas.
 Emergence and growth of more and more urban centres due to rise of a non-food producing
population.

The negative effects of the Agrarian revolution.

 Land was concentrated in the hands of a few rich people, leaving the wider majority under
poverty and insecurity due to forced sales of their land.
 The fact that work, for which those who lost their land had to look, was not easy to find, for
the landless outnumbered the landlords by a greater margin.
 Most of those who migrated overseas died due to exposure to strange climates.
 Some of the emergent non-food producing population indulged into permissive and
unbecoming behaviour, a lot of which remains to date.
 Some fertilizer and pesticides, such as DDT, became destructive to the environment.
 Urban centres were overcrowded, with poor living conditions due to influx of poor landless
peasants into towns.
 The idea of colonization stems from Agrarian revolution since almost all places where British
emigrants went to after the Agrarian Revolution, such as the USA, Canada, Australia,, New
Zealand, South Africa, etc. became British colonies.

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THE AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

1996 p2 qn 6 Name two main cash crops that were grown in North America during the
Agrarian evolution. (2marks)
i. Tobacco
ii. Cotton
iii. Corn/Maize
iv. Wheat

Factors that led to agrarian revolution in united states of America

2001 p2 qn 20. (a) Describe three factors that facilitated the development of agriculture in
America before 1800
i. European immigration into the region led to population increase and demand for food.
ii. European immigration introduced new methods of farming
iii. Introduction of new crops
iv. Availability of slave labour to clear forests and to farm
v. Suitability of climate for agriculture
vi. Presence of suitable soils for different types of crops
vii. Settlement of enterprising European emigrants who wished to make a living through
agriculture.
viii. Availability of indigenous crops
ix. Use of river for irrigation(Any 3 points, 1 mark (3 marks)

2001 p2 qn 20 (b) Discuss the factors that led to the Agrarian Revolution in North
American
i. The introduction of the enclosure system in Britain forced landless to migrate to North America
where they introduced new farming methods.
ii. Availability of land for the farming of different crop varieties such as tobacco, cotton and
wheat/reclamation of waste land of irrigation.
iii. Suitability of land for different crop variety
iv. Government recognition of individual land ownership (the Homestead Act 1860) encouraged
settlers to farm
v. The granting of financial aid to farmers to buy and develop land /credit facilities.
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vi. The introduction of slave labour ensured adequate supply of labour for farming
vii. Determination by the European immigrants to succeed in agriculture as there was no other
sources of livelihood.
viii. The increase in demand for agricultural raw materials by European industrialists encouraged
expansion in agriculture/availability of foreign market.
ix. The invention of the cotton gin in 1993 by Eli Whiney led to increased cotton acreage.
x. The mechanization of agriculture stimulated productivity e.g. the steel plough and the
mechanical reaper.
xi. The development of food preservation methods of canning and refrigeration encouraged
farmers to produce more.
xii. The application of science and research to agricultural (e.g. biotechnology development of new
foods from existing crops, use of fertilizers and genetic engineering in livestock production)
facilitated the Agrarian Revolution.
xiii. Increase in population created demand for food which led to expansion of agriculture
xiv. Discovery of controlling of animal diseases led to increase production.
(Any 6 point 1 mark (12 marks)

Effects of agrarian revolution in United States of America

 Diversification of agriculture through the introduction of new crops and animals from Britain.
 Inventions, e.g. the steel plough by John Deere and the reaper by Cyrus McCormick.
 Use of fertilizers and high breed seeds.
 Improved food production.
 Expansion of agriculture-related industries.
 Mechanization of farming to replace slave labour.
 Improvement and expansion of transport network.
 Increased population due to adequate food supply and emigration into the USA from Western
Europe.
 Enhancement of research and scientific inventions, particularly in the field of agriculture.
 Increased trade between the USA and Western Europe.

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The food situation in Africa and the rest of the developing world
Factors that have contributed to shortage of food in the developing world
2001 p2 qn 14. State two ways in which poor transport systems have contributed to food
shortage in Africa.
i. Poor transport have led to high transportation costs, leading to high prices of food.
ii. Poor transport have led to poor distribution of food.
iii. Poor transport systems have led to delays in the transportation of food leading to waste and
losses.
iv. Poor transport systems discourage/demoralizes farmers and this in turn leads to officers.
v. Poor transport system undermines effectiveness of agricultural extension officers.
vi. Agricultural inputs do not readily/reach/ leading to poor products.
(Any 2 points, 1 mark (2 marks)

2004 p2 qn 18 (b) Explain the causes of food shortages in the third world counties (12
marks)
i. Over dependence on cash crops has taken over land that would have been used for cultivation
of food crops.
ii. Adverse climatic changes such as drought and floods destroy crops/frost/earthquakes,
landslides.
iii. Some areas have infertile soils, which limit intensive cultivation
iv. Rapid growth of population of population has overtaken the pace of food production.
v. Rural- urban migration has deprived the rural areas of a strong workforce
vi. Poor infrastructure has increased the cost of farming discouraging farmers/hinders the
marketing of goods/food distribution/increases farming costs.
vii. Lack of capital to buy farm implements limits the amount of food that can Produced /heavy
foreign debts burden.
viii. Poor farming methods lead to low yields
ix. Prevalence to plant and animals diseases reduce food production/pests e.g. Ticks/tsetse
fly/locust.
x. Destruction human activities have led to soil erosion resulting to poor yields.
xi. The declining popularity of indigenous and dough-resistant crops has made farmers not to
produce them/selecting eating habits discourage people from growing food they don’t like.
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xii. In some parts of the Third world countries political instability has created insecurity thus people
are not able to engage in food production.
xiii. Over dependency on donations and foreign aid and hasn’t and people to be reluctant to grow
food crops.
xiv. Poor implementation of food policies has led to inadequate food production/ poor government
policies.
xv. HIV/AIDS pandemic has reduced work force leading to low production.

2010 p2 qn 18b) Explain five causes of food shortages to Africa today.

i. Many parts of Africa experience little or no rain at all over several years leading to crop failure
and hence food shortages/natural hazards.
ii. The rapid population growth rate has overtaken food production rate resulting into food
shortages.
iii. Inadequate/food storage facilities had contributed to food wastages as farmers cannot store food
for a long period.
iv. Poor state of roads in many African countries hinders transportation of food from the areas of
surplus to those of deficit.
v. Low prices of food stuff has discouraged many farmers who may have invested so much capital
leading to food shortages.
vi. Many farmers in Africa lack enough capital to buy required farm inputs.
vii. Due to crop diseases and pest, a lot of food is destroyed either on the farms or in stores
resulting to food shortages.
viii. The emphasis on cash crop farming at the expense of food crops has contributed to low food
production leading to food shortages.
ix. Environmental degradation through deforestation/overgrazing of animals had led to soil erosion
leading to wasteland, hence low food production/desertification.
x. Civil wars in many African countries have displaced people from their farms and therefore
diverted their attention from farming resulting in food shortages.
xi. Poor food policies have discouraged farmers as they are not given enough incentives in case of
crop failure/poor economic planning.
xii. The young-able bodied persons migrate to urban centres thus leaving farming to the aged who
are not able to contribute much towards food production.

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xiii. HIV and AIDS pandemic has impacted negatively on the labour force in food production.
xiv. Poor land tenure system/land fragmentation has reduced the acreage that would have been used
for production scarcity.
xv. Over reliance/dependence on famine relief food/other forms of aid has made people not to look
for permanent solutions to food shortages.
xvi. Lack of modern farming methods her led to low food production. Any 5 x 2 = 10 marks

Effects of food shortage in the developing world

 Starvation, which has been widely experienced.
 The Refugee crisis. As people flee or migrate from their home countries mainly due to
starvation, countries to which they flee (host-countries) strain their resources in trying to
accommodate such refugees.
 Social problems such as cattle raids among pastoralist communities, which have caused heavy
loss of life and property.
 Dependence on food aid.
 Disruption of children’s education due to constant search for food.
 Poor economic development as hungry people can hardly concentrate on work.
 Stagnation of the agro based industries such as sugar milling factories.
 A lot of unemployment since most industries in the third world are agro based e.g. baking and
confectionery, milk processing, etc..

2007 p2 qn 18. a) State three ways in which people in developing countries are
affected by food shortages. (3marks)
i. It has led to deaths of hundreds of people due to famine.
ii. Increased suffering as many people due to famine.
iii. It has led to social problems like raids and theft.
iv. It had caused migration of people affected by food shortage.
v. It affects agricultural based industries
vi. .

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SOLUTIONS TO FOOD SHORTAGES IN THE DEVELOPING

WORLD
2007 p2 qn 18. b) Explain six ways that the developing countries can use to reduce the problem
of food shortages. (12 marks)
i. Land reclamation through irrigation or draining swamps.
ii. Extensive research on better quality animal and crop breeds and on how to control pests and
diseases.
iii. Establishment of agricultural training institutes to train agricultural officers.
iv. Soil conservation and restoration as well as forestation and re- a forestation.
v. Encouraging people to eat different types of food especially indigenous foods.
vi. Control the rate of population growth through family planning.
vii. Use of democracy and diplomacy to solve political problems.
viii. The governments are trying to subsidize by providing farmers with seeds and tools

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. What factors enabled early agriculture to develop?
2. Describe the development of the early agriculture in Egypt and Mesopotamia.
3. What were the benefits of the domestication of animals and plants to the early man?
4. Identify the impact of the development of early agriculture in Egypt and Mesopotamia.
5. How did the Agrarian Revolution in Britain contribute to the Agrarian Revolution in USA?
6. a) Explain the causes of food shortages in the developing countries.
b) How have the governments concerned tried to rectify the problems of food shortages in the
developing countries?

This is a Property of Mwalimu Consultancy Ltd. Contact Mr Isaboke

0746-222-000 for more Educational Materials.

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THE PEOPLES OF KENYA UP TO THE 19TH

CENTURY
Background to the people of Kenya
Kenya is made up of people from diverse origins mainly immigrants from other parts of Africa
and the world. The earliest inhabitants of Kenya are believed to be the Khoisan i.e. the san and
Khoikho (Bushmen) of southern African. The remnants of these groups are the Nguye, Okuro
of western Kenya, the Dorobo/Athi/Ogiek of Kenya the Hadza and Sandawe of Tanzania.
Evidences that proved to have been inhabited by humankind as far back as two million years ago
or earlier
 Tools attributed to Homo habilis were found in Koobi Fora near Lake Turkana.
 Hand axes, cleavers and other tools attributed to Homoerectus have been found at Olorgesailie
near Lake Magadi, Mtongwe near Mombasa, around lakes Victoria and Turkana and at
Kariandusi.
 Tools associated with the late Stone age such as the Crescent, arrowheads, pottery, bone
harpoons and ornamental egg shells have been found near lake Naivasha, lake Nakuru,
Lukenya hills and Athi river.
 Microlith tools, axe heads, polished stones, stone bowels, platters and grinding stones have
been discovered all over Kenya.
 Iron was used as far back as 270AD. Evidence of iron use have been found at Urewe near
Ng’iya in Siaya and in Kwale at the coast.
 Animals such as cattle, sheep and goats were domesticated in Kenya during the late stone age.

LIFESTYLE OF THE EARLIEST INHABITANTS OF KENYA

 Their language resembled that of the Khoisan.
 They originally were nomadic peoples.
 They gathered fruits and dug up tubers and roots to supplement their diet.
 They used stone tools, bows and arrows.
 They fished in rivers and lakes, using harpoons.
 They lived in rock shelters and caves.
 They made and used pottery.
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 They buried or cremated their dead.

 Because of their nomadic lifestyle, they lived in seasonal camps and had no permanent homes.
 Being hunter-gatherers, they were very few, with very few belongings i.e. a variety of stone
tools, bows and arrows.
 By the 7th century BC, they had learnt and practised fishing. They started living in semi
permanent homes of rock shelters and caves.
 After acquiring the skill of food production, they settled down in more permanent homes and
owned more materials such as grinding stones, pestles and stone bowels, pots and calabashes.
 They kept humpless long-horned cattle and grew food-crops like sorghum and millet.
 They passed on many customs such as circumcision, age-set organization, the taboo against
eating fish, etc. There was a lot of cultural exchange between them and the new comers.
These early inhabitants of Kenya may have been subdued by other stronger peoples,
particularly the Bantu and the Nilotes through intermarriage, assimilation and war.
Communities that descended from the original inhabitants of kenya
 The Irak and Burungi of Tanzania,
 The Boni, Dahalo and Sanye of the River Tana basin.
 The Nguye and Okuro in western Kenya.
Some remnants of these early inhabitants speak the languages of the groups near or with whom
they live. E.g. some speak Kikuyu while others speak Olmaa: the language of the Maasai. A
majority of them speak Kalenjin dialects. The Kalenjin refer to them as Okiek while the
Maasai call them Dorobo. In western Kenya, the Nguye and Okuro were totally assimilated by
the Luo and Bantu groups.
Linguistic groups in Kenya
The Bantu
The Nilotes
The Cushites
Races in Kenya
 Africans.
 Europeans.
 Asians.
 Arabs.

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ORIGIN OF THE PEOPLE OF KENYA

The Bantu originated from a region between the Niger-Delta-Chad-Kordofan and Cameroon.
They first settled on the Congo forest.
The Nilotes originated in the Ethiopian highlands and Sudan.
The Cushites originated from Horn of Africa.
Migration and settlement of the people of Kenya
The Bantu
They had a similar sound of the root word for people has a ‘ntu’, ‘ndu’, ‘tu’ and the names of
livestock are alike. The bantu are the largest group in Kenya and are divided into two groups
viz:
Western Bantu and Eastern Bantu based on how they entered Kenya.
Factors for migration
2004 18. (a) Why did the Bantu migrate from their original homeland? (5 mks)
i. There was an increase in population thus the need for land for settlement
ii. They were looking for land for cultivation
iii. They needed land for grazing/ pasture
iv. Internal conflicts forced them to migrate
v. They were attacked by neighbouring communities/ external attacks
vi. Outbreak of diseases led to migration/ outbreak of epidemics
vii. They migrated due to drought and famine
viii. Some people migrated for the sake of adventure ( 5 x 1 = 5 mks)
Western Bantu
 Abasuba
 Abaluyia
 Abakuria
 Abagusii
1999 5. Name two Bantu communities in Kenya whose ancestors settled in the Mount Elgon
area before migrating to their present homeland. (2 mks)
i. Abagusii
ii. Abakuria
iii. Abaluyia/ any Abaluyia speaking group
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(Any 2 points. 1 mark)

2012 3. Name two Bantu groups in Kenya which settled in Mount Elgon area before migrating
to their present homeland. (2 marks)
(i) Abaluhya
(ii) Abagusii
(iii) Abakuria
Abaluyia
 Luhyia oral tradition traces their origin to an area called Misiri. Historical evidence shows that
Abaluhyia resulted from intermarriage between various ethnic groups in the course of their
migration into Kenya. Buluhyia is an area in which Nilotes, Bantu and some Cushites
interacted.
 Luhyia migration and settlement into Kenya started around 300AD. Their most recent ancestors
spread from Eastern Uganda from around 1300AD. Most of them may have originated from
the mount Elgon region and then settled in Bukhayo, Marama, Tiriki, Bunyore, Wanga,
Maragoli, Marachi, Kisa, Samia, Idakho, Isukha, Bungoma and other Bukusu areas, Bunyala,
Busonga, etc.
 As they migrated, they assimilated other groups, such as the southern and Eastern Cushites as
well as Southern Nilotes.
 Between 1550-1750AD, Luhyia society began to take shape. By 1883, Abaluhyia had fully
emerged as a community.
 Abaluhyia interacted with Nilotic speakers such as the Maasai, Kalenjin and Luo, which led to
a lot of cultural exchange.
 The interaction of Abaluhyia with several other communities perhaps explains why there exists
so many clans and dialects among Abaluhyia. In fact, the term Luhyia means Family.
Abaluhyia means People Of the Family or Family-people.
Eighteen major dialects constitute Abaluhyia.
 Tiriki,
 Maragoli,
 Isukha,
 Idaho,
 Banyore,
 Kisa,
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 Batsotso,
 Marama,
 Wanga,
 Banyala,
 Batura,
 Kabarasi,
 Bukusu,
 Tachoni,
 Khayo,
 Marachi,
 Basonga,
 Samia.
Each of these dialects consists of several clans and tended to exist independently, through
remotely connected ties to the rest of Abaluhyia. In fact, Abaluhyia were constituted as a
community in 1947, when the British colonial government administered all these Luhyia
dialects as a single entity.
Abagusii
 Abagusii may have originated from a place known to them as Misiri, under their ruler and
ancestor called Kwitu.
 From Misiri, Abagusii and some Abaluhyia groups migrated to the Mount Elgon region where
they lived for several generations.
 Around 1500AD, Abagusii, Abakuria and a section of Abalogoli migrated down Nzoyia river
valley and settled at Goye in Yimbo and near Ramogi hill and other areas on the Eastern
shores of lake Victoria.
 Due to arrival of Luo Ancestors In the lake region around 1550AD, Abagusii were pushed to
Alego, Kisumu, and Sakwa and Asembo areas.
 Shortly after 1600AD, drought forced Abagusii to migrate and settle in the Kano plains. Their
farther migration Eastwards brought them into conflicts with the Kipsigis. Because of this,
they moved to the fertile Kisii highlands and other parts of their present homeland, such as
Kitutu, South Mugirango and others.

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 In spite of conflicts with the Luo, Maasai and Kipsigis, Abagusii exhibited and practised good
interaction, due to which they intermarried, traded and had other forms of exchange with these
communities.
Abakuria
 Abakuria live in south Nyanza. Their traditions indicate that they are related to the Abalogoli of
Abaluhyia and Abagusii too.
 They also trace their origin to the Mount Elgon region and maintain that they came from a
place called Misiri.
 They moved through chepalungu, Lolgorien and settled in kurialand between 1580 and 1660
A.C.E.
 Abakuria may have migrated alongside Abagusii up to 1500AD when they took their separate
direction.
 Abakuria settled briefly around the shores of Lake Victoria, where they interacted with the Luo
and the Southern Cushites. Abakuria may have picked up the practice of circumcision and
Age-set organization from the Southern Cushites.
 Some of the Kuria clans may have come from northern Tanzania. e.g. abairegi from musoma.
 By 1800AD, Abakuria had all settled in south Nyanza, where they again met and continued
interacting with Abagusii. Indeed, some clans of Abagusii originally settled in Kuria territory
in the second half of the 18th century.

KURIA CLANS
 Abairegi
 Abagumbe
 Abahirichacha
 Wasimbete
 Abanyabasi
 Watobori
 Abakira

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Abasuba
 Abasuba occupy Mfangano and Rusinga islands on lake Victoria, where they settled from
1750AD, after arriving as refugees fleeing from Buganda. Other Suba people were displaced
by the incoming Luo.
 Suba migration was mainly triggered by fighting in Buganda and Busoga, following the
assassination of Kyabbagu by some of his children. Kyabbagu was King of Buganda. As a
result of the assassination, there was a struggle for succession to the throne, which made some
of the groups around Lake Victoria to flee.
 In their migration from Busoga and Buganda, most of the Suba spoke either Luganda or lusoga.
 The Suba later interacted with the Luo as they entered Kenya, although they at first saw the
Luo as a threat to them. They traded and intermarried with the Luo among other practices.
 Some Abasuba settled at Gwasi and Kaksingiri in later years. They adopted the social customs
of the Luo. Today, most Abasuba have adopted Luo culture.
 Because of Luo influence, Abasuba have almost lost their original language and way of life.

EASTERN BANTU
Migration and settlement
1998 17. a) Describe the migration and settlement of the Eastern Bantu speaking
Communities in Kenya unto 1800.
i. They migrated from the original home in the Congo Basin and settled in the Taita Hills area

around Mount Kilimanjaro by the 2nd Century AD.

ii. Some of them later migrated northwards along the coast to Shungwaya in present day Somalia.
These were the ancestors of Mijikenda, pokomo and Taita.
iii. The ancestors of the Mount Kenya groups moved into the interior along the Tana River.
iv. From about 1450 the communities which had settled in Shungwaya were forced to disperse
from the area due to external pressure from the cushites.
v. The ancestors of the Mijikenda and Taita moved south and established their settlement along the
coast while those of the Pokomo migrated into the interior and settled along river Tana while
the Ameru migrated to the slopes of Mount Kenya.
Any 5 points, (1 mk) (5mks)

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2007 3. Name the dispersal area of the Eastern Bantu.

-Shungwaya 1x1=1mk
1999 17. (a) Why did the Bantu migrate from their coastal settlement at Shungwaya in
the sixteenth century? (3 mks)
i. Invasion of the settlement by the incoming cushites
ii. Internal conflicts/ feuds
iii. Population increase
iv. Outbreak of diseases/ epidermics/ natural calamities
v. Search for more land for settlement and pasture
(Any 3 points, 1 mrk) ( 3 mks)
2001 2. One reason why the Mijikenda community migrated from their settlement
at Shungwaya during the Pre- colonial period.
i. Invasion of the settlement by the incoming cushites
ii. Internal conflicts
iii. Outbreak of epidemic
iv. Insecurity in the area
v. search for pasture
Any 1 point, 1 mark ( 1 mk)
during the pre- colonial period. 2013 18. a) Give five reasons for the migration of the
Mijikenda from Shungwaya
i. Due to attacks by the Oromo/Cushitic speakers.
ii. Due to increased population.
iii. Due to internal conflicts/family/clan feuds.
iv. In search for land for cultivation.
v. Due to drought/famine.
vi. Due to outbreak of diseases/epidemics.
vii. Due to love for adventure.
Any 5 x 1 = 5 marks
2011 2 What was the main reason for the migration of the Eastern Bantu from
Shugwaya during Pre-colonial period. (1mark)
 Due to attacks by the Galla

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1x1=1 mark
They are composed of the coastal and highland Bantu.

Coastal Bantu
They include the following:
 Mijikenda
 Pokomo
 Taita
They were the first Bantu to settle in Kenya. They entered Kenya from their dispersal point
between Taita hills and Mt. Kilimanjaro. They followed the north Eastern direction and settled
in shungwaya.

MIJIKENDA
Mijikenda is a Kiswahili word that means nine clans. The Mijikenda comprise the nine
communities that originally inhabited the nine settlements called Kaya in the immediate
coastal hinterland.
Communities the constitute the Mijikenda
 The Giriama,
 Kauma,
 Chonyi,
 Kambe,
 Ribe,
 Jibana,
 Rabai,
 Duruma,
 Digo.

Migration and settlement

 The Mijikenda by the 15th century had settled around Mt. Kilimanjaro and Taita Hills due to
conflicts they migrated northwards to Shungwaya, which in Bantu means “To be driven
away”. Somewhere between rivers Juba and Tana.
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 From Shungwaya, the Bantu were forced to move southwards by the Oromo, who also stopped
their northward migration around the 16th century AD. The Somali also joined the Oromo in
forcing the Mijikenda out of Shungwaya, from where the Mijikenda moved in small groups,
which explains why they settled in different places and why today the Mijikenda exist and are
identified by their small groups or clans.
 The Mijikenda settled in fortified villages, just inland from the coast. Each of the nine groups
settled in their own separate ridges, which are commonly referred to as Kaya, a word that
means ‘towns’. The term Mijikenda itself expresses that the community consists of nine
related groups.
 Each Kaya was fortified with tree trunks. Even after settling in their present homeland, their
main enemies were the Oromo and the Somali.
 By the 19th century, the Mijikenda had interacted and established themselves as middlemen in
the Long Distance trade between the Akamba and the Waswahili at the coast.

2013 18 (b) Explain five social effects of the migration and settlement of the Mijikenda in their
present homeland. (10 marks)
i. They intermarried with other groups thereby strengthening relationships.
ii. There was cultural exchange due to their interaction with other people/ assimilation/absorption.
iii. There was an increase in population in the areas where they settled.
iv. There were inter-community conflicts/wars in the areas they settled.
v. It caused redistribution of people in the areas they settled leading to further
migration/displacement.
vi. Some were converted to Islam due to their interaction with Arabs.
vii. It led to the establishment of Kaya/villages which were fortified in order to protect themselves
against external attacks.
Any 5 x 2 = 10 marks

POKOMO
Ancestors of the Pokomo lived with those of the Mijikenda at Shungwaya, but the Pokomo
moved southwards and settled along river Tana, where they interacted with Cushitic
communities. Population pressure and Oromo attacks were the main reasons for Pokomo
movement from Shungwaya.
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TAITA
Three hills inhabited by the Taita.
 Mangea hill, where they first settled.
 Davida,
 Sagalla,
 Kisigan.
Migration and settlement of the Taita into Kenya
 The Taita are a people of mixed origin, though most of them trace their origin to Shungwaya.
 They first settled on Mangea hill in the 16th century, from where they migrated to their present
home areas.
 They live on three hills i.e. Davida, Sagalla and Kisigan.
Taita clans and their origins
According to their oral tradition, Taita clans are of the following origins:
 The Wasadu, who originated from the Oromo.
 The Wanyanya, who originated from the Maasai, Oromo and Akamba.
 The Wanya, who originated from the Mijikenda, Agikuyu and Shambala.
 The Shambala, who originated from Tanzania.
 The Wasann, who originated from the Pokomo, Akamba and Shambala.
 The Wasasadu, who originated from the pare in Tanzania.
 The Waikumi, who originated from the Maasai and Akamba.
 These clans emerged as a people after many years of interaction.

Highland Bantu/central/ Mt. Kenya group

They include:
 Agikuyu
 Ambere
 Aembu
 Ameru
 Akamba

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AGIKUYU
The Agikuyu are the largest population of all the Eastern Bantu. They inhabit the Central
province of Kenya.
Legends or myths that refer to Gikuyu origin
 That which presents the Agikuyu as having originated from Mukurwe Wa Gathanga, where
their ancestors (Gikuyu and his wife mumbi) were settled after God created them. According
to this legend, Gikuyu and mumbi begat nine daughters, who married and mothered the nine
clans of the present Agikuyu.
 That which states that the Agikuyu may have descended from one of the four sons of a Mbeere
man, the other three of which may have mothered the Akamba, Athi and Maasai.

Migration and settlement of the Agikuyu into Kenya

 By 1200AD, The Bantu had already settled in the Central province of Kenya. However, the
original inhabitants of the area were hunter-gatherers, such as the Athi (Dorobo) and the
Gumba. These may have been the remnants of the original inhabitants. The Athi and the
Gumba interacted with the Agikuyu, who later assimilated them.
 The Agikuyu may have moved south-west from the coast around 1400AD, probably to avoid
hostile neighbours, such as the Oromo. They also may have moved in search for cultivable
land. They followed the Tana River.
 As they moved, some groups broke off and settled in different places. Those who settled in the
East became the Tharaka while those who settled in the south-west became the mbeere. They
had arrived and settled in Mbeere and Chuka from a northern direction by the 16 th century AD.
One group proceeded to the confluence of the Tana and Thika rivers by the beginning of the
18th century. This was the group of Gikuyu ancestors that is associated with the Mukurwe Wa
Gathanga tradition in Murang’a.
 The Agikuyu later moved to the Mweya plains, where they were joined by the Akamba and the
Thagicu. Farther expansion of the Agikuyu led to the displacement of the Athi and Gumba,
some of who were assimilated while others ran into the Nyandarua and Mount Kenya forests.
 In the first half of the 19th century, the Agikuyu once more migrated to Othaya and Aguthi.
They also moved north-Eastwards to Mathira and Tetu in Nyeri. They spread and settled in
different parts of Central province and reached as far as Kiambu and Nyandarua. Their

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settlement in Kiambu and Nyandarua was interrupted by the coming of the Europeans in the
19th century. However, they were still migrating by early 20 th century.
 As they migrated, the Agikuyu borrowed ideas from the Cushites, the Maasai, the Gumba and
Athi. The Gumba and Athi were later together known as the Okiek.
 The Maasai seriously opposed or resisted Agikuyu invasion. However, the Athi welcomed and
were on good terms with the Agikuyu. The Agikuyu borrowed many economic and social
aspects from the Athi, e.g. ironworking, circumcision, clitoridectomy (female circumcision)
and some age-set features.

AMERU
Dialects that constitute/make up the Ameru
 The Tigania,
 Igembe,
 Imenti,
 Igoji,
 Chuka,
 Tharaka,
 Muthambi,
 Muimbi.

Discuss/analyse migration and settlement of the Ameru into Kenya.

 The Ameru claim a place called Mbwa, which is somewhere at the coast (probably Manda
island) as their area of origin. However, historians believe that this tradition of Mbwa fits very
well with Bantu dispersal from Shungwaya.
 By late 15th century, ancestors of the Ameru had begun arriving in Meru. Ameru migration
from the coast was mainly due to Oromo pressure.
 From Shungwaya, the Ameru moved westwards along the river Tana and pushed into Igembe
and Tigania regions. Around 1400AD, the Ameru and other Mount Kenya groups were living
as hunters and pastoralists.
 They moved farther into the interior, crossing river Tana. Some, especially the Tharaka, finally
settled to the East of River Tana as others such as the Chuka, Muimbi, Imenti, Tigania and
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Igembe settled in the area west of the River Tana.

 The Ameru and Agikuyu are believed to have initially migrated as one group until the 15 th and
16th centuries, when the Agikuyu took their separate direction. The traditions of the two
groups and those of the Aembu and Mbeere seem to confirm this view.
 Aembu and mbeere ancestors are believed to have initially migrated with those of the Ameru
and Agikuyu from the Kilimanjaro area before going their separate way.
 By 1500, the Mbeere had settled in their present homeland. However, the Aembu crossed River
Thuci and moved north-westwards to the area East of mount Kenya, where they settled and
interacted with the Athi and Gumba, who they later assimilated and from who they learnt the
art of bee keeping, ironworking and circumcision.

AKAMBA
Migration and settlement of the Akamba into Kenya
The Akamba trace their origin to the area around Mount Kilimanjaro, from where their ancestors
migrated to the great bend of the river Tana. They then moved to Taita hills and finally
reached Tsavo west. Around mid-15th century AD, the Akamba followed the Eastern banks of
river Athi, from where one group moved across the Athi to Ulu. Due to Oromo attacks,
another group of the Akamba moved south to the Galana river and settled in the region around
Chyulu hills north of Mount Kilimanjaro. Due to drought in the Chyulu area, some Akamba
migrated and settled in the Mbooni hills near Machakos around mid-16th century.
Soon, due to population increase, some Akamba migrated farther to Iveti, Kilungu, Masaku and
Makueni.

In the course of their migration and settlement, the Akamba met and interacted with the Agikuyu.
In what ways was Akamba migration and settlement influenced by the environment?
(Explain how and what environmental factors influenced Akamba migration and settlement into
Kenya).
 Those in Mbooni region took up agriculture due to soil fertility and ample rainfall in the area.
 The Akamba who moved to drier areas like Chyulu hills became hunters.
 Others moved to Kitui and adopted pastoralism and hunting. It is this group that later
participated in the Long Distance trade by providing ivory and slaves to the coastal traders in

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thee 19th century.

Akamba interact with the Agikuyu in the course of Akamba migration and settlement into Kenya
 They exchanged trade items.
 They intermarried.
 They adopted cultural aspects like language and dressing.
 They raided and fought each other.
 They began sporting activities such as wrestling and archery.

Effects of their migration

1997 17 b). Discuss the results of the migration and settlement of the Eastern Bantu into
Kenya by 1900.
i. The incoming Bantu communities had iron weapons which enabled them to displace some of
the communities which they came into contact with for example the Gumba in the slopes of
Mount Kenya.
ii. They intermarried with their neighbours/those people they came into contact with such as the
Cushites and Nilotes.
iii. Their settlement led to the expansion/development of trade between them and their neighbors
e.g. The Agikuyu traded with the Maasai.
iv. There was cultural exchange between the Bantu and their Cushitic and Nilotic neighbors.
v. Expansion of the Bantu created pressure over land which led to intercommunity conflicts and
wars.
vi. Intercommunity conflicts led to loss of lives and destruction of property.
vii. Adoption of some agricultural practices from the Bantu.
Any 5 points, 2 marks each (10 mks)

THE NILOTES
The Nilotes are groups of people whose origin is associated with river Nile and who have
similarities in the languages they speak. This is why they are referred to as Nilotic speakers.
They originated from the South-western fringe of the Ethiopian highlands. In Kenya, they are
the second largest language group.
Classifications of the Nilotic speakers

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 The River-lake Nilotes,

 The plain Nilotes
 The Highland Nilotes.

RIVER AND LAKE NILOTES

Communities that belong to the River-Lake Nilotes group
The Kenya Luo, who mainly occupy Luo Nyanza and parts of Western province. They are
sometimes called Southern Luo in order to distinguish them from other River-lake Nilotes in
Uganda and southern Sudan.
 The Dinka,
 Shiluk,
 Bor,
 Anwak,
 Alur,
 Acholi,
 Jopaluo,
 Padhola,
 Nuer,
 The Luo of Uganda.

KENYAN LUO
migration and settlement of the Luo into Kenya
 The Luo originated from Bahr-El-Ghazal, area in Southern Sudan, from where they moved and
settled at Pu Bungu in northern Uganda.
 They then moved to Pakwach, where they had settled by 1450AD. It was from Pakwach that
they later migrated into Kenya.
 By the 15th century, the Luo had begun to move to present-day Kenya.
 Though they all claim common ancestry in Ramogi, They migrated and settled in Kenya in four
main groups. These were:
(a) Joka Owiny,

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(b) Joka Jok,

(c) Joka Omolo,
(d) Abasuba.

Migration and settlement of the four Luo groups into Kenya

JOKA JOK
The term “Joka” means “People of”. “Joka Jok” means “people of Jok”.
 Jok and his people were the first to move Eastwards out of Uganda. They were the first Luo
group to arrive in Kenya.
 By the 15th century, they had settled at Ramogi hills of Kadimo in Yimbo in present-day Siaya
district.
 Later, two of Jok’s sons fled to south Nyanza across the Winam gulf to form the Karachwonyo
and Wanjare clans.
 From Ramogi hills, Joka Jok also spread to Sakwa, Alego, Asembo and other parts of Nyanza
province. Joka Jok migrated as a result of internal conflicts among other factors.
JOKA OWINY
 Owiny and his group may have moved from Uganda in late 16 th century AD. They passed
through Mbale, Toro and the Mount Elgon region and eventually settled in Samia.
 By early 17th century, they had arrived at Sigoma in Alego, from where they spread to Uyoma,
Kisumu, Nyakach and south Nyanza.
 Because Owiny was a great fighter and leader, his people became popularly known as Joka
Ruoth. His name was merged with that of Sigoma (the place where Owiny and his people first
settled in Alego) to form Owiny-Sigoma.
JOKA OMOLO
 Joka Omolo came from the northern Bunyoro region in present-day Uganda. They settled
temporarily in Ibanda and Bukoli before moving on to Samia, Ugenya and Gem.
 By 1600, they had reached Yimbo, from where they spread to Alego and other areas.
 As they migrated, they encountered Abagusi and Abalogoli, whom they pushed out of Yimbo.
 By early 18th century, some Joka family groups had moved across Winam gulf into south
Nyanza.

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ABASUBA
 Though associated with the Luo, Abasuba were originally Bantu. Most of them migrated from
Buganda in late 18th century.
 They intermarried with the Luo and settled in the Gwasi area and on the Lake Victoria islands
of Mfangano and Rusinga. Most of them adopted Luo culture.
Or
 They are River Lake Nilotes. They came from Southern Sudan around Bahr- el- Ghazel
 They migrated Southwards to Pubungu or Pakwach in Uganda where they settled by 1450 A.D
 By 15th century, the Luo began to move into Kenya in 4 different groups namely: Joka- Jok, Jok
Owiny and Joka Omolo and the refugees
 Joka-Jok were first to move out of Uganda. They settled first at Ramogi hills and later spread to
Sakwa, Alego, Asembo and other parts of Nyanza
 Jok Owiny moved out of Uganda and settled in Sigoma in 17 th century. They spread to Kisumu,
Nyakach and South Nyanza
 Jok Omolo came from Southern Bunyoro. They settled in Ibada and Bukoli before moving to
Ugenya and Gem. As they moved they displaced the Abagusii and Abalagoli out of Yimbo
 Later came the refugees who settled among the Abasuba
2006 2. Name one community in Kenya that belongs to the River Lake Nilotes
(i) The Luo ( 1 mk)
2010 3. State the first settlement area of the Luo during their migration from Sudan.
- Pubungu/Pakwach 1 x 1 = 1 mark

Factors for migration

 Search for fresh grazing land and water for their large herd, probably due to overstocking in 2.
ii) Natural calamities such as drought, famine, pests, etc.
 Family feuds (internal conflicts/rivalry).
 Population pressure in their cradle land.
 Hostilities and threats as well as attacks from neighbouring communities.

Outbreak of diseases and epidemics, which afflicted both people and livestock.
 The spirit of adventure.
 Search for better fishing areas.

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2007 18. a) Give five reasons for the migration of the Luo from their original
homeland into Kenya.
i. They were looking for new settlements as a result of overpopulation
ii. Diseases and natural disasters forced them to migrate.
iii. They migrated in order to escape internal conflicts.
iv. Overstocking and Overgrazing led them to look for more pasture.
v. They moved to search for fertile lands with favourable climate.
vi. Some people migrated for adventure (spirit of adventure)
vii. Search for fishing grounds.
Any 5x1 = 5mks

Effects of their migration

2002 18. a) What were the results of the settlement of the Luo in Kenya during
the pre-colonial period?
i. Assimilation of some communities they found in the areas e.g. Abasuba
ii. Intermarriage with the neighbours e.g. Abaluyia
iii. Neighboring communities lost some of their land to the incoming Luo.
iv. Displacement of some communities e.g. Abagusii.
v. Increased conflicts over control of resources between the Luo and their neighbours.
vi. Expansion of trade with the neighboring iron/iron tools
vii. Occupation of fertile land influenced the Luo to adopt farming on a large scale.
viii. Cultural exchange between the Luo and their neighboring e.g. language, naming
7x1 = 7mks
2007 18(b) What the social effects of the expansion of the Luo into Western Kenya?(10mk)
i. They intermarried with their neighbours, such as Luhyia, Kalenjin, Abagusii and Kuria.
ii. They shared the name ‘Nyasaye’ with some Luo communities as a title of God
iii. They had similar funeral rites and burial customs with their neighbours
iv. They assimilated other communities.
v. They displaced other communities
vi. Their movement and settlement increased conflicts.
vii. Their settlement in Western Kenya led to population increase.
viii. They influenced their neighbours to adopt their language and naming system.
Responses to be written in prose. Any 5x2=10mks

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THE PLAIN NILOTES

2008 2. Name two communities in Kenya who belong to the Plain Nilotes. (2 mks)
i. Iteso
ii. Samburu
iii. Turkana
iv. Maasai
v. Njemps Any 2 x 1=2 marks
2009 2. Apart from the Maasai name one other plain Nilotes found in Kenya
i. Turkana
ii. Samburu
iii. Njemps
iv. Iteso (Any 1 x 1 = 1 mk)

FACTORS FOR MIGRATION

2010 18. a) Give five reasons which influenced the migration of the plain Nilotes to
Kenya during the pre-colonial period.
i) They moved in search of pasture and water for their livestock.
ii) Due to outbreak of disease/epidermics
iii) Pressure/raids from other communities forced them to move to safer areas.
iv) Family/clan disputes forced them to migrate
v) There was over population/population pressure in their original homeland.
vi) They moved due to drought/famine
vii) The spirit of adventure made them search for new lands.

MIGRATION AND SETTLEMENT

Maasai
 The Maasai and the original Kalenjin speakers first lived in the northern Lake Turkana area.
They may have entered East Africa around 1000AD. Being nomadic pastoralists, they
probably migrated mainly due to the need for fresh grazing land and water for their large herd.

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 In spite of their close association with the original Kalenjin speakers in the Northern Lake
Turkana region and elsewhere, the Maasai may have developed separately, as shown by the
different languages and cultures among and between them and their previous associates.
 Around 1500AD, the Maasai began to move within the area between mount Elgon and mount
Kamalinga and reached the Uasin Gishu plateau.
 Around 1700AD, they went southwards and established themselves in the area previously
occupied by the Kalenjin, who had migrated ahead of them. They assimilated some of the
people they conquered, such as the Sirikwa.
 By 1800, the Maasai had occupied much of the Central Kenya plains and north-central
Tanzania. By that time, they were grazing their livestock throughout East Africa, especially in
the Rift valley. They met and waged war against communities such as the Kalenjin, Akamba
and Abagusi. They were very fierce warriors and could not allow a stranger into their land.
 Because of their nomadic lifestyle, they were not able to form a kingdom.
 Towards 1750, the Maasai community were weakened by internal rivalry, among other
problems.
 British colonization of Kenya at the end of the 19th century brought Maasai power to an end

Describe two main groups into which the Maasai are divided.
(a) The Purko (Ilmaasai), who are strictly pastoralists.
(b) The Iloikop (Kwavi) Maasai, who practise mixed farming.

PROBLEMS EXPERIENCED BY THE MAASAI TOWARDS 1750AD

 Natural disasters, especially drought and famine.
 Diseases such as Small-pox, cholera, Pleura-Pneumonia and Rinderpest, which killed large
numbers of people and livestock.
 A series of civil wars between the Iloikop and Ilmaasai, especially after the death of Laibon
Mbatian, when his two sons Lenana and Sendeyo were involved in a succession dispute.
 Frequent wars between the Maasai and the neighbouring communities such as the Agikuyu
and the Nandi.
 Rise of the Nandi, who expanded their power over the already weak Maasai.
 British rule. British colonization of Kenya at the end of the 19 th century brought Maasai power
to an end.
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2010 18. b) Explain five results of the migration and settlement of the Maasai in Kenya
during the pre-colonial period.
i. They displaced some communities that they found in areas that they settled.
ii. Their settlement led to increased population in the region.
iii. They intermarried with their neighbours. This strengthened their relations.
iv. Some section of the Maasai (Kwavi) became cultivators/assimilated
v. There was ethnic conflict due to cattle raids/land for settlement.
vi. There was borrowing/exchange of cultural practices among the communities
vii. There was increased trade between the Maasai and their neighbours.
viii. They influenced the socio-political organization of the Nandi who created the institution of
Orkoyoit similar to Oloibon of the Maasai.

TURKANA
 They originated from the area around Mt. Moroto among the Karamoja of Uganda in the 17 th
century.
 They moved to the north East to search for pasture and water
 They settled south west of Lake Turkana.
 They experience warfare with the Rendile, and Samburu over water, pasture and livestock.

ITESO
Factors for migration
1997 1. GIVE TWO factors which led to the migration and settlement of the Iteso into Kenya by
1800.
i. Search for land/pasture/water for their herds
ii. Family / clan fights/ internal conflicts
iii. External attacks/ pressure
iv. Increase in population
v. Outbreak of diseases / epidemics
vi. Natural calamities e.g. drought
vii. Spirit of adventure

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2001 19. (a) State five factors that led to the migration of the Iteso from their original home in
the Lake Turkana region to their present homeland.
i. Population increase in the area forced them to search for more land for
ii. settlement
iii. Internal conflicts and feuds created a sense of insecurity and made some
iv. clans/communities to migrate.
v. Drought and famine caused suffering and made people to migrate.
vi. Outbreak of cattle diseases and epidemics
vii. Invasion and attacks of their settlements by their neighbours.
viii. Search for pasture and water for their animals.
ix. Desire for adventure.(Any 5 points, 1 mark (5 marks)

MIGRATION AND SETTLEMENT

 The Iteso began migrating from Karamoja, in late 17 th century and early 18th century. Between
1652-1731, they arrived at Kumi and Soroti, from where they spread towards mount Elgon.
 By the 19th century, the Iteso had settled In Western Kenya, where they interacted with the
Babukusu and Bagisu through intermarriage, trade, agriculture, keeping livestock, intertribal
wars, etc.
 It was as a result of such interaction that the Iteso adopted agriculture in addition to
pastoralism. They grew crops such as sweet potatoes, groundnuts, cassava and varieties of
vegetables. This enabled the Iteso to be more settled.

2001 19 (b) Explain five effects of migration and settlement of the Iteso in Kenya
(i) The settlement of the Iteso in their present homeland led to increase in population in the area.
(ii) It intensified conflicts between communities in the area over limited resources.
(iii) It led to intermarriage between the Iteso and the communities they found in the area such
as the Abaluyia
(iv) Culture interaction between the Iteso and the communities they found in the area gave rise
to enriched culture.
(v) It led to the displacement of some communities from the area e.g. the Maasai, Luhyia and
some Kalenjin communities.
(vi) They assimilated some of the communities living in the area.
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(vii) Their settlement enhanced trade between different communities in the area.
(viii) The Iteso adopted agriculture as a result of interacting with other communities in the area.
(Any 5 points, 2 marks (10 marks)

EFFECTS OF THEIR MIGRATION

2000 18. (a) Explain five results of the migration and settlement of the plain nilotes in Kenya
i. Their settlement increased conflicts and insecurity in the area as they rivaled other communities
over the control of resources
ii. They influenced the way of life of other communities they found in other areas
iii. They displaced some of the communities they found in the area such as the Southern Cushites
iv. Their settlement led to an increase in population in the region therefore facing some
communities to migrate
v. They promoted commerce in the area as they traded with their neighbours such as the Nandi,
Akamba and Agikuyu
vi. Plain Nilotes were influenced by Highland Nilotes and Bantu neighbours to practice agriculture.
For example the Kwavi section of the Maasai, Iteso and Mount Elgon. Maasai adopted
agriculture
vii. The plain Nilotes intermarried with their neighbours such as the Meru, Abaluyia and Kalenjin
viii. Some communities borrowed the political systems from the Maasai for example the
development of the office of the Orkoiyot among the Nandi was due to their interaction with
the Maasai.
ix. It led to the enrichment of the languages spoken in the region as they interacted with other
communities.
x. Some communities/ clans were assimilated by the incoming plains nilotes.
Any 5 x 2 = 10 marks

HIGHLAND NILOTES
Main classifications of the Highland Nilotes
 The Kalenjin.
 The Jie.
Name the communities that belong to each of the two main Highland Nilotic groups.

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THE KALENJIN CONSIST OF:

 Tugen,
 Keiyo,
 Marakwet,
 Nandi,
 Kipsigis,
 Sabaot,
 Pokot,
 Elgon.

The Jie comprise:

 The Karamojong,
 Kumam,
 Iteso,
 Turkana,
 The Jie themselves.

Analyse/discuss migration and settlement of the Highland Nilotes into Kenya.

 Highland Nilotes were pastoralists. Their ancestors may first have lived in Karamoja before
they split into various groups.
 The Highland Nilotes may have been the earliest Nilotic speakers in Kenya. They must have
occupied most of western Kenya, because their neighbours speak a lot about them. They are
mentioned in tales told of their warlike nature, e.g. the Luo story of Lwanda Magere (a strong
Luo warrior) who was eventually betrayed by a Nandi lady in order for the Nandi to gain
victory over the Luo.
 Kalenjin traditions indicate that their original homeland lay at a place to the north-western part
of Kenya, between Sudan and Ethiopia, from where the highland Nilotes may have began
migrating during the last millennium. The Dadog of Tanzania and the pioneer Kalenjin
emigrants in Kenya such as the Sirikwa may have occupied the Rift Valley by 700AD.
 Highland Nilotic remnants therefore spread towards the western mount Elgon highlands, next
to the Kenya-Uganda border. These became the ancestors of the Kalenjin speakers we have
today.

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 The Kalenjin first lived as a single community on mount Kamalinga to the north-west of the
lake Turkana region. In the 17th century, they began expanding southwards to the slopes of
Mount Elgon, where some of them remained as others moved on. The Bok, Bongomek and
Kony are among those that remained. Indeed, it was from the Kalenjin that the Bantu got some
cultural practices, such as circumcision.
 By early 17th century, the Kalenjin had inhabited Nandi, Aldai, Kamasiya, Elgon, etc. As
pastoralists, they roamed and grazed in their new homeland, which led to intermarriage
between them and the Uasingishu, the Maasai, the Sirikwa, etc.

THE NANDI
 The Nandi may have moved from the mount Elgon region between 1700-1800AD.
 In the last half of the 19th century, they emerged as one of the strongest groups in Western
Kenya. For instance, apart from other warfare, they conducted raids for livestock against
Abaluhyia, the Luo and even the Uasingishu Maasai.
 The rise of the Nandi to power was facilitated by the decline of the Maasai, who were
weakened by civil wars among other calamities.
 By the end of the 19th century, the Nandi had dominated almost all the communities in the rift
valley apart from the Kipsigis, who served as their allies. Nandi power only declined when
colonial rule was imposed on Kenya. But even then, the Nandi resisted colonial intrusion for
six years.

THE KIPSIGIS
 The Nandi and the Kipsigis may have separated from other Kalenjin groups such as the Bok,
Bongomek and the Tugen in the mount Elgon area around 1600AD. They moved south-East to
Teo near lake Baringo.
 Due to Maasai hostility, they moved westwards to Tambach, where they stayed for a long
period.
 From Tambach, they went farther south to Rongai near Nakuru.
 Drought and Maasai raids are among the factors that caused Nandi separation from the
Kipsigis.

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 From Rongai, the Kipsigis moved south to Kericho while the Nandi moved westwards to
Aldai. This was probably during the second half of the 18th century.
 Settlement of the Kipsigis at Kipsigis Hill marked the establishment of a strong community.
They assimilated the groups that they found at Kipsigis hill, such as the Sirikwa, some Maasai
and some Gusii.

FACTORS FOR MIGRATION

 Search for cultivable land as well as pasture and water for their livestock.
 Drought, famine and other natural calamities.
 Rapid population increase.
 Diseases and epidemics, which afflicted both people and livestock.
 Internal conflicts and rivalries. For instance, the Karamojong and Turkana exerted pressure on
other groups, such as the Iteso.
 Pressure or attacks from hostile neighbouring communities.
 Adventure and desire for loot and plunder.
2006 18. (a) Why did the highland Nilotes migrate from their original homeland during the
Pre- colonial period?
(i) They moved in search of water and pasture for their livestock
(ii) The outbreak of diseases/ epidemics forced them to move
(iii) Attacks from their communities forced them to move/ external attacks
(iv) There was population pressure in their original homeland
(v) They moved due to draught and famine
(vi) Family/ clan dispute/ conflicts forced them to migrate/ internal conflicts
(vii) They moved for adventure

EFFECTS OF THEIR MIGRATION

2006 18. (b) Explain five results of the migration and settlement of the Highland Nilotes sin
Kenya
i. They displaced some communities they found in the area where they settled e.g. Abagusii, the
Kwavi, Maasai and the Abaluyia ( example a must)
ii. Some highland Nilotes were absorbed/ assimilated by the Bantu such a the Teriki and the

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Tachoni
iii. The Highland Nilotes traded with their neighbours/ they exchanged animal products for grains
from the Abaluyia and the Abagusii. This led to the expansion of trade in the region.
iv. Their settlement increased the population of the region
v. The highlands Nilotes intermarried with the Luo, Abagusii and Abaluyia. This strengthened
their relations.
vi. There were ethnic wars/ conflicts due to cattle raids
vii. There was cultural exchange leading to enrichment of their lives
( Any 5 x 2 = 10 mks)

EFFECTS OF NILOTES’ MIGRATION

 There was assimilation of communities.
 There was change in the economic activities of some communities for example the Luo
became fishermen.
 There were intermarriages with other communities especially their neighbours for example the
Abagusii and the Abaluhyia.
 There was interaction with communities the Nilotes came across.
 There was conquest and displacement of some communities.
 Wars increased between communities.
 There was borrowing of cultural practices by the people who came into contact with the
Nilotes.
 Some communities developed new political institutions for example ‘Oloiboni’ by the Maasai
and the institution of ‘Orkoyiot’ by the Nandi.
 There was enrichment of language through word borrowing.

CUSHITES
The Cushites entered Kenya from the North Eastern direction. They were coming from the horn
of Africa which was their original homeland.
The Cushites may be split into two categories:
i) The Eastern Cushites
ii) The Southern Cushites
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Southern Cushites
These migrated into Kenya from the Ethiopian Highlands. They went southwards and settled
between Kenya and Northern Tanzania.
This category includes the Sanye, Dahallo and Boni living at the mouth of River Tana.
2012 2. Identify one community in Kenya which belongs to the Southern Cushitic group.
. Dahallo/sanye (1mark)
2013 2. Name the community in Kenya that belongs to the Southern Cushites.
-
The Dahallo (Sanye) 1 x 1 = 1 mark
-

Eastern Cushites
This category includes the Oromo, Somali, Rendile, Gabbra, Shangilla and Burji.
THE OROMO
 They arrived in Kenya in the 16th century and settled on the Eastern shores of lake Turkana.
 They tried to move Eastwards but were stopped by the Somali. They therefore moved south-
Eastwards and reached the coast in around 1600AD.
 In the area around Shungwaya, they confronted and forced the Mijikenda and Pokomo to
leave. They occupied Malindi and Kilifi.
 Even before their arrival in Kenya, the Oromo had conflicts with the Somali, which continued
up to early 20th century when both signed an agreement by which they settled in their present
homeland. Today, the Oromo are found on the southern part of the river Tana and are
neighbours to the Pokomo.
THE BORANA
 The Borana, who are part of the Oromo-speaking people of southern Ethiopia, migrated into
Kenya in the last quarter of the 19th and the first quarter of the 20th century. They were running
away from the heavy taxation and rule of Menelik ii).
 They spread into Kenya and settled in Wajir, Marsabit and Moyale.
 About 1000AD, more Borana groups migrated into present-day Kenya from Somalia due to
war between Somali nationalists and British colonialists.
THE SOMALI
Trace/discuss the migration and settlement of the Somali into Kenya.

The Somali were living in Mogadishu by the 10th century AD. Around that time, they began to

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move southwards,, probably because the Oromo presented a threat, or because they were
looking for pasture, since they were nomadic pastoralists.

Between the twelfth and the fourteenth centuries AD, many of the Somali converted to Islam
and established the Ajuran state near Mogadishu.

By the 17th century, the Somali pushed the Oromo out of their traditional homeland near river
Juba. The Oromo responded by migrating into Kenya.

2008 3. What was the original homeland of the Eastern Cushites? (1 mk)
Ethiopian highlands (1 mk)

FACTORS FOR MIGRATION

2005 18 a) Give five reasons which led to the migration of the Cushites from their original
homeland into Kenya during the pre-colonial period?
i. They moved in search for pasture and water for their livestock.
ii. There was drought and famine in their original homeland.
iii. There was outbreak of diseases and epidemics in their original homeland.
iv. To escape from constant attacks from their neigbours/or external attacks
v. They moved in search of land for settlements as their population had
vi. increased.
vii. They moved to know what was beyond the horizon/adventure.
(5x1=5mks)
1996 17. a) What factors which made the cushites to migrate into Kenya during the pre-
colonial period.
(i) Hostile neighbours in their homeland
(ii) Succession disputes/ feuds/ family conflicts
(iii) Search for pastured for their livestock.
(iv) Natural calamities such as drought/disease
(v) search for land for settlement
(vi) Population pressure
(vii) Spirit of adventure.
Any 5 x1 marks

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2000 2. Economic reasons why the cushites migrated from their original homeland Kenya
i. They were running away due to cattle disease which were interfering with their cattle keeping
economic activity
ii. They were running away to look for better farming lands as there was drought in the area of
origin.

2004 2. Give two reasons for the migration of the Borana from Ethiopia into Kenya. (2 mks)
i. External attacks
ii. Internal conflicts
iii. Drought/ famine/ water Pasture

EFFECTS OF THEIR MIGRATION

1997 15. a) Name the result of the migration and settlement of the Somali
into Kenya by 1800.
(i) The Somali people intermarried with the people they came into contact with such as the
Pokomo and Borana / Intermarried with neighbours
(ii) Their settlement in Kenya led to the expansion of trade in the region.
(iii) Demand for agricultural produce by the Somali led to the expansion of trade in the region.
(iv) Their settlement led to increased conflicts between communities over resources such as
pasture and water.
(v) Their migration and settlement led to take displacement and redistribution of people in
area where they settled.
(vi) Led to cultural exchange between the Somali and the people they came into contact with.
For example the neighbouring communities and adopted Islam from the Somali.
(vii) Assimilation of some communities they came into contact with e.g. Oromo.
(viii) Their settlement in high agricultural potential areas e.g. river valleys encouraged some of
them to practice crop farming.
Any 4 points 2 marks each (8 mks)

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EFFECTS OF CUSHITES MIGRATION

1996 17. b) Explain five results of the settlement of the cushites in Kenya during the pre-
colonial period.
i. The cushites came with their own livestock and so encouraged livestock farming in areas where
they settled.
ii. Their settlement led to increased rivalry and conflicts for ownership of land
iii. Some cushites who had been converted to Islam spread the religion in the areas where they
settled.
iv. The cushites attacked the Eastern Bantu communities who had settled at shungwaya, and forced
them to move to their present homeland in Kenya.
v. The cushites intermarried with the communities they found in the areas where they settled.
vi. The cushites attacked the Eastern Bantu communities who had settled at shungwaya, and forced
them to move to their present homeland in Kenya.
vii. The cushites intermarried with the communities they found in the areas where they settled in
Kenya. (There was increase in population)
viii. Trade developed between the cushites and the example they exchanged livestock products such
as milk and butter with the Bantu and in return they obtained grains from the Bantu.
ix. The Bantu borrowed some to the cultural practices of the cushites e.g. Circumcision.
x. Cushites learnt mixed farming
i. Any 5 x 2 marks
1998 2. In what TWO ways the Kenyan communities interacted during the pre- colonial
period?
(i) Through trade
(ii) Through warfare
(iii) Through intermarriage
(iv) Through common festivals/ceremonies e.g. wrestling cultural exchange e.g. language
(2mks)

2000 1. Ways in which the Akamba interacted with the Agikuyu in the pre- colonial period
(i) Trading activities
(ii) Intermarriages (2 mks)
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2001 1. State two ways in which the Nandi and the Abaluyia communities interacted during
the pre- colonial period.
i. Through trade
ii. Through wars/ raids
iii. Through sporting activities
iv. Through intermarriageAny 2 points, 1 mark ( 2 mks)
2002 1. State one way in which the Abagusii and the Kipsigis interacted during the pre-
colonial period.
(i) Intermarriage
(ii) Trade
(iii) Raids/warfare Any 1 point mk each= 1mk
2003 2. Give one way in which the knowledge of iron working helped in the migration of the
Bantu.
i. It enabled them to clear their way as they moved.
ii. Their superior weapons enabled them to defeat their enemies.
iii. They were able to grow enough food crops to sustain them.
Any 1 x 1 = (1mks)
2003 18.a) State three ways through which communities in Kenya interacted during the
pre – colonial period.
(i) Communities exchanged goods through trade.
(ii) They raided each other for livestock
(iii) They fought wars with each other.
(iv) They inter – married
Any 3 x 1 = (3mks)
2004 1. State two ways in which Kenyan communities interacted during the pre- colonial
period (2 mks)
i. Through trade
ii. They intermarried/ marriage
iii. Through raids for livestock
iv. They fought wars with each other
v. Sports e.g. wrestling

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2005 18 (b) Explain five result of the interaction between the Bantu and the Cushites in the
pre-colonial period.
i. Intermarriages which strengthened relationships between communities.
ii. Some Bantu adopted Islam from the Cushites.
iii. Some Bantu copied some customs of the Cushites such as circumcision and age set systems.
iv. The Bantu and Cushites raided other for cattle which led to loss of property and lives/increased
welfare.
v. Cushites attacked the Bantu which led to further migration (e.g. Orma/Oromo Oromo/Galla
pushed the Eastern Bantu from Shungwaya)./Displacement
vi. The cushites and the Bantu exchanged goods which led to the development of trade.
vii. Some Cushites were absorbed/assimilated by the Bantu.
Any 5x2= (10mks)
2011 3 Give two reasons why Kenyan Communities fought against each other during the
pre-Colonial period. (2 marks)
i. Competition for land for cultivation/settlement.
ii. Competition for water/pasture.
iii. To demonstrate their military power.
iv. To raid for cattle. Any 2x1=2 marks

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. How did the Kenya communities interact during their migrations and settlements?
2. Describe the migration of the:
a) Cushites
b) Bantu
c) Nilotes
3. Identify the impact of the migrations of the following:
a) Bantu
b) Nilotes
c) Cushites
4. Describe the effects of the interactions of the Agikuyu and the people they came into contact
with during migration.
5. Describe the course and effects of the migration of the Luo.
6. Why did the Bantu migrate from Shungwaya?

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SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL

ORGANISATION OF KENYAN SOCIETIES IN THE
19TH CENTURY
THE BANTU
The Agikuyu
Political organisation
i. They were politically decentralised.
ii. The basic political unit was the clan.
iii. The Kikuyu were organised into clans-each made up of sub-clans called “Mbari”. Usually
along one ridge.
iv. The Kikuyu community was decentralised and it had the institution of the ‘Muramati’ (clan
leader). ‘Muramati’ co-ordinated all the activities of the sub-clan.
v. There were warriors who defended the community. The Kikuyu had a council of elders
(Kiama) which maintained law and order and made final decisions. It presided over religious
functions. Cases were handled by ‘Kiama’ composed of individual who acted as judges.
vi. The council of senior elders was selected from a number of councils to serve as a court of
appeal.
2009 4. State two political functions of the council of elders among the Agikuyu during the
colonial period
i. To settle disputes(land and inheritance disputes)
ii. To make laws for the community
iii. To punish the law breakers/ wrong doers
iv. To declare war/ make peace. (2 x 1 = 2 mks)

SOCIAL ORGANISATION
 The Kikuyu were organised into clans. There were nine clans. Some of them were Anjiru,
Ambui, Acera, Angari, Angeci and Airimu.
 The family was the basic social unit because it acted as the basis of the Kikuyu community.
 Related families formed a clan (mbari) above the family was the “mbari” or sub-clan under
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“Muramati” or caretaker.
 The Kikuyu had age set which was acquired from the Gumba.
 They conducted birth and marriage ceremony.
 The Kikuyu initiated (circumcised) boys and girls to adult hood.
 They worshiped a God they called ‘Ngai’ who lived on Mount Kenya (Kirinyaga).
 The Kikuyu offered sacrifices to their God for thanks giving in sacred places.
 They were socially organised into age –set systems composed of boys who were initiated.
 They slaughtered goats and sheep as sacrifice.
 They had medicinemen, rain makers and prophets.
 A medicineman was known as “Mundu Mugo” and he cured diseases.
 They also believed in ancestral spirits.
 Finally they paid dowry in form of cattle, sheep and goats.

2003 18.b) Describe the social organization of the Agikuyu during the
Pre – colonial period. (12mks)
i. The smallest social unit was the family.
ii. Several related families formed a clan (mbari) which lived in a defined area.
iii. The Agikuyu practiced circumcision for boys and clictoridectomy for girls.
iv. The Agikuyu had age – set system (riika) made up of boys and girls who were initiated at the
same period.
v. Members of the age set worked together and considered each other as brothers and sisters.
vi. Marriage was highly regarded among the Agikuyu as one would raise a family and also own
properties.
vii. The Agikuyu believed in the existence of a supreme God called Ngai who lived on Mount
Kenya (Kirinyaga)
viii. The Agikuyu had prayed and made sacrifices to God on various occasions.
ix. The Agikuyu also believed in the existence of ancestral spirit who acted as intermediaries
between God and the people.
x. The Agikuyu had sacred places of worship such as groves and fig trees.
xi. The Agikuyu had some specialists such as prophets, medicine people and rainmakers who were
consulted in time of need.
Any 6 x 2 = (12mks)
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ECONOMIC ORGANISATION
 Cultivation was the main economic activity. Men cleared the land as women tilled the land
The Agikuyu grew crops such as millet, sorghum, arrow roots and yams.
 Local trade was common between the ridges and they also traded with their neighbours such as
the Maasai, the Akamba and ogiek.
 They smelted iron for making hoes and axes and also weaved and practiced basketry as well as
pottery.
 The Agikuyu men hunted and gathered to substitute their diet.
 They kept beehives and harvested honey.
 They kept livestock for example cattle, sheep and goats.
 Women practised basketry and pottery.

THE AMERU
Political organisation
 First level of authority was the family each with head who solved disputes and mediated
between members.
 Families formed the clan which was under council of elders (Gaarue-Kiama)
 Kiama executed decision made by meru parliament settled disputes.
 The military force – Ramare enforced decisions house of elders, parliament, maintained law
and order, defended society from outside attacks.
 The house of elders sent representatives to the Njuri Ncheke – the most powerful institution
which passed law for the community, administered justice,
 Njuri Ncheke was final court of Appeal – solved land inheritance disputes
 The people called Agambi represented the accuser or accused before the Njuri Ncheke.
 The meru monarchy lead by Raibon was ceremonial, he was consulted on legal matters, was
chief political arbitrator, had prophetic powers

2001 3. Give two reasons why the council of elders among the Ameru was important before the
establishment of colonial rule.
(i) It solved disputes in the community
(ii) It mediated in disputes involving the Meru and their neighbours
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(iii) It ensured the safe custody of the community’s history, traditions and values/ heritage.
(iv) It sanctioned wars
(v) Acted as ritual leaders
(vi) Guidance of counseling community members
(vii) Kept law and order.

2002 2. State two functions of the council of elders (Njuri Neheke) of the Ameru.
(i) Solve land and inheritance disputes.
(ii) Acted as the Court of Appeal
(iii) Presided over religious functions
(iv) Organized social functions
(v) Advised warriors on when to go to wars/raids
(vi) Negotiated peace settlements
(vii) Made laws to govern the community

2008 4. State two similarities in the political organization of the Ameru and Abagusii of Kenya

during the 19th century. (2 mks)

(i) The clan formed the basic political unit
(ii) Leadership was by the council of elders
(iii) Both had age set systems
(iv) The council of elders settled disputes
(v) They had warriors who defended their communities Any 2 x 1=2 marks

SOCIAL ORGANISATION
 The Ameru who comprised the Chuka, Tharaka, Mwimbi, Muthambi, Imenti, Tigania and
Igembe were organised into clans.
 The family was an important social institution. Families lived in villages (ntuura) each with a
farm for cultivation.
 They were also organised into age-set systems (Nthuke/Irua) comprising of age mates.
 The Ameru conducted initiation ceremonies in form of circumcision. Both Girls and boys were
circumcised.

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 They worshiped God (Murungu) under the sacred Fig (Mugumo) trees and they also
performed sacrifices to their God.
 The Ameru had medicinemen, rainmakers, fortune-tellers and prophets.
 Education was a lifelong process girls were taught by their mothers as uncircumcised boys
joined Kamichu aat the age of seven where they were trained how to locate hidden objects. At
age 10 joined Kigumi where they learned discipline and duty.
 At age 15 they joined Gatuuri where they were trained responsibility and respect.

ECONOMIC ORGANISATION
 The Ameru grew crops such as millet and sorghum.
 They kept livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats.
 They (athi-professional hunters) hunted wild animals and gathered roots and fruits.
 Some Ameru traded with their neighbours such as the Akamba, Mbere and Embu.
 They were engaged in traditional crafts such as pottery, basketry, weaving, cloth making.
 They iron smelting which enabled them to make knives, spears, arrow heads and iron hoes.
They kept beehives and harvested honey.

THE AKAMBA
Political organisation
 They had decentralised system of government
 The clan was formed according to their occupation e.g. Amuunda (farmers Atwii ( iron
workers) etc
 The clans were rules by a council of elders –There were various grades of elders according to
ago e.g. junior elders ,medium, full and senior elders
 The medium (Nthele) full elders ( kivalo) elders dealt with administration work and passing
judgment .They also maintained law and order
 The senior most elders (thembo) dealt with religious functions and other serious matters
affecting the community like war
 The junior warriors (Anake) formed the military organization they defended the community
and conducted raids
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 The smallest political unit was the clan

 Politically the Akamba were organised into clans made up of several related families. They
had councils of elders each entitled to “Nzama Sya Utui”.
 Akamba warriors defended the community.

2004 18. (b) Describe the political organization of the Akamba during the pre-
colonial period. (10 mks)
i. The basis political units was the clan
ii. The clan was ruled by clan elders/ council of elders
iii. The Akamba society was divided into various age- grade and age- sets The lowest age- grade
was that of junior elders who defeated the community/ warriors
iv. The next in rank was the elders who presided over minor cases Full elders presided over the
major cases/ council of elders settled disputes
v. The retired advised senior elders on important matters affecting community
vi. The Akamba had a decentralized system of government/ autonomous clans ( 5 x 2 = 10 mks)

1996 1. Give two functions of the council of elders among the Akamba during the pre
colonial period.
(i) They had powers to declare war and make peace/prepared youth for war
(ii) They presided over religious and other ritual functions
(iii) They offered advice to the community when need arose
(iv) They ruled the community / settle disputes
Any 2 points 1 mark each (2 mks)

2010 2 Identify one age-grade for elders among the Akamba.

iii) Junior elders / anake
iv) Intermediate elders / medium Nthele
v) Full elders / Atumia ma Kivalo /Ithembo
vi) Senior elders / Atumia ma Ithembo
any 1 x1 = 1 mark

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SOCIAL ORGANISATION
The Akamba were organised into clans made up of several related families. They had age-groups
and age-set system. They practiced circumcision as an initiation rite.
They believed in witchcraft and had medicinemen and diviners. The Akamba conducted
traditional ceremonies. Finally, they worshipped God and performed sacrifices to him.

ECONOMIC ORGANISATION
 Those around Mbooni, veti hills practiced farming
 In the dry areas they practiced livestock farming.
 They were skilled hunters e.g hunted elephants antelope and leopard /gathers.
 They practiced trading activities with their neigbours.
 They practiced wood carving, making tools and shields
 They engaged in pottery, making pots, jugs e.t.c.
 They were weavers, making baskets, mats e.t.c
 They were bee keepers for honey which they sold.

THE ABAGUSII
Political organisation
 The clan was the basic political unit.
 Role organized based on clans made up of related families.
 Had hereditary chiefs called Omogambi. He had a special stool (egetumbe) and had an adorned
crown known as Chindogote
 Had council of elders which performed duties such as:- e.g solving land disputes
 Maintaining law and order.
 Disciplining law breakers.
 Had clan’s chiefs who presided our religions ceremonies.
 Had warriors who defended the community.
 Had age sets which they joined after initiation. (2x5 = 10mks)

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2008 4. State two similarities in the political organization of the Ameru and Abagusii of Kenya

during the 19th century. (2 mks)

(i) The clan formed the basic political unit
(ii) Leadership was by the council of elders
(iii) Both had age set systems
(iv) The council of elders settled disputes
(v) They had warriors who defended their communities Any 2 x 1=2 marks

SOCIAL ORGANISATION
 The clan was the basic social unit based on several lineages with each clan having thir own
totem, usually a wild animal. e.g. bogirango (leopard)
 They believed is a supreme being known as Engoro who lived in the sky.
 They prayed through ancestral spirits (ebirecha/chisokoro), who in turn expressed their wishes
through dreams.
 Their wishes were interpreted by a diviner (omoragori), who suggested appropriate
appeasement.
 They conducted initiation ceremonies in form of circumcision for boys and clitoridectomy for
girls.
 Polygamy was a very common social practice among the Abagusii.
 Marriage was exogamous. (Marriage between clans was not allowed)
 They had medicinemen, rain makers and prophet
 They conducted ceremonies marking birth, initiation and death.
 The Abagusii were organised into clans. Their social organisation was based on the extended
family whose members claimed to have a common ancestor.
 The sun (erioba) was considered sacred and prayers were directed through it.
2001 4. The main significance of circumcision in some African traditional societies in
Kenya.
(i) It marked the end of childhood and the beginning of adulthood ( 1 mk)

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Economic organisation
2006 3.State two economic activities of the Abagusii in Kenya during the Pre- colonial period
i. They grew crops
ii. They kept livestock
iii. They hunted animals and gathered wild fruits
iv. They traded with their neighbours
v. They made handicrafts/ Basketry
vi. Iron working
( Any 2 x 1 = 2 mks)

THE MIJIKENDA
Political organisation
1999 17. (b) (i) Describe The political organization of the Mijikenda during the pre- colonial
period (6 mks)
vi. The Mijikenda were organized into between 4-6 clans with many sub- Clans
vii. Each man lived in protected villages known as Kaya
viii. Young men became members of age – sets after going through circumcision
ix. Senior age –set members made up the government council, Kambi
x. The council was responsible for the administration of a clan
xi. Council meetings were chaired by headmen
xii. The junior age- set members made up the warrior group which was charged with defending the
community
(Any 6 points, 1 mk) (6 mks)

SOCIAL ORGANISATION
 They comprised of nine different communities i.e. griama, kauma, ribe, rabai,kambe, chonyi,
jibana, duruma, and digo.
 They lived in fortified villages kaya which was the basic social unit.
 The Mijikenda believed in the existence of one supreme God whom they called Mulungu,
whom they prayed to through ancestral spirits (koma)
 Were organized into clans made up of several reacted families which were matrilineal.
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 Prayers were made directly to Mulungu

 They offered sacrifices to appease Mulungu
 Priests presided over religious ceremonies and rituals
 Other people such as the medicine men, diviners played an important role among the
Mijikenda
 They believed in the ancestral spirits who gave guidance to families and also mediated
between them and their God.
 Practiced polygamy.
 Intermarriage between different clans allowed
 Social ceremonies were marked with song and dance.
 Had two age-set Marika and Kambi
 Each Kaya was headed by a senior elder seen as the owners of all the property.
 The elderly members of the society imported societal values and norms to the youth.
 Divisions of Labour practiced where Children looked after livestock, young men build houses,
cattle sheds, hunted and cleared the bush.
 Had prophets called Wafisi
 Had ritual experts and Rain makers
 Circumcision was carried out once after every four years the initiates joined an age set and
parents choose a bride for them.

1999 17. (b) (ii) Describe The social organization of the Mijikenda during the pre-
colonial period (6 mks)
i. The Mijikenda believed in the existence of one supreme God whom they called Mulungu
ii. Prayers were made directly to Mulungu
iii. They offered sacrifices to appease Mulungu
iv. Priest presided over religious ceremonies and rituals
v. Other people such as the medicenemen, diviners played an important role among the Mijikenda

2000 3. Why the Mijikenda lived in the Kaya

To enhance their security as they could not easily be attacked when they were living together in
the settlement.

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ECONOMIC ORGANISATION
 The Mijikenda fished in the Indian Ocean.
 They kept livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats
 Hunted and gathered fruits, honey and vegetables.
 They were engaged in traditional industries such as weaving and basketry.
 The Mijikenda grew crops such as millet
 Traded with the Swahilis and the people of the interior such as the Akamba
 They practiced salt collecting.

THE NILOTES
The Luo
Political organisation
 They Luo were a decentralized community
 The family was the lowest political unit headed by Jaduong (Father)
 They were organized in clans each with a common ancestry
 There was a lineage council “Bunch dhook” whose duty was to settle domestic disputes
 The clans, joined, to form larger units known as Gweng” who were self-governing
 They were ruled by a council of elders who administered justice and conducted religious
ceremonies
 Several Gweng joined together to form sub-tribe known as “Oganda”(13 sub tribes)
 The chief elder at ‘Oganda” level was called “Ruoth”. He was assisted by a council of elders
called “buch ping”
 Buch piny had the responsibility of setting major inter-clan conflicts disciplined criminals e.g.
murderers.
 They had a class of warriors “Thuondi(bulls) who defended the community and carried our
raids on neighbours (5 x 1 = 5 marks)

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2002 18 b) Describe the political organization of the Luo during the pre- colonial period
i. The Luo were organized into clans, each with a common ancestry
ii. The clans were organized into large units (Gwenye) which were self- governing
iii. Each Gwenge was administered by a Council of Elders
iv. The council administered justice and served as the final court of appeal
v. The council co-ordinate religious functions
vi. They had a system of chieftainship (Ruoth) who administered with the help of Council of Elders

SOCIAL ORGANISATION
 The family was the basic social unit.
 They believed in the existence of one God “Nyasaye” worshipped in sacred places
 They prayed to him through priests.
 They had special shrines where they worshipped e.g. under trees.
 They believed in ancestral spirits. (juogi)
 They practiced initiation rites e.g. removal of six lower teeth
 They celebrated important occasions like harvest or marriage
 They were ritual experts e.g. diviners, medicine men healers.

2002 18 b) Describe the social organization of the Luo during the pre- colonial period
i. There were ritual experts such as diviners, medicine men and healers.
ii. There were ritual experts such as diviners, medicine men and healer.
iii. They believed in the existence of One God (Nyasaye).
iv. They prayed to God through priests
v. They venerated/worshipped the ancestral spirits
vi. They lead sacred places set aside for worship
vii. They practiced initiation rites e.g. removal of lower teeth /front teeth
viii. They celebrated important occasions e.g. harvest, marriage through drinking, eating, wrestling
and dancing (8x1 = 8mks)

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ECONOMIC ORGANISATION
 The Luo cultivated crops such as beans, sweet potatoes, peas, millet, groundnuts and sorghum.
 They hunted wild animals and collected fruits, vegetables and roots.
 The Luo businessmen traded with their neighbours for example Abaluhyia, Abagusii, Nandi
and Kipsigis.
 The Luo smelted iron and made iron tools
 Engaged themselves in the traditional industries such as pottery, basketry and cloth making.
They fished in Lake Victoria and in the rivers passing through their territory e.g. Rivers
Sondu, Nzoia, Nyando, Kuja and Yala.

THE NANDI
Political organisation
 Basic political unit was the clan
 Several clans joined together to form a longer and highest political unit- the prophet
 The clan was governed by junior council of elders who settled minor disputes
 Each prophet was controlled by a council of elders who decided in serious mattes
 It settled major disputes as it was the highest court
 They had an influential institution of the orkoiyot who also played an important political roe as
advising the council of elders any ( 5x2)= 10 mks
Age sets among the Nandi traditional society
 Maina
 Chuma
 Sawe
 Korongoro
 Kipkoimet
 Kaplelach
 Kimnyinge
 Nyongi

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2007 4. State two duties of the Orkoyot among the Nandi. (2mks)
(i) He presided over religious functions
(ii) He foretold future events/seer.
(iii) He was a medicine man.
(iv) He was a rain maker Any 2x1 = 2mks

SOCIAL ORGANISATION
 The basic social unit was the family
 Family members of the same paternal lineage formed a clan
 Members of the same clan were prohibited from marrying because they were related by blood
 They practiced circumcision for both boys and girls when they reached puberty
 During the initiation boys and girls were given informed education by elders about the
community’s values and traditions.
 After initiations the boys were admitted into one of the cyclical age-set etc.
 They held various ceremonies to mark different social events i.e. birth, marriage etc.
 The Nandi worshiped a supreme God (Asis)
 They believed in ancestral spirits whom they honoured through libations
 They offered sacrifices to God in times of blessing or appease him in times of misfortunes
 The Nandi had important religious leaders such as diviners, rainmakers etc.
 They had a famous religious leader known Orkoiyot.

ECONOMIC ORGANISATION
 The Nandi practiced mixed farming because they grew crops
 They kept livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats.
 They smelted iron and made iron tools and weapons such as spears, cattle bells and hoes.
 The Nandi traded with their neighbours such as the Luhyia, Maasai and the Luo.
 They were engaged in traditional industries such as weaving, basketry and pottery.
 Some Nandi people hunted and gathered roots and fruits as well as vegetables.
 A few others harvested honey because they kept beehives.

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THE MAASAI
Political organisation
2000 18 (b) Describe the political organization of the Maasai during the pre-colonial period.
(i) The Maasai were ruled by the council of elders. The council consisted of ritual leaders, clan
heads and family heads among others.
(ii) The council of elders was responsible for maintaining law and order, making decision
about ceremonies, declaring wars and settling disputes.
(iii) The age set system was an important institution among the Maasai.
(iv) There were several age sets and each had a leader/spokesman. The age sets exercised
leadership roles in turns.
(v) There existed a class of warriors, the morans, who were used to carry out raids and also
defend the community.
(vi) There were ritual leaders among the Maasai. Their function was to preside over religious
functions and advise the community during crises.

(vii) The most important ritual head was the Oloiboni. By the mid 19 th century the institution
of the Oloiboni had become more influential. Some outstanding were Mbatian and Lenana.

2004 3. State two functions of the Laibon among the Maasai during pre- colonial period
in Kenya. (2 mks)
i. He presided over religious ceremonies
ii. Her advised the council of Elders political head of Maasai
iii. He blessed warriors before they undertook raids
iv. He foretold future events/ acted as a prophet
v. He administered justice ( 2 mks)
2012 4.State two religious functions performed by Oloibon of the Maasai during the pre-
colonial period. (2 marks)
(i) He foretold the future/consulted God
(ii) He presided over religious ceremonies/activities
(iii) He offered prayers on behalf of the community
(iv) He blessed warriors before going to war (2marks)

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2013 3. State two political functions of the Oloibon among the Maasai during the 19th century.
(i) He administered the Maasai land/acted as unifying factor.
(ii) He settled disputes.
(iii) He declared war against his enemies/Advised and blessed warriors.
(iv) Advised the Council of Elders.
Any 2 x 1 = 2 marks

SOCIAL ORGANISATION
2011 18(b)Describe the social organization of the Maasai during the pre-colonial period (10 ms
i. The lowest social unit was the family which comprised of the father, his wife/wives and
children.
ii. Several related families formed a clan.
iii. The Maasai were organized into age groups age sets which were made up of people who were
circumcised at the same period.
iv. There was a warrior class whose duty was to defend the community/conduct raids.
v. The Maasai believed in the existence of a supreme God Enkai, who was the creator of the
universe.
vi. There was a religious leader, Laibon who mediated between the community and Enkai.
vii. They offered sacrifices to God in special places/celebrated the century that mark graduation of
Moran/eunoto
viii. They believed in the existence of ancestral spirits whom they revered.
Any 5 points x2 = 10 marks

ECONOMIC ORGANISATION
 Trading with their neighbours e.g. Abagusii, Agikiyu to get honey grains.
 Pastoralism – keeping of livestock for milk, meat, blood.
 Cultivation of crops e.g the Kwavi group of Maasai cultivated crops e.g. vegetables, grains.
 Gathering of roots, vegetables, fruit.
 Several crafts were practiced by the Maasai e.g. iron working to produce spears arrow heads,
hoes, ornaments, swords etc.
 Raiding neighbours e.g. Luo’s, Nandis for cattle.
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1999 2. Identify the two economic activities which the maasai acquired as a result of
interacting with the Agikuyu during their settlement in Kenya (2 mks)
i. Some maasai sections e.g. the Kwavi became agriculture/ farmers
ii. Some Maasai became traders
(Any 2 points, 1 mrk) (2 mks)

THE EASTERN CUSHITES

The Borana
Political organisation
 The Borana were divided into two halves or moieties/Kinship.
 The moieties were sub-divided into sub-moieties which were then divided into clans
comprising related familities.
 A hereditary leader known s Kaku headed each moiety.
 Kallu’s clan was the spiritual and political centre of moiety.
 The Kallu was both the spiritual leader and the judge who arbitrated major disputes.
 There was an age-set system on which military organization was based./They had warriors
derived from the age sets for community’s defense and expansion land under its occupation.
 The Borana also had a Gada system comprising eleven grades. Each Goda class lasted 8 years
and passed through eleven grades from birth to death.
 Members of the Gada elected Gada council which made decisions./They had a council of
elders which elected the Gada and assisted the Kallu/pettled disputes
 Handing over of leadership was done through the performance of the butta ceremony.

SOCIAL ORGANISATION
 They are organized into clans.
 Each clans was headed by the council of elders
 They had age set called gada
 Young men served as warriors
 They had ritual ceremonies which united them

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 They had exogamies marriages/married from different clans

 The system of inheritance was patrilineal/property was inherited from father to the son.
 They worship supreme creator god called Wak.
 However in 19th century majority of them were converted to Islam.

ECONOMIC ORGANISATION
2011 18(a)State five economic activities of the Borana during the pre-colonial period. (5 mrks)
i. They participated in trade.
ii. They kept livestock.
iii. They hunted wild animals.
iv. They were gathers.
v. They practiced crafts.
vi. They practiced fishing.
vii. They made iron tools.
viii. They grew food crops.Any 5 marks x 1= 5

THE SOMALI
Political organisation
 The basic political unit was the clan
 It clan was under a council of elders
 The council of elders maintained law and order among’ other duties
 They developed an age set system from which they derived their warriors
 The warriors defended the community against external attacks
 They had a leader called sultan whose role was mainly advisory
 Later they developed sheikhs as community leaders
 With the coming of Islam, their political system was based on Islamic shariah laws
1999 1. What was the base of the political organization among the Cushites during the pre-
colonial period? (1mk)
 The clan
1997 15 b) Describe the political organization of the Somali in Kenya during the
Pre-colonial period.
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(i) The basic political unit of the Somali was the clan. Each clan had its name and occupied
specific territories / areas.
(ii) a council of elders was in charge of the day to day affairs of the clan e.g. making major
clan decisions and settled disputes.
(iii) The council maintained law and order and was the final court of appeal.
(iv) The age – set system was an important institution among the Somali and all male
members of the society belonged to the age – set. Each age –set performed specific roles/
duties.
(v) The Somali had leaders called Sultan whose role was mainly advisory.
(vi) There existed warriors whose main duty was to protect the community against external
attacks and acquire possessions for the community.
(vii) There existed people with special responsibility e.g. Sheikhs and medicine men. They
were highly regarded in the community and their opinions were sought before important
decisions were made.
Any 4 points 2 marks each (8mks
Functions of the council of elders among the Somali during the pre-colonial period
 Maintenance of law and order
 Settlement of disputes among different clans
 Promoting and preserving Somali culture
 Ensured effective use of grazing land and water points
 Presided over religious ceremonies
 They were the highest court of appeal

Social organisation
 They were divided into six clans i.e. Ogaden, Degodia, Gurreh, Ajuran, Hawijah and Gosh.
 The Somali believed in the existence of God(wak) who was all powerful.
 They conducted prayers to their God and sacrificed to him when need arose.
 They were socially organised into clans made up of related families
 They conducted initiation of boys and then grouped them into age sets
 Clans were headed by council of elders who settled clan disputes maintained law & order etc.
 They had religious leaders who mediated between the people and their God.
 They practised polygamous marriage
 In the 16th Century they were converted into Islam hence adopting Islamic culture.
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ECONOMIC ORGANISATION
 Nomadic pastoralism – kept cattle, camels, sheep and goats for meat & blood
 Practiced trade – local trade and exchange of livestock products, leather goods, wooden items
and mats, to the neighbouring agricultural communities in exchange for grains, baskets, iron
tools and salt.
 Weaving – This was done by women using both vegetable fibre and animal hair to make mats
covering the roofs of the huts and spreading on the floor.
 Woodwork done by skilled woodworkers to produce wooden headrests, wooden combs and
eating, drinking and storage utensils.
 Some were involved in iron working. Blacksmiths made iron tools, arrow heads, spears
swords, knives and ornaments.
 Some Somali sub-clans hunted game for food and gathered roots, vegetable and fruits
 Those who lived near oases and along the river valleys practiced crop farming – cultivated
indigenous grains, including wheat and millet, bananas and dates
 Pottery
 Leather work
2009 3. What was the main economic activity of the Cushites in the pre- colonial period?
 Pastoralism/ livestock keeping (1 x 1 = 1 mk)

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Identify the economic organisation of each of the following during the colonial period:
a) Bantu communities
b) Cushites
c) Nilotes
2. Describe the political organisation of the following:
i) Luo
ii) Akamba
iii) Abagusii
3. What was the role of the council of elders among the Ameru.
4. Why was the institution of the Orkoiyot important among the Nandi.
5. Discuss the social organisation of the following:
i) Kikuyu
ii) Boran
iii) Maasai
6. What problems did the migrating communities encounter during the pre-colonial period?

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CONTACTS BETWEEN EAST AFRICA AND THE

OUTSIDE WORLD UP TO THE 19TH CENTURY
Sources of information on the history of the East coast of Africa
Sources of Historical information about the East African coast before the 7 th century AD.
 The Greco-Roman documentary, which only makes an indirect reference to the East African
coast before the establishment of international contact since it is a product of international
trade.
 The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea a book written about 120AD by a Greek commercial agent
in Egypt. This document describes the trade between the African and foreign merchants at the
coast.
 Ptolemy geography-The writing by Claudius Ptolemy (a Greek scholar) in the 2nd century AD,
which entailed geography and describes commercial activities at the coast. Ptolemy attempted
to draw the first map of Africa.
 Documents by Arab merchants such as Ibn Batuta and Al-Masudi as well as some Swahili
histories and chronicles such as the history of Pate, Lamu, Mombasa and Kilwa.
 The existing archaeological evidence in East Africa, which include the remains of pottery, iron
tools, beads, coins and others that prove the presence of international trade between the coast
and the outside world.
 The Christian Topography by Cosmos Indico-Pletustes, which was written in the first half of
the 6th century AD and supports Persian domination of Indian Ocean Trade.
 Oral traditions, which were used and relied on for a long time, particularly by communities
that lacked the skill of writing.

Reasons why the East African coast has been subjected to a long history of commercial
contact, cultural influence and population movements to and from lands across the Indian
Ocean.
 The coast was easily accessible from the sea, which eased contact with the outside world.
 Development of a suitable marine technology (boat making), which boosted voyages.
 Harnessing of the winds and currents of the Indian Ocean, by which traders knew when to
travel to and from the coast.

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KCSE
1996 2. State two factors which made it possible for the Arab traders to come to the Kenya
coast before 1500.(2mks)
i) Accessibility of the Kenyan Coast via the sea
ii) Availability of funds to finance their journey
iii) Availability of dhows
iv) The Monsoon winds which powered their dhows to the coast. Any 2 points, 1 mark each

2009 18. (a) Give the evidence which shows that early visitors reached the Kenyan coast before
the 15th century ( 3 mks)
(i) The Greeks and Chinese coins were found at the Kenyan Coast
(ii) There are fragments of Chinese Pottery which have been preserved
(iii) Documents that mention the presence of early visitors to the Kenya coast have been
preserved
(iv) Presence of monuments constructed by the early visitors (Any 3 x 1 = 3 mks)

2005 5. Give two evidences which show that Chinese traders reached the Kenyan coast before
1500 A.D. (2 mks)
(i) Remains of Chinese coins
(ii) Fragments of Chinese pottery/Fossils/Artifacts
(iii) Information in the periplus of the Eritrean sea. Any 2x1 = (2mks

Early visitors to the coast up to 1500

Describe the earliest visitors to the East African coast.
 The Greeks, who were attracted to the trade in ivory.
 The Romans, who increased demand for oriental (Eastern Asian) commodities in the
Mediterranean region and were determined to break Arab monopoly over oriental trade. They
gave wine, various kinds of glass and wheat to the coastal people in return for ivory, slaves
and rhinoceros horns.
 The Chinese, whose coins and pottery have been found at several places at the coast. They
came for gold, ivory, leopard skins, tortoise shells and rhinoceros horns.

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 The Persians, who together with the Arabs, settled down and started towns such as Lamu,
Mombasa and Zanzibar. They were later driven away by the Arabs who occupied all the
coastal towns.
 The Arabs, whose settlement at the coast affected the lives of the inhabitants they found in
many ways, which makes them the most important of all visitors at the East African coast.

Reasons why Arabs were the most influential of all early visitors to the East African
coast
 They were keen and very skillful in trade and sailing.
 They were more accustomed to the Monsoon winds than any other people.
 They were good navigators.
 The ports of southern Arabia were good calling places on the journey between the East and the
West.
 The deep harbours at the East African coast were ideal for their ships to anchor, refuel and get
them supplies.

Reasons for the coming of the Arabs to the East African coast
 To trade and control commercial activities along the East African coast.
 Some came as refugees fleeing religious and political persecutions in Arabia.
 They came to spread their religion Islam.
 To explore the East African coast.
 To establish settlements along the East African coast.

Places that early visitors to the East African coast came from
 Arabia
 Egypt,
 Syria,
 India,
 Sri lanka,
 Maldive islands,
 Spice Islands,
 Greece,
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 China,
 Persia,
 Italy,
 Burma,
 Thailand.

Factors that enabled the Arabs to come to the East African coast
 The Monsoon winds, which helped them sail.
 Accessibility to the coast by sea.
 Availability of Dhows and sailing ships.
 Funds to finance trade across the sea.
 Existence of skilled personnel who could sail the ships across the water over long distances.

KCSE
2009 18. (a) Give the evidence which shows that early visitors reached the Kenyan coast before
the 15th century ( 3 mks)
(i) The Greeks and Chinese coins were found at the Kenyan Coast
(ii) There are fragments of Chinese Pottery which have been preserved
(iii) Documents that mention the presence of early visitors to the Kenya coast have been
preserved
(iv) Presence of monuments constructed by the early visitors
2005 5. Give two evidences which show that Chinese traders reached the Kenyan coast before
1500 A.D. (2 mks)
(i) Remains of Chinese coins
(ii) Fragments of Chinese pottery/Fossils/Artifacts
(iii) Information in the periplus of the Eritrean sea. Any 2x1 = (2mks

Reasons for the coming of early visitors

 They wanted to participate in the trade/control the commercial activities along the coast.
 Some came as political/religious refugees/religious persecution in Arabia.
 Some came as explorers/wanted to find out about the resources along the coast
 They wanted to spread their religion Islam.
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 Accessibility of the coast by sea enhanced movement by use of dhows

 They wanted to establish settlements along the coast

KCSE QUESTIONS
2010 19 (a) Give three reasons why the early visitors came to the Kenyan-coast before 1500 A.D.
(3 marks)
i) They wanted to participate in the trade/control the commercial activities along the coast.
ii) Some came as political/religious refugees
iii) Some came as explorers/wanted to find out about the resources along the coast
iv) They wanted to spread their religion.
v) They wanted to establish settlements along the coast Any 3 x 1 = 3 marks
2004 4. Identify one factor that facilitated contact between the Kenyan coast and the outside

world by the end of the 16th Century. (1 mk)

(i) The monsoon winds enabled the early visitors to travel to and from the Coast
(ii) The advancement in boats and ship building technology led to making of stronger
vessels
(iii) Availability of Trade goods ( 1 mk
2012 5. Give two factors that enabled the early visitors to come to the Kenyan coast by 1500
A.D. (2 marks)
I. Existence of natural harbours
II. Accessibility of the East African Coast
III. Existence of monsoon/trade winds
IV. Knowledge of boat making/sailing ship/dhows (2marks)
2010 19 (a) Give three reasons why the early visitors came to the Kenyan-coast before 1500 A.D.
(3 marks)
i) They wanted to participate in the trade/control the commercial activities along the
coast.
ii) Some came as political/religious refugees
iii) Some came as explorers/wanted to find out about the resources along the coast iv) They
wanted to spread their religion.
v) They wanted to establish settlements along the coast Any 3 x 1 = 3 marks
2012 5. Give two factors that enabled the early visitors to come to the Kenyan coast by 1500
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A.D. (2 marks)
I. Existence of natural harbours
II. Accessibility of the East African Coast
III. Existence of monsoon/trade winds
IV. Knowledge of boat making/sailing ship/dhows (2marks)
1996 2. State two factors which made it possible for the Arab traders to come to the Kenya coast
before 1500.(2mks)
i) Accessibility of the Kenyan Coast via the sea
ii) Availability of funds to finance their journey
iii) Availability of dhows
iv) The Monsoon winds which powered their dhows to the coast.
Any 2 points, 1 mark each (2 mks)
2002 3. A part from trade, give one reason why the Arabs migrated to the Kenyan coast before
1500 A.D.
(i) To escape religious conflicts between different Islamic sects in Arabia/civil wars.
(ii) To escape from political persecution in Arabia
(iii) To spread Islam
(iv) For adventure/exploration Any 1 point, 1mk (1mk)

TRADE BETWEEN EAST AFRICA AND THE OUTSIDE WORLD -

INDIAN OCEAN TRADE DEVELOPMENT OF TRADE
i) Availability of items of trade encouraged traders to come to the coast.
ii) The high demand for goods/trade items from Kenyan coast by consumers in the outside
world led to increased trade.
iii) The existence of local trade among the Africans along the coast provided a base upon
which Indian Ocean trade developed.
iv) The Monsoon winds facilitated the movement of vessels/ships to and from the coast
thus enabling the merchants to take part in the trade.
v) The Indian Ocean provided access to traders from Asia and Europe.
vi) The relative peace/political stability provided conducive environment for trade.
vii) The availability of credit facilities from Indian Banyans/money lenders enabled many
people to take part in trade.
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viii) Existence of enterprising merchants at the coast/foreign lands promoted trading links
enabled trade to flourish.
ix) The natural harbours along the coast ensured safe docking of ships for loading and
unloading of items of trade
x) Advancement in ship/boat building led to better sailing vessels thus increased trading
activities to and from the coast.

KCSE QUESTIONS
2008 18 (a) Give three factors which contributed to the development of trade between the

Kenyan coast and the outside world by the 16th century. (3 mks)
(i) The availability of trade items
(ii) The demand for goods
(iii) Existence of enterprising merchants
(iv) The accessibility of the coast
(v) The existence of local trade
(vi) There was political stability
(vii) The existence of natural harbours
(viii) The occurrence of monsoon winds
2010 19 (b) Explain six factors that contributed to the development of trade between the
Kenyan coast and the outside world by 1900. (12 marks)
xi) Availability of items of trade encouraged traders to come to the coast.
xii) The high demand for goods/trade items from Kenyan coast by consumers in the outside
world led to increased trade.
xiii) The existence of local trade among the Africans along the coast provided a base upon
which Indian Ocean trade developed.
xiv) The Monsoon winds facilitated the movement of vessels/ships to and from the coast
thus enabling the merchants to take part in the trade.
xv) The Indian Ocean provided access to traders from Asia and Europe.
xvi) The relative peace/political stability provided conducive environment for trade.
xvii) The availability of credit facilities from Indian Banyans/money lenders enabled many
people to take part in trade.
xviii) Existence of enterprising merchants at the coast/foreign lands promoted trading links
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enabled trade to flourish.

xix) The natural harbours along the coast ensured safe docking of ships for loading and
unloading of items of trade
xx) Advancement in ship/boat building led to better sailing vessels thus increased trading
activities to and from the coast. Any 6 x 2 = 12 marks

ORGANISATION OF TRADE
~ The earliest foreign traders must have been the Romans who traded with the Indians in the Far
East. They made stopovers at the east African coast for ivory whose demand had grown
tremendously.
~ Muslim Arabs acted as intermediaries in the Indian Ocean trade between the Indians and the
Romans. They also exported frankincense and myrrh among other things.
~ Traders from Persia, Arabia and Syria brought glass beakers and bowls, swords, pots, grains,
sugar, cloth and beads in exchange for palm oil, tortoise shells, ivory and slaves.
~ The Greek, roman and Chinese traders brought porcelain bowls, daggers, swords, pottery,
cowrie shells, glassware, beads and silk in exchange for ivory, rhinoceros horns, bee wax,
tortoise shells , coconut oil and mangrove poles. Cowrie shells were obtained from Maldives
islands while spices came from Spice Island.
~ East Africa also exported leopard skins, gold, ostrich feathers, copal, copper and iron. Ivory
was used in Asia to make bangles, bracelets, piano keys and for decorations
~ The traders relied on the monsoon winds to blow their ships to and from the east African coast.
~ The Indian Ocean trade was conducted through the barter system but later coins were used as a
medium of exchange. During barter, the foreigners bartered their goods with gold,
ivory and slaves. Seyyid said later introduced copper and silver coins.
~ The middlemen in the trade included the Arabs and Swahili who organized caravans to the
interior to acquire local goods which they sold to traders at the coast.
~ As there was no common language spoken, trading was conducted silently, hence the name
‘silent trade’
~ Capital for the trade was provided by the Arabs. Later the Indian banyans started giving credit
facilities to the traders which increased the volume of trade.
~ The sultan of Zanzibar provided security to the Arab traders, enabling them to penetrate the

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interior to acquire goods.

~ The trade stimulated development of towns along the coastline. E.g Rhapta (probably located
between pangani and Dar es Salam), Essina and Sarapion were the earliest towns to
grow. Lamu Malindi Mombasa, pate and Brava also developed.
~ The merchants settled at various places on the coast and on the islands and interacted with the
locals leading to development of the Swahili culture.

KCSE QUESTIONS
2004 4. Identify one factor that facilitated contact between the Kenyan coast and the outside

world by the end of the 16th Century. (1 mk)

(i) The monsoon winds enabled the early visitors to travel to and from the Coast
(ii) The advancement in boats and ship building technology led to making of stronger
vessels
(iii) Availability of Trade goods ( 1 mk
2011 4 Identify the two main items of trade from the interior of Kenya during the long
distance trade. (2 marks)
i. Ivory
ii. Slaves
Impacts of the trade
 Some African people living along the Kenya coast were converted to Islam.
 The volume of trade increased between the interior and the coastal towns
 Arabs introduced Islamic culture/ architecture to the coastal people
 The Arabs introduced new crops which were later adopted by the coastal People.
 Demand for imported goods led to the decline of traditional industries
 Some communities such as Akamba resorted to long distance trade in search of commodities.
 There was an increase in population as many traders settled at the coast
 The Arabs established city states/ towns at the coast
 The Islamic law and system of administration was introduced by Arabs at the coast
 There was the development – Kiswahili language as a result of the interaction between Arabs
and Coastal people
 Intermarriage between Africans and Arabs led to emergency of Waswahili people.

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KCSE QUESTION
2009 18 (b) Explain six results of the interaction between the people of the Kenyan Coast and
the Arabs ( 12 mks)
(i) Some African people living along the Kenya coast were converted to Islam.
(ii) The volume of trade increased between the interior and the coastal towns
(iii) Arabs introduced Islamic culture/ architecture to the coastal people
(iv) The Arabs introduced new crops which were later adopted by the coastal People.
(v) Demand for imported goods led to the decline of traditional industries
(vi) Some communities such as Akamba resorted to long distance trade in search of
commodities.
(vii) There was an increase in population as many traders settled at the coast
(viii) The Arabs established city states/ towns at the coast
(ix) The Islamic law and system of administration was introduced by Arabs at the coast
(x) There was the development – Kiswahili language as a result of the interaction between
Arabs and Coastal people
(xi) Intermarriage between Africans and Arabs led to emergency of Waswahili people.

COASTAL CITY STATES

Factors for the rise of the coastal city states
 The coming and establishment of settlements along the coast by early visitors.
 The development of the Indian Ocean trade.
 Some towns were established on Islands/security.
 Existence of deep, well sheltered harbours.
 Climatic conditions were favourable.
 Increase in population due to intermarriages.
 The settlement of Muslim refugees from Arabia.
 Effective administration by the rulers of the towns enabled them to expand.

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KCSE QUESTIONS
2007 19.a) Identify five factors that led to the growth of town along the coast of Kenya before the
19th Century. (5mks)
(i) The coming and establishment of settlements along the coast by early visitors.
(ii) The development of the Indian Ocean trade.
(ii) Some towns were established on Islands/security.
(iii) Existence of deep, well sheltered harbours.
(iv) Climatic conditions were favourable.
(v) Increase in population due to intermarriages.
(vi) The settlement of Muslim refugees from Arabia.
(vii) Effective administration by the rulers of the towns enabled them to expand. Any
5x1= 5mks.

FEATURES OF THE COASTAL CITY STATES

 Kiswahili was used as the main medium of communication in the coastal towns.
 Islam was the main religion practiced in the towns.
 Islamic law/Sharia was used in administration.
 Houses were constructed using Arabic architecture.
 Trade was the main economic activity in the towns.
 In the city states were generally divided into two sections, one Muslim and other African.
 The city states were ruled by Imams/Sultans/sheikhs.
 The city states were independent political entities.
 Towns minted and used their own coins/money.
 People wore woven and silk clothes.

KCSE QUESTIONS
1999 18(a) Describe the characteristics of the coastal towns by 1500 (5 mks)
(v) Kiswahili was used as the main medium of communication in the coastal towns.
(vi) Islam was the main religion practiced in the towns.
(vii) Islamic law/Sharia was used in administration.
(viii) Houses were constructed using Arabic architecture.

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(ix) Trade was the main economic activity in the towns.

(x) In the city states were generally divided into two sections, one Muslim and other African.
vii) The city states were ruled by Imams/Sultans/sheikhs.
(ix) The city states were independent political entities.
(x) Towns minted and used their own coins/money.
(xi) People wore woven and silk clothes.

2000 19. (a) Describe the way of life of the people who lived in the coastal city states by
1500. (7 mks)
(i) The people lived in settlements that were politically independence of each other. The
settlement were ruled by Muslims leaders/ sultans
(ii) The majority of the inhabitants of the city states were Muslims
(iii) The people who lived in the city states spoke Kiswahili
(iv) They participated in the Indian Ocean Trade
(v) The Architectural designs of their houses were influenced by Arabian and Persian designs
(vi) They practiced mixed farming. They grew bananas, yams and coconuts.
(vii) They fished in the Indian Ocean- Fish/ sea food was a major part of their diet
(viii) They practiced spinning and weaving
(ix) The city states were ruled according to the Islamic laws/ sharia
(x) Their way of dressing was influenced by Arabian way of dressing/ buibui
(xi) Oriented diet.

2007 19 b) Describe the way of life in the Coastal towns of Kenya before the 19th
Century. (10mks)
(i) Each town had a leader whose title was the Sultan or sheikh.
(ii) The towns were governed using Islamic Laws/Sharia.
(iii) People developed and spoke the Kiswahili language.
(iv) Women wore ‘Buibui’ and men put on ‘Kanzu’
(v) The main religion practiced was Islam.
(vi) The people adapted Arabic and Persian architectural designs.
(vii) They ate oriental foods.

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(viii) They carried out trade with Europeans as well as with the communities in the interior of
Kenya.
(ix) They practiced mixed farming/or grew bananas, cashew nuts as well kept animals.
(x) They carried out fishing.
(xi) Education was provided in ‘Madrasa’ Any 5x2= 10mks

2000 5. Give the main reason why most of the early urban centers along the Kenyan coast
were built on islands. (1 mk)
i. For security reasons as they could easily see the enemies as they approached by sea

2006 4. Give one reason which led to the decline of Gedi during the 15th century (1 mk)
(i) External attacks
(ii) Inadequate water supply/ Drought

Factors for the decline of the coastal city states

1999 18(b) Explain five factors which led to the decline of the coastal towns after
1500 (10 mks)
(i) Disruption of trade by the Portuguese resulted in loss of revenue
(ii) Constant warfare and conflicts between the Portuguese and the coastal towns led to the
total destruction of some coastal settlements
(iii) Invasion of coastal settlement by the Zimba led to the disruption of economic activities of
the coastal settlement.
(iv) Increased conflicts between the city states discouraged traders from the interior to bring
trade goods to the coast.
(v) The draught spell hindered farming activities
(vi) Conflicts between the Mazrui family and the AI Busaidi family over the control of the
coastal settlement.
(vii) Taxes levied on the coastal settlements by the corrupt Portuguese administrators
weakened the economic base of the settlements.
(viii) Rivalry between European Nations for the control of the trade along the East African
Coast led to the decline of some coastal towns.
2000 19 (b) Explain four factors which led to the decline of the coastal settlements between
1500 and 1700. (8 mks)
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(i) Rivalry for the control of the Indian Ocean trade weakened the coastal settlements. Each one
of them wanted to dominate the trade.
(ii) Wars of conquest by the Portuguese against the coastal settlements.
(iii) Destroyed and wakened many of them.
(iv) Establishment of Portuguese rule at the coast led to disruption of the Indian Ocean trade –
the main economic base of the towns. The Portuguese also diverted trade to Portugal leaving
them with little revenue.
(v) Invasion of the settlements by the Zimba a warrior community from the Zambezi valley –
they caused widespread destruction.
(vi) Occasional unfavourable climatic conditions which characterized the period let to
inadequate rainfall and shortage of water in some coastal settlements. For example Gedi which
subsequently declined.
(vii) Conflicts / wars between Oman Arabs and the Portuguese over the control of the coastal
settlements affected economic activitities in the area.
(viii) Some Africa middlemen diverted trade goods to Northern routes by – passing the towns
that were under Portuguese control.
Any 4 points, 2 marks (8m

The coming of the Portuguese

 The Portuguese invaded the East African coast in 1498, when the Turks, through the then
Ottoman empire occupied most of the middle East and blocked overland routes from Europe to
India. It was therefore very difficult and expensive for Europeans to acquire gold, silk and
spices from Asia.
 With the invention of new ships by the Portuguese, The Europeans found and used new sea
routes to the Far East. For instance, in 1497, Vasco Da Gamma left Portugal with three ships
on an exploration expedition to find a sea route to India.
 The people of East Africa were not aware of the presence of Europeans across the Indian Ocean
until the coming of the Portuguese in 1498 when Vasco Da Gamma and his team arrived at the
East African coast. The Portuguese were out to control the ports and the sea-way to secure
their use of the lucrative coastal trade.

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Factors That Facilitated/Led To the Coming Of The Portuguese To The East African
Coast
 To establish and obtain a trading empire in the East and trade-goods from China, India and East
Africa.
 To carry Christianity to the East African coast to convert Muslim and other non-Christian
groups.
 Their discovery of the sea route to India due to their experience in exploration and voyages.
 To stop the Turks and Arabs from rivaling them in East African trade.
 To use the East African coast (which was strategically important) as a base for their trading and
navy ships, where they would get fresh supply of food and water.
 To explore and satisfy their love for adventure, given their advanced ship building technology.
 To counter the growing Islamic influence and to avenge earlier defeat by the Muslims, who had
occupied the Iberian peninsular and Spain, forcing them to convert to Islam.
 To form an antimuslim alliance with Presta John: a Christian legendary ruler in Ethiopia.
 To colonize the East African coast in order to protect their trading interests.

KCSE
2002 19. (a) Why were the Portuguese interested in establishing their control over the Kenyan
coast during the sixteenth century? (3 mks)
(i) To control trade with the coastal towns
(ii) To spread Christianity/ revenge on the Muslims who had conquered and controlled their
homeland for over 700 years/look for pastor John
(iii) The Kenyan coast was strategically located on the way to the East and could act as a base
for their trading and navy ships.
(iv) To control the India Ocean trade (3x1=3 mks)
2011 19 (a) State three reasons for the coming of the Portuguese to the Kenyan Coast in the
15thCentury.(3 marks)
i) They wanted to find a sea route to India.
ii) They wanted to spread Christianity/reduce the Muslim influence.
iii) They wanted to take part in the Coastal trade.
iv) To control strategic points on the East-African Coast from other European rivals/to act as a

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supply base for their sailing vessels.

v) Due to desire for exploration/adventure. Any 3x1 = 3 marks

2005 6. State the main reason for the coming of the Portuguese to the Kenyan coast in the 15th
century. (1mk)
To control the indian ocean trade

Portuguese conquest and rule and rule of the East coast of Africa
Steps in which the Portuguese conquered the East African coast
 In 1498, Vasco Da Gamma sailed to the East African coast and was warmly received in
Mozambique and Malindi, though he met a hostile reception in Mombasa. At Malindi, he was
given a Gujerati pilot: Ahmed Ibn Majid, who successfully guided him and his companions
to India.
 In 1499, Vasco Da Gamma returned to Portugal with news of his successful voyage to India,
the lucrative trade between the far East and the East African coast as well as the disunity
among coastal towns of East Africa. The King of Portugal decided to conquer the East African
coast in order to firmly monopolize and control the trade.
 In 1500, Pedro Alvares Cabral led an expedition aimed at capturing Sofala, but he failed.
 In 1502, Vasco Da Gamma led an expedition against Kilwa, which he successfully conquered.
 In 1503, Ruy Laurenco Ravasco was sent to Zanzibar, which he defeated and forced to send
tribute to the king of Portugal.
 In 1505, King Emanuel the Fortunate sent a fleet of twenty ships with an expedition of 1500
men under Francisco De’almeida to Sofala, Kilwa and Mombasa, which they successfully
conquered.
 Between 1506-1507, Tristao Da Cunha attacked Oja, Brava, Pate, Sokotra and Lamu. In 1509,
the islands of Mafia, Pemba and Zanzibar were brought under Portuguese rule. With this, the
entire coast was brought under Portuguese control.
 Between 1585-1588, a rebellion broke out following the arrival of Amir Ali Bey: a Turkish
captain, who was sent as an envoy of the Sultan of Turkey to free the coastal towns from the
Portuguese. The Portuguese attacked the towns of Pate, Siu and Pemba as well as Manda.
They completely destroyed Manda and imposed heavy fines on the other three.

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 In 1589, the Portuguese established their headquarters in Mombasa, where they built fort Jesus
in 1593.
Reasons why the Portuguese built Fort Jesus
 The fort was used as a watchtower for spotting and preparing to face the enemy.
 It served as a military base, offering food, security and protection.
 It was used as an armament deport.
 It at times served as a prison for war and other captives.
 Portuguese monopoly was soon challenged by the Dutch, the British and the French, but, using
Fort Jesus and their wide naval expertise, the Portuguese managed to keep them off the East
African coast.
 The building of Fort Jesus facilitated Portuguese conquest of Hormuz, which enabled the
Portuguese to control sea traffic in the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Aden and the Arabian sea

KCSE QUESTIONS
2003 16. (a) Outline the stages in the Portuguese conquest of the coastal towns up to 1510 (3
mks)
i) In 1500 Pedro Alveres Ras Cabral conquered Sofala.
ii) In 1502 Vasco Da Gama attached the town of Kilwa and demanded tribute.
iii) In 1503 Zanzibar and other Coastal towns were conquered by Ruy Lourenco Ravasco.
iv) In 1505 Mombasa and Kilwa were conquered by Francisco D’ Almaida.
v) Between 1506 – 7 Lamu was conquered by Tristao da Cunha.
vi) 1509 Mafia, Pemba and Zanzibar were brought under Portuguese ruling.
Any 3x 1 (3mks).
2007 5. Give the main reason why the rulers of Malindi welcomed the Portuguese in the 16th
century. (1mk)
-They wanted security from Mombasa/there were rivalry between Malindi and Mombasa
1998 4. State two reasons why the Portuguese built Fort Jesus (2 mks)
i. To act as hiding place against/ attacks by their enemies.
ii. To use it as a base of sending expeditions against resisting communities of the coast
/administration base.
iii. Use it for storing armaments/storage of items before transportation.
iv.Use as a watch tower.
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REASONS FOR PORTUGUESE SUCCESS

 Ruthlessness and cruelty with which Portugal attacked her enemies.
 Superiority of Portuguese arms such as Caravells, Carracks and hand guns.
 Weakness of Turkish and Persian navies in the Indian ocean, which thwarted the coastal
towns’ hope for assistance against the Portuguese.
 Good military training and tactics on the Portuguese side unlike the disorganized and disunited
coastal communities.
 Portuguese reinforcement from their headquarters in Goa: India.
 Rivalry and steef competition among the coastal towns, which enabled the Portuguese to
attack and conquer them one by one.
 The Portuguese organized surprise attacks and fought with determination.
 Portuguese alliance with some local people E.G. those of Malindi, Pemba and Zanzibar, who
assisted them in their conquest activities.
 Portuguese use of harbours as bases for their ships and troops, which strengthened their
campaigns.
 Failure of some communities to resist the Portuguese.

KCSE QUESTIONS
1998 18. (a) Why were the Portuguese able to control the Kenya coast between 1500 and 1700?
(3 mks)
(i) Disunity/rivalry among the coastal towns enabled the Portuguese to play one against the other
e.g Mombasa and Malindi.
(ii) Military superiority-the Portuguese had better weapons and their soldiers were better
trained and organized (surprise attacks) ½
(iii) The construction of forts by the Portuguese e.g. Fort Jesus made them able to
sustain their control over the area.
PORTUGUESE RULE
 In 1507, the Portuguese made Mozambique their headquarters and put it under a captain
answerable to the Portuguese viceroy stationed at Goa in southern India.
 Later, the Portuguese divided the East African coast into two and appointed another captain,
whom they stationed at Mombasa. He too was answerable to the Portuguese viceroy at Goa in
southern India.
 The Portuguese applied the “Divide and rule” policy by setting one town against another. For
instance, they allied with Malindi against Mombasa.

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 By constructing Fort Jesus, they strengthened their military might and effectively established
their control over the coastal region.
 Portuguese rule was harsh and cruel. The Portuguese isolated themselves from people and
behaved as though they were of a superior religion and race. They lived in their own
settlements and had their own churches. They were only interested in exploiting the gold trade.
 Due to poor interaction, the Portuguese failed to foster good relations with the people of the
East African coast. As a result, Portuguese rule at the East African coast was rejected and
fiercely resisted.
Role/duties of Portuguese captains stationed in Mozambique and Mombasa.
 They collected tribute from the local rulers.
 They imposed customs duties on imports and exports.
 They were in charge of putting down resistance and rebellions.
 They supervised and monitored ruling families in the city states.
.
Decline of the Portuguese rule
 Portuguese officials were inefficient and corrupt as they amassed personal wealth instead of
effectively administering the area.
 Portugal failed to establish a systematic form of government and did not attempt to administer
the interior.
 Revenue from gold declined since traders shifted away from the Portuguese-administered areas,
causing failure of the Portuguese in meeting the expenses of administering their possessions on
the East African coast.
 Constant rebellions by the coastal peoples, particularly those of Mombasa, which weakened the
Portuguese further.
 Portugal was a small country with a small population, unable to raise a large army and
personnel to administer the area.
 Portugal could not get reinforcements on good time for protection of her possessions since she
was too far from the East African coast.
 Annexation of Portugal by Spain between 1590-1640, which led to neglect of Portuguese
interests at the East African coast up to when Portugal regained her independence.
 Invasion of the East African coast by Muslim nations such as Turkey and Oman among others.

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 Attack in 1588 by the Zimba: a man-eater community from Mozambique.

 Tropical diseases such as Malaria.
 Appearance of the English, Dutch and French in the Indian Ocean, who brought commercial
efficiency and superior skills in naval warfare, by which they out competed and undermined
Portuguese power along the East African coast.
 The 1696 Omani siege on fort Jesus, which lasted for 33 months and caused suffering and death
to most of the Portuguese. The fall of Fort Jesus marked the end of Portuguese rule over the
region north of the river Ruvuma.

KCSE QUESTIONS
2009 5. Name two groups that rivalled the Portuguese for the control of the Kenyan coast in the
16th century ( 2 mks)

i. Egyptians
ii. Turks
iii. Arabs
iv. Persians
v. The British
vi. Dutch
vii. French
(Any 2 x 1 = 2 mks)
2003 16 (b) Explain six factors that led to the decline of the Portuguese rule on the
Kenyan coast. (12 mks)
i. The decline of the Indian Ocean trade denied them revenue to support their rule
ii. In Portuguese officials were corrupt and pocketed funds which would have been used to
manage the empire.
iii. Portuguese officers were cruel / ruthless to the Africans and Arabs who resented them. And
therefore did not co-operative.
iv. There were constant rebellion against the Portuguese and his weakened the control.
v. Combined attacks from Persians, Arabs and Turks proved formidable for the Portuguese.
vi. The Portuguese faced stiff competition from the British and Dutch which reduced their profits.
vii. The Portuguese had inadequate personnel to effectively manage the extensive coast.
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viii. Portugal lacked capital to pay the administrators at the coast and the demoralized them.
ix. The Portuguese lacked administrative skills were unable to a correctively.
x. Portugal was forcefully united with Spain and this reduced her autonomy.
xi. The Portuguese at the coast were attacked by Wazimba and this reduced their population.
xii. Distance from Portugal delayed reinforcement.
Any 6 x2 = (12mks)
1996 17 b Explain six factors which led to the decline of the Portuguese rule on the
Kenyan coast by the end of the seventeenth century.
(i) The harsh Portuguese rule provoked resentment from the coastal communities.
(ii) Coastal communities. Some coastal communities organized a series of revolts against the
Portuguese
(iii) Colonial administrators embezzled revenue and so they made it difficult for Portugal to
run their possessions on the Kenya coast/ inefficient / non committed administration.
(iv) Trade along the Kenyan Coast declined therefore the Portuguese found retaining their
control over the East African coast a liability.
(v) The Portuguese settlements were attacked by the Zimba terrorists from the lower Zambezi
valley who looted property and killed people. This made life difficult for Portuguese many of
them and so those who survived were unwilling to continue to stay at the East African coast.
(vi) The coastal Arabs and the Swahili obtained support from the Turks and Oman Arabs –
their fellow Muslims who helped them to drive away the Christian Portuguese colonists
(vii) Delay in reinforcement due to distance.
(viii) Composition of other European powers.
(Any 5 x 2)

2008 18 (b) What reasons led to the decline of the Portuguese rule along the

Kenyan coast during the 17th century. (12

mks)
i. The coastal city states organized constant rebellions against the Portuguese
ii. The Portuguese administrators were corrupt/misused the funds meant to finance the
administration
iii. Portugal was too small to provide enough soldiers and administrators to control the whole of its
empire

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iv. Malindi their traditional ally refused to support the Portuguese because they were cruel to them
v. Decline of the Indian ocean trade since it was the main source of income for the empire
vi. The annexation of Portugal by Spain weakened Portuguese control of the coast
vii. Intense commercial rivalry from the Dutch the British and the French reduced Portuguese
source of revenue
viii. The defeat and capture of Fort Jesus by the Oman Arabs brought Portuguese rule to an end

IMPACTS OF THE PORTUGUESE RULE

 Disruption of trade between the coast and Persia, Arabia and India, for the Portuguese were
both greedy and corrupt.
 Subjection of people to heavy taxation and brutality, causing decline and often disintegration of
coastal towns. For instance, Gedi was burnt down, Kilwa was destroyed while Mombasa was
looted.
 Introduction of new crops such as maize, potatoes, pineapples and guavas.
 Attempts to spread Christianity.
 Addition of some Portuguese words to Kiswahili. E.G. The Kiswahili word for wine is
“Mvinyo”, got from a Portuguese word: “Vinho”.
 Construction/building of Fort Jesus and the Vasco Da Gamma pillar, which became and still
are tourist attraction sites to this day.
 Loss of life and destruction of property due to continuous Portuguese raids.
 Good relations between the East African coast and India.
 European colonization of the region by mid 19th century.
 Hindrance to the development of commerce and agriculture at the coast.
 African acquisition of the practice of using animal waste as fertilizer.
 Constant uprisings and revolts by the local people.

KCSE QUESTION
1998 18 (b) Describe the results of the Portuguese rule of the Kenya Coast (12 marks)
i) Introduction of new crops such as maize sweet potatoes and bananas/manure
ii) Introduction of new architectural designs/fort Jesus
iii) Absorption of Portuguese words into the Kiswahili and India
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iv) Disruption of the Indian Ocean trade/gold trade

v) Decay of many coastal towns e.g. Gedi
vi) Establishment of a close link between Kenya and India
vii) Introduction of guns and other weapons along the coast leading to slave trade and
insecurity in the area.
viii) Decline in trade between Arabia and the Kenyans and Arabs have a negative impression
of Christianity and Europeans
ix) Their harshness made Africans and Arabs have a negative impression of Christianity and
Europeans
Any 6 points 2mks (12 mks)
1999 6. State two benefits of Portuguese rule over the coastal settlement (2 mks)
(i) Some Portuguese words were added to Kiswahili
(ii) Portuguese architecture was introduced at the coast
(iii) The Portuguese introduced crops such as maize and cassava/ new farming
(iv) Methods
(v) The Portuguese built Fort Jesus and Vasco Da Gama Pillar which have become historic
sites
(vi) Links between coastal settlement and India were strengthened

2002 19. (b) Explain six effects of Portuguese role on the Kenyan coast (12 mks)
i) It led to the decline of the Indian Ocean trade/decline of gold trade
ii) It led to the decline and ruin of towns
iii) It led to loss of life during their constant raids on coastal towns
iv) The heavy taxes that were imposed on the coastal peoples hindered the development of
commercial and agricultural resources at the coast
v) They built Fort Jesus which became a historic monument in the subsequent years
vi) They brought new crops to the coast e.g. maize, groundnuts and pineapples
vii) They introduced the use of farmyard manure
viii) Their language enriched the Kiswahili language
ix) The introduction of guns and other advanced weapons by the Portuguese contributed to
insecurity in the region

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x) Commercial links between the Kenyan coast and the Arabian Peninsular were almost
completely cut off.
xi) Some African were converted to Christianity.
xii) Closer links between the Kenyan coast and India developed
xiii) Their conquest of the Kenyan coast exposed the area to other European powers.
(Any 6 points, 2 mks =12 mks)

2011 19 (b) Explain six effects of the Portuguese rule on the East African Coast.
(12 marks)
i. The Portuguese built fort Jesus for defence purpose which later became a tourist attraction.
ii. Their harsh and cruel manner of suppressing rebellions led to loss of lives.
iii. They introduced new food crops which are staple foods for many
Kenyans.
iv. Constant rebellions against the Portuguese rule interfered with the trading activities leading
to its decline.
v. The coastal towns that resisted Portuguese rule were destroyed and left in ruins.
vi. They educated the coastal people on how to use animal manure in farming
and thus increasing crop yields.
vii. Some words borrowed from Portuguese language were used to enrich
Kiswaili language.
viii. The Portuguese imposed heavy taxation which impoverished the coastal people.
ix. They fostered good relation between the E.A and India
x.

OMAN RULE
Establishment of Oman rule along the East African coast
 From the expulsion of the Portuguese in 1698, the East African coast came under Oman rule.
 At first, Oman rule over the East African coast was enforced through local families such as the
Mazrui in Mombasa and the Nabahan in Lamu. But the Mazrui wanted to be independent.
 The Mazrui eventually established themselves as independent rulers of Mombasa, extending
their rule to Malindi, Pate and Pemba.

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 In the 19th century, their possessions extended from Malindi in the north to Pangani in the
south. The Mazrui allied with Mijikenda communities around Mombasa, with whose help
they attacked and conquered Lamu among other places.
 The Mazrui were eventually tricked into submission by Khalid” a son of Seyid Said, the King
of Oman, who deported them from Mombasa and brought the East African coast under full
Oman

Reasons why the Oman Arabs were unable to control the East African coast after the
defeat of the Portuguese.
 Civil wars in Oman.
 Rebellion by coastal towns.
 Threats of Persian invasion.
KCSE QUESTION
2012 6. Name one Arab family which ruled the Kenyan coast on behalf of Oman.
(i) Mazrui
(ii) Nabaliani
(iii) Busaidi (1marks)
1997 3. State two main reasons why the Oman rulers were interested in establishing their control
over the Kenyan coast. (2mks)
(i) To expand their commercial empire
(ii) To establish political control over the Kenyan coast
(iii) To assist in ending the Portuguese rule

Seyyid Said’s reign 1804-1856

The oman rule was made effective first by Seyyid Said. He wanted to be the master of the whole
indian ocean trade to do this he transferred his capital from Zanzibar to muscat due to the
following reasons:
 Zanzibar supported his effort to capture Mombasa./loyal to him.
 Zanzibar was good and pleasant, with a good climate, unlike Muscat, which was hot and dry.
 Zanzibar had good (deep-water) harbours in which ships could anchor. Her water was also
clean.

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 He wanted to control Indian Ocean trade and the towns of the East African coast.
 Zanzibar’s position was convenient for trade with the mainland and with Mombasa.
 Zanzibar’s good climate and fertile soil favoured cultivation of cloves, which were used as
spices.
 Being an island, Zanzibar assured the Oman Arabs of protection.

Explain Seyid Said’s influence on trade along the East African coast.
 Since Seyid Said controlled the whole of the coast, he developed trade links with the Kenyan
interior, in which he involved the Akamba and Mijikenda.
 Slaves, ivory and cloves were the major exports from East Africa. Caravans were sent into the
interior to collect slaves and ivory.
 Under Seyid Said’s influence, Zanzibar became the commercial centre for the entire East
African coast. Imports included beads, guns, ammunition and hardware.

KCSE
2001 6. Give one reason why Seyyid Said took direct control of the settlements along the coast
of Kenya in 1806. (1 mk)
(i) To ensure revenue from taxes was remitted to Oman
(ii) To prevent the rulers/ governors of the coastal settlements form declaring
themselves independent.
(iii) Maximum economic control
(iv) Control Indian Ocean trade ( Any 1 point , 1 mark) ( 1 mk)
2007 6. Give two factors which influenced Seyyid Said to develop agriculture in Zanzibar in the
19th Century. (2mks)
(i) Zanzibar had favourable climate for clove growing.
(ii) Availability of labour/slave labour
(iii) Zanzibar had a natural deep harbour which would promote trade in agricultural
products.
(iv) Zanzibar had fertile soils. Any 2x1=2mks
2004 19. (a) What factors influenced Seyyid Said’s decision to transfer his capital to
Zanzibar. (3 mks)

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(i) The climate in Zanzibar was pleasant as compared to Muscat which was hot and dry
throughout the year
(ii) The need to control the towns along the East African Coast more effectively
(iii) Zanzibar had a wide deep and well sheltered harbour in which ships could anchor
(iv) Zanzibar’s strategic position was convenient for trade with the mainland
(v) Zanzibar had fertile solids for the cultivation of cloves
(vi) Zanzibar had clean and sweat water for drinking

Effects of Oman rule

 Establishment of the Oman rule led to the establishment of clove plantations in Zanzibar and
Pemba.
 It led to the development of slave trade at the coast because slaves were used as labourers in the
plantations.
 It led to the establishment of a commercial empire along the East African coast.
 It stimulated the development of the long distance trade among the Yao, Akamba, and the
Nyamwezi of Tanzania.
 It led to the growth and expansion of towns like Kilwa, Pemba and Zanzibar.
 The Swahili culture was intensified along the coast.
 It led to the establishment of strong political empire under the rule of the Sultan’s at the coast.
 The Indian traders (Banyans) introduced the Rupee as the currency for use along the East
African coast.
 The slave trade which was intensified by the Oman rulers broke down families in most of the
areas where raids took place. There was also suffering and loss of property due to burning of
houses during raids.
KCSE
2003 5. State three economic benefits of the Oman rule along the Kenyan coast during the
nineteenth century. (3 mks)
(i) It led to the expansion of trade between Kenya and Arabia.
(ii) Led to growth of towns e.g. Zanzibar
(iii) Led to the growth of slave trade.
(iv) Led to growth of plantation agriculture.
Any 3 x 1 = (3mks)
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PLANTATION FARMING
 Plantation agriculture was the major cause of increased slave trade in East Africa. By 1840,
slaves were heavily used in clove plantations in Zanzibar and Pemba. The slaves had to
provide for both themselves and their masters.
 In early 19th century, the Arabs and the Swahili started growing grains like semeseme and
millet. Slaves spent long working hours on such plantations under the supervision of slave
overseers.
 Plantation slavery was intensively practiced around Malindi, where there were large tracts of
farmland. In Mombasa, cultivation of coconuts was preferred as farms there were smaller.
Coconuts required less rain while their yields were higher.
 The Mijikenda traded with the Arabs in ivory, cattle and grains. Arabs prevented the Mijikenda
from owning the rich coastal farmland.
 Slaves often tried to escape from plantations due to their bad working conditions. They were
grouped into different classes and were not equal.
 Those slaves that ran away were employed by rich Arabs and the Swahili to fight against the
Sultan’s government. Those that remained behind became more stubborn and did not work as
hard as they were required. They disobeyed orders and refused to accept their masters’ culture.
 Because of this, there were efforts to improve their conditions.
 However, the coming of colonialism ended the use of slaves in the plantations.

Factors for the development of plantation farming

 Existence of fertile soils, which favoured large scale farming.
 Adequate rainfall and suitable climate, which promoted farming.
 Sultan Seyid Said, who encouraged settlers from Oman and Zanzibar to settle in Mombasa,
Malindi and Lamu.
 Easily available slave labour.
 The Mijikenda, who gave large tracts of land around Malindi.
 Availability of market for grains in Zanzibar, Arabia and the arid coast of Somalia.

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Effects of plantation farming

 Increased slave trade and slave labour.
 Emergence of a class of wealthy merchants among the Arabs and Swahili.
 International trade due to export of crops such as cloves.
 Introduction of new crops such as cloves, coconuts and maize.
 Development of towns like Malindi, Pemba and Zanzibar.
 Poor working conditions and long hours of work among the slaves.
 Development of Agro based industries.
 Promotion of trade.
 Population increase due to increased food production, owing to the agro based economy as well
as Seyid Said’s encouragement of people from Oman to settle at the coast to develop
plantation agriculture.

Long distance trade

Origin of Long Distance trade
 By the 19th century, there already was trade among Kenyan communities and between Kenya
and other countries.
 Long distance trade connected the East African interior to the coast in Kenya. Two major
commodities (ivory and slaves) were valued at the coast, where they were exchanged for cloth,
utensils, ironware and beads.
 Until the 1860s, The Akamba served as middlemen between interior and coastal communities.
Their trading activities took them from the Mount Kenya region to as far as Baringo and the
shores of Lake Victoria. They established good relationship with the local communities
through whose territories they passed, though they discouraged other people and communities
from participating in the trade. For instance, they spread malicious tales about both the interior
and coastal communities.

Reasons why the Akamba participated in Long Distance trade

 Ukambani region had poor and unreliable rainfall to support farming.
 The outbreak of famine in 1836 compelled them to trade.
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 Their central position between the coast and the interior facilitated their participation in trade.
 Experienced leaders such as chief Kivoi spearheaded trade.
 Demand for goods from the interior at the coast made them get into trade.
 Goods for trade such as ivory and slaves were available.
In the 1860s, Arab and Swahili traders started penetrating the interior of Kenya. They eventually
took control of Long Distance trade from the Akamba and started organizing caravans to as far
as Uganda.
Communities in East Africa which participated in the long Distance trade in the 19th century
 The Akamba,
 Mijikenda,
 Nyamwezi,
 Khartoumers,
 Waswahili,
 Yao,
 Arabs
 Baganda.

Factors that led to the decline of Akamba dominance in Long Distance trade
 Loss of trading partners such as the Aembu and the Agikuyu due to Oromo raids.
 British colonization, which undermined the trade.
 Abolition of slave trade, due to which the main item of exchange (slaves) was lost.
 Attacks by the Maasai and Oromo on the trade routes.
 Competition from Arab and Swahili traders, who penetrated the interior to get goods from the
sources.
KCSE
2005 3. Name one community in Kenya which played a leading role in the long distance trade.
(1 mk)
(i) Akamba
(ii) Agiriama (MIJIKENDA)

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Development
Trade between the Kenya Coast and other outside countries began very early. It was in the 19th
century that this trade expanded rapidly especially during the rule of Seyyid Said. This
international trade led to the development of the long distance trade.
The long distance trade involved trade between the East Coast of Africa and the interior. It
developed due to the demand for slaves in Arabia and the demand for Ivory in Europe. The
people involved in this trade were mainly the Akamba and the Mijikenda of Kenya, the
Nyamwezi and Yao of Tanzania, the coastal Arabs and the Swahilis and the Baganda of
Uganda.
The main commodities of trade obtained in the interior of East Africa in the 19 th century were
ivory and slaves which were in great demand at the coast. These were exchanged with cloth,
beads, glassware utensils, ironware and carpets. The Arab and Swahili traders were at first
waiting for trade goods to be supplied to them at the coast but later in 1860s they started
penetrating into the interior. They took control of the long distance trade from the Africans
such as the Akamba and the Nyamwezi and they travelled into the interior as far as Buganda
and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
The traders moved in caravans for security reasons. The goods they obtained were shipped across
the Indian Ocean and taken to Asian countries such as India, Persia, Arabia and China.

1999 19. (a) What factors encouraged the Akamba to participate in the long distance trade
during the nineteenth century? (5 mks)
(i) Demand for their commodities
(ii) Availability of trade goods
(iii) Unsuitable climatic conditions for farming
(iv) Proximity to the coast
(v) Existence of entrepreneurs like chief Kivoi
(vi) Existence of a well organized local trade

2002 4. State two factors which encouraged the Akamba to participate in the long distance
trade during the nineteenth century.(2mks)
(i) Existence of enterprising local traders among the Akamba
(ii) Demand for some commodities of trade
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(iii) To spread Islam

(iv) Existence of trade routes
(v) Strategic middle position of Akamba land between the coast the hinterland.
(vi) Unfavorable climatic conditions of Akamba land

ORGANISATION
 Trade routes to the interior went up to Kilimanjaro, the mount Kenya region and the shores of
Lake Victoria. Maasai regions were avoided due to perceived Maasai hostility to strangers.
 Long Distance traders moved into the interior in caravans, using porters, who were either slaves
or free men, with goods to and from the East African coast.
 They stopped to rest and replenish food supply at various centers in the interior E.G. Taveta,
Mbooni hills, Lake Baringo, Mumias and Buganda.
 From the coast, the traders brought guns, Cotton cloth, beads, glass, swords, Porcelain vessels,
bracelets and bangles. From the interior, they got ivory, rhino horns, slaves, hides and skins.
 Long distance trade was financed by the Arabs and Swahili, who employed Akamba and
Mijikenda traders. The mode of trade was Barter, although Cowrie shells were introduced as
currency in late 19th century.
Reasons for increased demand for slaves along the East African coast during the long Distance
trade
 Plantation agriculture at the coast depended on slave labour.
 French sugar plantations in Reunion and Mauritius increased demand for slaves.
 Demand for slaves to work as domestic servants and soldiers in Arabia.
 Portuguese plantations in Brazil required labour.
Describe how slaves were obtained during the long distance trade along the East African coast.
 Slave raids.
 Warfare. Captives were sold into slavery.
 Sale of criminals by chiefs to slave dealers.
 Kidnapping of children and lone travelers.
 Young children were enticed with sweets and were then captured as slaves.
 Debtors who could not pay their liabilities were sold as slaves.

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State the effects of slave trade on the people of East Africa.

 Growth of plantation farming as a result of slave labour.
 Increased suffering, fear and violence.
 Heavy loss of life (many deaths).
 Depopulation in the interior.
 Increased intercommunal warfare to capture slaves.
 Trade in ivory and copper increased as slaves were used as porters.
 Freed slave centers of Bagamoyo and Freetown were set up following the abolition of slavery
and slave trade.
 Destruction of property.
 Displacement of families and communities.
 Introduction of new goods such as cloth and guns to the region in exchange for slaves.

KCSE
2012 7. Name the African community that organized long distance trade in Kenya during the
colonial period. The Akamba (1mark)
2000 8. Identify two methods which long distance traders used to acquire slaves during the
nineteenth century. (2 mks)
(i) Exchanging slaves with other goods/ buying slaves from African
(ii) Raiding other communities from slaves
(iii) Enticement and gifts ( Any 2 points, 1 mk) ( 2 mks)
1999 19(b) Explain the effects of slave trade on the African communities in Kenya (10 mks)
i. The raids for slaves by traders led to insecurity and fear making people abandon their
economic activities.
ii. Able- bodied people were taken away as slaves leaving the weak who could not work
effectively.
iii. It led to the death of family members denying the family the much needed workforce.
iv. Led to loss of skilled labour force e.g. iron smiths
v. Methods used in acquiring slaves such as burning of houses led to destruction of the
environment and human suffering
vi. Slave raids and slave of people led to depopulation/ displacement

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vii. Promoted interaction between African communities e.g. the Akamba and Agikuyu
viii. Led to the spread and use of Kiswahili in the interior of Kenya
ix. Led to the spread of Islam and Islamic culture
x. Opened up the interior of Kenya for European penetration

Impacts
 Emergence of a class of wealthy merchants among African, Swahili and Arab traders E.G.
Chief Kivoi of Ukambani, Nyungu ya Mawe among the Nyamwezi and Tippu Tip of Zanzibar.
 Development of towns like Lamu, Zanzibar and Mombasa.
 New crops such as rice and mangoes among others were introduced in East Africa.
 Introduction of Islamic religion and culture by Arab traders.
 European colonization of Africa following reports given by the Long distance traders about the
importance of the East African coast.
 Development of trade routes and market centers.
 Development of Plantation agriculture in Mombasa and Malindi due to trade in slaves.
 Introduction of foreign goods like beads, cloth and glassware to the people of East Africa.
th
2004 19 (b) Describe the effects of long distance trade in Kenya during the 19 century. (12 mks)
(i) Commercial relations between different Kenyan communities were established strengthened
(ii) It led to the rise of a class of wealthy Africans for example Kivoi, Mewendwa of Kitui and
Karuri wa Gakure.
(iii) The local people developed a taste for imported goods such as clothes, brass, wire, guns and
gunpowder
(iv) It led to a decline in local craft and industry as the people preferred imported products/ decline
in agriculture
(v) It led to the intensification of the slave trade which caused untold suffering to many
communities/ depopulation
(vi) The Interior of Kenya was opened up the foreigners
(vii) Islam and Swahili culture were spread into interior by traders
(viii) New crops introduced into the interior from the coast ( cassava, maize, guvas)
(ix) The trade led to development of growth of the urban centers in Kenya
(x) It led to intermarriages between communities. ( 6 x 2 = 12 mks)

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INTERNATIONAL TRADE
When Seyid Said took control of Zanzibar, he encouraged foreign traders to trade with Zanzibar
in order to develop new markets for products from the East African mainland. He strived to
attract Indian money lenders (Banyans) to come and settle in Zanzibar, which increased the
volume of trade in East Africa.

Factors that promoted international trade along the East African coast
 The Monsoon winds, which facilitated transport.
 Trade between the coast and the far East, which existed before the 19 th century.
 Demand for goods at the coast and the outside world.
 Availability of trade goods like ivory, gold, slaves, beads and guns.
 Protection of Arab and Swahili traders by the Sultan.
 The deep harbours and good beaches as well as accessibility of the region by sea, which
attracted traders.
 Imposition of a unified customs duty of 5% by the Sultan, which encouraged trade.
 Introduction of a monitory system by Seyid Said, which facilitated trade. Copper coins, Spanish
Crown and Maria Theresa dollars were used.
 Indian Banyans or Baluchis (money lenders), who financed trade by giving credit facilities to
the traders.
 Trade routes and markets like Kilwa and Mombasa, which boosted trade.
 Signing of treaties between Seyid Said and Western countries. Seyid Said signed treaties with
France, Britain, and the United States of America among other powers, thus opening up East
Africa to world trade.
Trade goods
EXPORTS
 Coconuts,
 Gum copal,
 Ivory,
 Slaves.

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IMPORTS
 Guns,
 American cloth,
 beads,
 Hardware.
Although Seyid Said did not build a political empire in the interior, he linked and developed the
existing trading networks with people like the Akamba, Agikuyu and Mijikenda.

Impacts of international trade

 It opened up the East African coast to the outside world resulting in colonisation
 It led to introduction and spread of Christianity due to existence of Islam and slave trade which
the missionaries came to abolish.
 New goods such as guns and clothes were introduced.
 Introduction of new crops such as rice and maize.
 Traders became wealthy and their living standards improved.
 Suffering, loss of life, destruction of property due to intensified warfare, ETC, all resulting
from slave trade.

Christianity
The Portuguese were the first Christian missionaries to come to Kenya. However, long-
established Islamic culture and religion overwhelmed their efforts. The 19 th century Revival
Movement in Britain and Western Europe inspired missionaries to go out to other parts of the
world for the end of the world was perceived to be coming soon.
Reasons for the coming of Christian missionaries
 To spread Christianity, western education and civilization.
 To counter the spread of Islam, which had taken root in the region.
 To abolish slavery and slave trade and replace it with legitimate trade.
 To explore the region. Missionaries like Ludwig Krapf and Johann Rebmann were the first
Europeans to sight and explore mount Kenya and mount Kilimanjaro respectively.
 Emergence of missionary societies in Western Europe, which competed to send their members
out to Africa.
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 Adventure, for some desired to be the first to unravel the much that was unknown to the
outside about Africa.
KCSE
2001 18. (a) Why did Christian missionaries come to Kenya in the nineteenth
century? (5 mks)
(i) To spread Christianity
(ii) To help abolish the salve trade
(iii) To explore the region
(iv) To spread western civilization
(v) Promote legitimate trade
(ii) Educate Africans
Missionary activities in Kenya
 Various missionary societies merged to form the alliance of Missionary societies in British
East Africa.
 Missionary work in Kenya started in 1844 with the arrival of Johann Ludwig Krapf from
Germany. Krapf was sent by the Church Missionary Society of England. He began his work
among the coastal people before advancing into the interior.
 Together with Johannes Rebmann, Krapf started and established a mission base at Rabai near
Mombasa in 1846. In 1849, they were accompanied by Jacob Erhardt. They unsuccessfully
tried to preach to the Akamba and Taita. Krapf encouraged other Christian societies to help in
spreading Christianity.
 In 1862, Thomas Wakefield and members of the United Methodist Church from Britain arrived
and opened mission stations at Ribe, Jomvu and in Lamu. The CMS opened stations at Sagalla
in Taita and at Taveta.
 Initially, it was dangerous to start mission stations far inland. E.G. Krapf tried but did not
manage to start a mission station at Kitui due to Akamba anger when Chief Kivoi was killed
while traveling with him. However, in late 19 th and early 20th century, the interior became
more peaceful and safer for missionaries to move about spreading Christianity.
 In 1891, the Church of Scotland Mission began work at Kibwezi in what is now Makueni, but
they later moved to Kikuyu in Central Province after several missionaries died at Kibwezi.
Members of the Africa Inland Mission from the United States of America opened their first

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station at Nzaui in the then Machakos district. They later extended to Kijabe, Nandi, Kabarnet
and Nyakach.
 In 1899, some French Catholic missionaries opened Saint Austin’s Mission station near
Nairobi.
 In 1902-1903, the Church Missionary Society from England and the Consolata opened Mission
stations in Nyeri. They worked in Meru and Central Kenya.
 By 1914, the Church Of God mission, The Seventh Day Adventists, the Friends Mission and
other Christian societies had reached western Kenya.
Missionary societies that merged to form the Alliance of Missionary Societies in British East
Africa.
 The Church of Scotland Mission
 The Church Missionary Society (CMS).
 The Africa Inland Mission.
 The United Methodist Church Mission.
 The British and foreign Bible Society.
Factors that led to the spread of Christianity in East Africa
 Seyid Said’s support. Early missionaries such as Krapf were given introductory letters for
assistance from coastal rulers.
 Some African communities were friendly to the Missionaries.
 Missionaries valued, studied and were able to use the languages of the people among whom
they worked, eventually committing them to writing. For instance, Krapf translated and
published the dictionary and parts of the bible into Kiswahili, Kikamba and Kirabai.
 The Christian teaching on equality and love for one another appealed to many Africans.
 African converts, especially in the Freed Slave centers such as Freetown helped missionaries to
spread the gospel.
 Mission stations, schools and medical centers influenced the spread of Christianity since those
living there had to be converted to Christianity.
 Explorers encouraged the missionaries’ work. Henry Morton Stanley’s report on Buganda
encouraged missionaries to go to Uganda.
 Discovery of Quinine, a cure for Malaria, enabled them to work among African communities.
 The building of the Kenya-Uganda railway facilitated their traveling into the interior.

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 The colonial government supported missionary work.

 Relative peace and stability in the region promoted Missionary work.
 Emergence of Independent churches, an African initiative, promoted the spread of Christianity.

Reasons why Christian missionaries established mission stations in East Africa.

 To teach Africans how to read the Bible.
 To train African Catechists to assist in missionary work.
 To convert Africans to Christianity.
 To spread western culture.
 To teach Africans farming, masonry and carpentry.
 To cater for Africans’ health needs.
 To have bases of operation for the missionaries.
 To serve as settlement for freed slaves.
 To promote European colonization.
2010 4 Name one early Christian missionary who worked in Kenya. (1 mark)
 Johann Ludwig Krapf
 Johann Rebman
 Jacob Erhardt
2008 6. Name the missionary society that established a home for freed slaves at the coast of
Kenya in the 19th century. (1 mk)
The church Missionary society (C.M.S) (1 mk)

2003 6. State two ways through which mission stations promoted the spread of
Christianity in Kenya. (2 mks)
(i) The needy found homes and thus they were converted
(ii) The stations were centres of learning / schools were learners/ catechists were preached to
(iii) They served as health centres / hospital where the sick were preached to.
(iv) The missionaries mixed freely with the people thus converted them to Christianity.
1997 16.a)Explain why Christian missionaries established mission stations in Kenya during the
colonial period.( 7mks)

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(i) Mission stations were established by Christian missionaries to serve as centers for converting
Africans.
(ii) To serve as centers where Africans would be taught basic literacy to enable them to
read the bible.
(iii) To teach Africans new methods of carpentry, farming and masonry
(iv) To train African catechists who would in turn facilitate the spread of Christianity.
(v) To use them as centers for the spread of Western European culture
(vi) To serve as health centers where basic health care was provided to Africans.
(vii) To serve as settlements for freed slaves and other displaced peoples.
(viii) Serve as centers for the pacification of Africans/ centres to promote European
colonization.
(ix) Serve as base where European missionaries could operate from.

Challenges faced by Christian missionaries

 Tropical diseases like Malaria and sleeping sickness.
 Poor means of transport and communication due to lack of roads, railways, vehicles and a
common or familiar language.
 Inadequate supply of food, medicine, money and other essentials.
 Hostility from some communities due to conflict over African traditional practices E.G.
Polygamy, offering of sacrifices and female circumcision.
 Insecurity, caused by wild animals and by communities that did not want foreigners in their
territory.
 Islam, which compelled most missionaries to relocate to other places, like Rabai.
 Scarcities of personnel as missionaries were few and worked in areas too big for them.
 Interdenominational differences, which led to hatred, E.G. between Catholics and Protestants
due to competition for followers.
 Hostility from slave traders, whose activities were adversely affected by missionary work.
 Language barrier, although some tried to learn indigenous African languages.
KCSE

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1997 16 b)What factors undermined Christian missionary activities Kenya during the
nineteenth century? (8mks)
(i) Hostility by believers of traditional religion who saw missionaries as a threat to their beliefs
and cultural practices.
(ii) Opposition by leaders of Islamic faith and other believers whose interests were to
advance their religion in the region.
(iii) Harsh tropical climate coupled with tropical diseases e.g. malaria
(iv) Inadequate funds and supplies such as food.
(v) Inadequate personnel to carry out missionary activities
(vi) Rivalry among different Christian groups
(vii) Communication barrier/ lack of common language of communication to facilitate
interaction with and conversion of Africans.
(viii) Strict Christian doctrines which were incompatible with traditional beliefs and practices.
(ix) Limited transport and communication facilities
(x) Vastness of areas covered by individual missionaries
(xi) Hostility from African rulers who often identified missionaries with colonialism and loss
of their traditional authority.

Effects of missionary activities in Kenya

 Spread of Christianity to most parts of the interior.
 Erosion of African culture as some cultural practices such as female circumcision and burial
rites were discarded.
 Introduction of western (formal) education.
 Building of rehabilitation centers, where vocational skills, reading and Christianity were taught.
 Establishment of health centers and medical services for disease-control and cure.
 Improvement of farming through introduction of new crops and livestock as well as new
farming methods.
 Development of transport systems.
 Translation of the Bible in and introduction of writing to Kiswahili and other local languages.
 Emergence of an elite social class, a new creation to the African set-up.

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 Exploration and consequent naming and mapping of mountains, rivers and the interior of
Africa.
 Colonization of Kenya and the rest of Africa.
 Rise of independent churches and schools, free from Missionary influence.
 Representation of Africans by Missionaries in the Legislative council.
 Establishment of independent African schools.
 Abolition of slavery and slave trade in East Africa.

2001 18 (b) Explain six results of the coming of Christian missionaries to Kenya. (10 mks)
i) Christian missionaries converted Africans to Christianity.
ii) They built school where Africans were taught to read and write
iii) They built hospitals which helped to improve the health standards of the people.
iv) They introduced new crops and new farming methods.
v) They introduced new vocational skills e.g carpentry and masonry
vi) Translated the Bible into local languages
vii) Drew map of the interior of the great Lakes region which inspired many explorers to
come to Africa /opened the interior.
viii) Influenced their governments to take interest in the region which later led to colonization.
ix) Undermined authority of African leaders.
x) Introduced the western culture which undermined African culture.
xi) They wrote the first Kiswahili dictionary and grammar book.
xii) Established settlements for freed slaves and gave security to destitute.
xiii) Helped in improving transport system by developing roads connecting their stations.
xiv) Promoted disunity among people of different denominations and non-Christians Vs
Christian.

2000 7. State two ways in which the introduction of Christianity undermined African
culture in Kenya. (2 mks)
(i) For it preached against African customs e.g. polygamy and female circumcision
(ii) It also undermined African traditional religious and beliefs as Africans adapted
Christianity and stopped believing in the ancestral spirits. (2 mks

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1996 3. Identify one contribution of John Krapf to the spread of Christianity in Kenya
during the nineteenth century.(2mks)
(i) John Krapf built a church in Rabai
(ii) Converted people to Christianity.
(iii) Translated the Bible into Kiswahili
(iv) Trained the first catechist who later spread the gospel.
(v) Encouraged other European / missionaries to come to Kenya.
(vi) This exploitation of Kenya led to the opening up of the interior for more missionary
activities.
Any 1 point, 1 mark each (1 mk)

2011 5 Identify two contributions made by the early Christian missionaries in the
field of education in Kenya. (2 marks)
i. They set up schools/encouraged Africans to go to school.
ii. They taught Africans how to read/write.
iii. They taught Africans vocational Skills.
iv. They translated the Bible into African Languages
v. They wrote books/dictionary
vi. They translated the Bible into African Languages
vii. They wrote books/dictionary

1998 3. Give the main reason why early visitors from Arabia came to the Kenyan coast
before 1500 (1 mk)
- To trade/commerce
2000 6. State two reasons why the Portuguese were able to conquer the coastal settlements by
1500. (2 mks)
(iv) They had strong ships called carracks which they used to attack the Arabs who used
dhows
(v) The people along the coast were disunited e.g. Malindi and Mombasa were arch-
enemies
(vi) The Portuguese got reinforcements from Goa their base in India and also from Portugal
(vii) The Portuguese were well trained and better organized ( 2 mk)

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2000 4. State two main factors which enabled traders from Arabia to come to the Kenyan
coast before 1500 (2 mks)
(iii) The Indian ocean provided the highway through which the traders traveled
(iv) The traders had the skills of harnessing the monsoon winds ( Trade winds) They knew
what times of the year to come to the Kenyan coast and what times to go back
(v) The traders had marine technology e.g. had ship – building technology and knew how to
use the compass for the navigation of the ocean.

Revision Questions
1. Why did the early foreigners visit the East African coast before 1500 AD?
2. i) How was the trade between the East African coast and the outside
world organised before 1900 AD?
ii) What factors contributed to the development of the above trade?
3. i) Identify the problems the Portuguese encountered along the East
African coast.
ii) Show the ways the Portuguese tried to evade those problems.
4. a) Discuss the positive and negative impact of the Portuguese
administration on the East African coast.
b) Give all the reasons for the decline of the coastal towns during the Portuguese era.
5. Explain the contribution of Seyyid Said in East Africa.
6. Describe the factors which facilitated the spread of Christianity in East Africa.

This is a Property of Mwalimu Consultancy Ltd. Contact Mr Isaboke

0746-222-000 for more Educational Materials.

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CITIZENSHIP
A citizen is a person who legally belongs to a state.
Every citizen is:
i. Entitled to the rights, privileges and benefits of citizenship, subject to the limits set out in the
constitution;
ii. Entitled to a Kenyan passport and to any document of registration and identification issued by
the state to citizens.
iii. Subject to the responsibilities of citizenship.

Meaning of citizenship
Citizenship is the act of belonging to a particular or country.

Methods of becoming a Kenya citizen

2007 14. State two ways through which a person can become a citizen of Kenya.
(2marks)
 By birth
 By registration Any 2x1=(2marks)
2008 11. Identify two ways of becoming a Kenyan citizen. (2 marks)
 By birth
 By registrationany 2 x1 = 2 marks

1. Citizenship by birth
Every person born in Kenya is a citizen if, at the date of birth, either the mother or the father of
the person is a citizen.
A person born outside Kenya is a citizen if, at the date of birth, either the mother or the father
of the person is a citizen-
Who was born in Kenya; or By registration or naturalization.
If either parent of a person died before that person was born, that parent's citizenship at the time
of death applies
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2. Citizenship by marriage.
A person who has been married to a citizen for a period of at lEast seven years is entitled,
application, to be registered as a citizen. Citizenship is not lost through marriage or dissolution
of marriage
3. Citizenship by naturalization.
A person who has been lawfully resident in Kenya for a continuous period of at lEast seven
years, and who satisfies the conditions prescribed by an Act of Parliament, may apply to be
naturalized as a citizen
Children found in Kenya and adopted children.
A child found in Kenya who is less than 8 years old and whose nationality and parents are not
known, is presumed to be a citizen by birth

4. Dual citizenship
A person who is a citizen does not lose citizenship by reason of acquiring citizenship of another
country.

Revocation of citizenship
2010 16 Give two reasons' that can make a registered person to lose citizenship in Kenya. (2
marks)
 If one is disloyal to the state.
 If during war one trades/communicates with the enemy.
 If one reveals the country’s secrets to another country.
 If one is sentenced for a period of twelve months within five years from the date of
registration.
 If one stays out of the country continuously for seven years without registering with the
Kenyan embassy abroad.
 If registration was obtained through fraud. Any 2 x 1 = 2 marks

Types of citizenship
 Dual citizenship
 Birth right citizenship

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Rights and freedoms of a Kenyan citizen

Rights are obligations the state has to its citizens
Right to own property
Every citizen in Kenya has a right to own property in any area of the country.
Limitations of this right:
i. The government may acquire the property for public use and compensate the owner.
ii. If the property was illegally acquired it can be taken by government.

Right to life
One should not be deprived of his or her life intentionally. This implies that no person is
supposed to murder another or commit suicide. Anyone who does any of these two is
prosecuted in a court of law. Life begins at conception and abortion is not allowed.
Limitation of this right:
i. When the person acts in self-defence or in defence of property.
ii. When security officers execute lawful arrest.
iii. When security officers act to prevent the escape of a person who is lawfully detained.
iv.When security officers suppress a riot, rebellion or a mutiny.
v. When security offices act to prevent an individual from committing a crime.
vi.When the country is at war.
vii. When a person is sentenced to death by a court of law.

The right to liberty

No one should be imprisoned or detained without good reason. Also no one should be enslaved
by the other. A person who is arrested must be taken to court within a specified period
(maximum 24 hours).
Limitation
i. In case of having unsound mind e.g. if a person is mad or crazy.
ii. In case a person is a drug addict.
iii. In case of a person being infected by a contagious disease.
iv. In case one is under 18 years he can be denied personal liberty to enable him acquire education.
v. In case one is a convicted criminal.

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Freedom of conscience and religion

Every Kenyan citizen has a right to take an active part in a religion of his or her own choice and
think freely. The religion one joins should be legally registered.
Limitation to this right:
i. All religious groups should be registered by the government.
ii. Religion, beliefs and opinions that create hatred and suspicion are not allowed.
iii. One is not allowed to preach in a way which is likely to disunite the people of Kenya.
iv.One is not allowed to use religion wrongly with the intention of undermining the government
in any way whatsoever.
Freedom of expression
One is free to hold an opinion without interference from the government. At the same time one is
not allowed to incite anybody against the government.

Freedom of movement and residence

One is free to move to any part of Kenya or live in any part of this country. Kenyans should
therefore allow fellow Kenyans to move freely without interference.
Limitation of this right:
 When preventing the spread of an infectious disease.
 When effecting a court order requiring one to be arrested.
 When on is suspected of having committed or about to commit a crime.
 When securing education or welfare of a person the age of 18.
 When rehabilitating a drug addict.
 When securing the welfare of a person of unsound mind.
 There are restricted areas, e.g. military barracks, private property.
 When curfew is imposed in times of war or insecurity.
Freedom of speech
One is free to say anything so long as it does not interfere with other people's freedoms or go
against the government.
Limitations on freedom of speech
i. Propaganda for war.
ii. Incitement to violence/One is not allowed to publish seditious documents and also to incite
other members of the community against the government.
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iii. Hate speech

Right of protection from discrimination

All people in Kenya are supposed to receive fair treatment irrespective of their sex (gender), race,
tribe, political opinion and colour. Everyone therefore deserves mutual respect and honour.

Right of protection against arbitrary search and entry

Nobody should be searched without his consent or a valid court warrant. The police can search
individuals houses if they are suspected of crimes such as theft or if they have escaped from
prison and also if they house seditious documents. In this case the police must produce search
warrants.

Right of protection from the law of land

A person who is charged with a criminal offence must be offered a fair hearing within a
reasonable time by a court of law. This time should not go beyond twenty four (24) hours
unless during public holidays and weekends.

Right of protection from torture and any other insecurity

No one should be tortured for any reason at all even by police after arrest because the law
assumes an individual to be innocent until proved guilty by a court of law.
Right to family
Every adult has the right to marry a person of the opposite sex. Parties in marriage have equal
rights.
Limitation of this right:
i. In case the marriage is between siblings
ii. If the marriage is between people of the same sex.
iii. If the marriage is between people of below 18 years.
How the bill of rights in Kenya constitution protects the right of the individual.

i. An individual is guaranteed the right to life. If one murders or commits suicide, he is

punishable by law.
ii. An individual is guaranteed right to own property. If one interferes with another person’s

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property he is liable to prosecution in a court of law.

iii. An individual is guaranteed freedom of conscience. In this case one is entitled the right to think
and worship.
iv. An individual is guaranteed freedom of association or assembly. Individuals therefore are free
to assemble and associate with people of their own choice without harassment.
v. An individual is guaranteed the right to worship and join a religion of his choice.
vi. The bill of rights protects a person against arbitrary search, detention and arrest.
vii. It provides freedom of movement of the individual. One has right to move freely in any part of
the country.
viii. An individual is protected from being enslaved or being forced to supply unpaid labour.
ix. The bill or rights provides the individual with freedom of expression or speech through writing
and talking.

2006 9. Name the document which contains the rights of citizens in Kenya (1 mark)
The constitution of Kenya/ bill of right ( Any 1 x 1 = 1 mark)
1997 24(b) Explain circumstances which may force the government to limit the and freedom
of the individual
i. One can be denied the right to life if one is convicted of murder in a court of law or caught in
the act of robbery with violence.
ii. If suspected to be planning to commit a crime one is denied their personal liberty/ freedom of
movement.
iii. One can be denied freedom to own property if the government wishes to development public
utilities in the area but compensation must be paid.
iv. One’s freedom of worship can be limited if one uses it to undermine the government or create
disunity.
v. One’s freedom of assembly can be limited if it poses a threat to the state.
vi. One’s freedom of speech may be limited if one publishes false accusations about another person
or the state or incite people against the government.
vii. One’s freedom of movement can be limited if internal security is threatened.
viii. If one is not of sound mind one can be taken to a mental hospital by the police for confinement
and treatment.
ix. If one has an infectious disease can be denied one’s personal liberty.
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x. If one has not attained the stage of maturity one is considered a minor and their decisions are
made on their behalf by adult members of society.(Any 6 points 2 marks each (12 marks)

Responsibilities/ duties of a Kenyan citizen

Political rights
 Obey the law/Acquire a basic understanding of the provisions of the Constitution and promote
its ideals and objectives;
 Protect the law/Respect, uphold and defend the Constitution and the law.
 Promote democracy, good governance and the rule of law;
 Participate in the democratic process/Vote in elections and referenda
 Maintain valid documents e.g. ID cards, passports, driving licenses etc.
 Foster national unity and live in harmony with others
 Co-operate with law enforcement agencies for maintenance of law and order
 Understand and enhance the Republic’s place in the international community
 Participate in public meetings e.g. barazas, tribunals and commissions.

Economic rights
 Pay taxes
 Not to engage in corruption/fight corruption.
 Protect the environment and conserve natural resources
 Engage in work for common good and contribute to national development
 Develop skills through acquisition of knowledge, continuous learning and the development of
skills
 Contribute to the welfare and advancement of the community
Social responsibilities
 Promote family life and welfare and act responsibly in the context of family
 Protect and safeguard public property from waste and misuse
 Promote gender sensitivity by avoiding discriminations based on gender.
 Promote good morals e.g. honesty, decency, hard work, respect and moral uprightness.
 Promote good health habits e.g. high standards of hygiene.
 Taking care of the vulnerable in society e.g. the sick, physically challenged etc.
 Help during emergencies.
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2005 24 (b) Explain six responsibilities of a Kenyan citizen. (12 marks)

i. Obeying the laws of the country to promote peace and harmony
ii. Respecting other citizens, their views and property to ensure peaceful co- existence.
iii. Taking part activities that promote national development for example contributing towards
famine relief fund/ Harambee
iv. Participating in meetings organized by government official and other community leaders to
ensure effective implementation of policies.
v. Contributing to the income of the government by paying axes
vi. Offering positive criticism to the government to promote good governance/ Participating in
contribution making process and referendum
vii. Exercising one’s voting rights during presidential, parliamentary and civic elections to enhance
democracy.
viii. Taking part in community policing and volunteering information about criminal activities to the
police to enhance security
ix. Avoiding corrupt practices and adhering to accountability and transparency norms for
sustainable economic development.
x. Being loyal and patriotic to the country in order to promote national security and social
cohesion ( Any 6 x 2 = 12 marks)
2012 8. Give the main reason why a Kenyan citizen should obey the law. (1 mark)
i. To keep peace

Values of a good citizen/elements of a good citizen

 Patriotism i.e. Loving and seeking to contribute to the development of one’s country.
 Nationalism i.e. devotion to one’s country, seeking to unite fellow countrymen above racial,
tribal, religious or parochial interests.
 Morality i.e. upholding universally accepted and other moral standards or values e.g. honesty,
decency and respect for life.
 Integrity i.e. doing what the law expects at all tunes and in all situations.
 Thrift i.e. wise and prudent use of resources at their disposal, such as time and money.
 Ethics i.e. rules that govern behaviour. One should adhere to work ethics such as
accountability, transparency, hard work, personal initiative and zero tolerance to corruption.
 Participating in the democratic process, e.g. by voting.
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 Participating in national debates.

 Reporting law breakers.
 Being mindful of other people’s welfare.
 Proper use of and preservation of public property.

Revision Questions.
1. What does the term citizenship imply?
2. In which ways may one become a citizen of Kenya?
3. How may citizenship be with held?
4. Explain the circumstances which may compel the government to interfere with the:
i) Freedom of speech
ii) Right to life
5. Outline the rights and freedoms contained in the Bill of Rights in Kenya.
6. Describe the qualities of a good citizen.
This is a Property of Mwalimu Consultancy Ltd. Contact Mr Isaboke
0746-222-000 for more Educational Materials.

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NATIONAL INTEGRATION
2011 6 Give the meaning of the term ‘national integration’ (1 mark)
 It is the process of bringing together people of diverse backgrounds in a country.

Importance of national integration

i) Enhances conditions favourable for peace and prosperity.
ii) Promotes national unity.
iii) Promotes achievement of rapid economic and social development
iv) Eliminates and reduces inter-community conflicts and suspicion
v) Enhances nationalism and patriotism.
vi) Creates favourable investment conditions to attract foreign investors.

NATIONAL UNITY
National Unity is bringing together or fully fusing a country’s citizens into one, enabling each to
have a sense of belonging.

Factors promoting national unity

2010 15. Identify two symbols of National Unity.
i. The National Anthem
ii. The Coat of Arms
iii. The Constitution
iv. The Loyalty pledge
v. The National Flag
vi. Parliament
vii. National holidays.
viii. The Presidency
Any 2x1=2 marks

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1996 20 b) Explain six factors which have promoted National Unity in Kenya since 1963
i. The use of common languages English and Kiswahili which enable people of different ethnic
groups to communicate.
ii. The establishment of National schools which enable pupils form different parts of the country to
meet and interact/education integration of
iii. Intermarriage enables people of different ethnic backgrounds.
iv. Expansion of university Education which enables people/students from different ethnic groups
to interact.
v. Expansion of job opportunities which enables people of different ethnic groups to meet and
interact at their places of work.
vi. Development of urban centres has encouraged people from different ethnic background to meet
and interact.
vii. Development of transport network has facilitated free movement of people in the country.
viii. Promotion of sporting and other cultural activities though which people of different ethnic
groups interact/ Disbanding of tribal d
ix. The Harambee spirit/Nyayo Philosophy which has made it possible for people of different
ethnic group/religious background to work together on various projects
x. The establishment of settlement schemes which has made it possible for people from different
parts of the country to meet and interact.
xi. Existence of the institution of presidency is one unifying factor.
xii. The use of the national flag which is recognized by all Kenyans.
xiii. The use of the National anthem which invokes the spirit of unity among Kenyans.
xiv. The coat of arms which is recognized by all Kenyans.
xv. One constitution

2000 14. State one way in which the Kenya constitution promotes national unity
(i) Guarantees equal opportunity to all Kenyans
(ii) Provides protection to individuals against any form of discrimination Bill of rights
(iii) Provide for unitary government
(Any 1 point, 1 Mark (1 mark)

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2001 24 (b) Explain five factors that promote national unity in Kenya.
(i) The constitution provides for equality of all Kenyan before the law
(ii) Most/all public schools in Kenya follow the same curriculum whose content emphasizes
national cohesion.
(iii) The government attempts to provide social amenities to Kenyans without bias/equitable
distribution of resources/sports and games.
(iv) The government encourages social, economic interaction among Kenyans e.g. marriage,
worship and trade.
(v) The use of Kiswahili as the official language enables Kenyans to interact freely.
(vi) The national anthem an identity/loyalty pledge
(vii) The existence of the national flag symbolizes national unity/ coat of arms.
(viii) The constitution provides for one president who is both head of state and government.
(ix) Urbanization promotes socialization and co-existence among Kenyans
Any 5 points, 2 marks each (10marks)

2002 12. Give one way through which the education system in Kenya promotes national unity
(i) Use of one curriculum in all the public schools
(ii) Use of one medium of instruction
(iii) Centralized national examinations
(iv) Centralized training and deployment of teachers
(v) Existence of national school
2003 7. Give one way in which rural to rural migration in Kenya contributes to national unity.
i) It promotes inter-ethnic integration.
ii) It promotes peaceful coexistence/ harmonious living between different communities.
Any 1 x1 = (1marks)
2013 14. State two ways in which the Harambee spirit promotes national unity in Kenya.
i) It encourages people to work together.
ii) It promotes cooperation.
iii) It promotes equity in the distribution of resources.
iv) It enhances interaction of the people.
v) It promotes patriotism.
Any 2 x 1 = 2 marks
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FACTORS LIMITING NATIONAL UNITY

2005 23 (b) Explain six factors which undermine National Unity in Kenya
i. Unequal distribution of natural/ National resources causes imbalanced regional economic
development. This causes dissatisfaction and disharmony.
ii. Different religious beliefs and practices may lead to discrimination on religious grounds.
iii. The practice of tribalism leads to favouring people of one’s tribe in employment and allocation
of resources. This creates hatred among people.
iv. Nepotism leads to use of public resources to favour one’s relatives resulting to unfair treatment
of other people
v. Asking for and offering of bribes to obtain and give services violates people’s right to equal
treatment/ corruption
vi. Ethnic conflicts/ disputes/ clashes discourage co-operation among the Citizens
vii. Racism leads to discrimination on the basis of colour/ race. This creates suspicion and hated
among people.
viii. Discrimination on the basis of gender denies people the right to participate equally in national
development (Any 6 x 2 = 13 marks)

2006 14. Give two reasons why corruption is being discouraged in Kenya
(i) To promote economic party
(ii) To promote peace and stability
(iii) To promote national unity
(iv) To provide fair distribution of national resources
(v) To gain international confidence
(vi) To promote patriotism and ethical behaviours

CONFLICT RESOLUTION
Conflict may imply a state of war or battle or a struggle of some kind or a long fight. It may also
imply a situation whereby ideas or beliefs differ. This may result to ideological and religious
differences. It may imply a disagreement or clash. Conflict may also be quarrels or sharp
arguments.

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DEFINITION OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION

Causes of conflicts
Political causes
i. Ideological or policy differences among political parties.
ii. Failure to uphold the law of the country
iii. Denial of citizen rights
iv. Improper conduct of elections
v. Border disputes between countries

Social
i. Religious differences among people
ii. Cultural intolerance between communities.
iii. Influx of refugees from neighbouring countries leading to pressure on resources.
iv.Mistrust between family and community members.
v. Tribalism, nepotism and racism within a nation.

Economic causes
i. Disparity in allocation of economic resources.
ii. Disputes over natural resources e.g. land, water points etc.
iii. Differences between employers and employees.
iv.Differences over trading policies
v. Failure to adhere to contractual obligations.

Types of Conflicts
- Political conflicts: Examples are wars, battles, ethnic clashes.
- Religious conflicts.
- Cultural conflicts.
- Ideological conflicts
- Conflict of laws.
- Conflict of opinion.
- Family conflict.
- Ethnic conflicts

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Categories of conflicts
i. Individual against individual- This is a very common level of conflict brought about by issues
such as failure to pay debt, land ownership wrangle, family disagreement, political differences
between individuals and jealousy.
ii. Individual against state-This is likely to occur especially when one is denied individual human
rights for example, The government may take an individual’s land and fail to compensate it.
Powerful individual may also grab public land and then the government struggles to repossess
it once more for public interest
iii. Community against community-some of the causes of this conflict may be stiff competition in
business, land ownership claims, power struggle by rival political parties and religious
differences which involve different religious groups or denominations.
iv. State against state-In this case a disagreement may arise between two countries. The causes of
this may be boundary disputes, hatred between two heads of state, people of one country
raiding people of the neighbouring country to capture or steal livestock, ideological differences
and abuse of human rights and international laws

Methods of conflict resolution

2006 6. Identify two peaceful ways of resolving conflicts
i) Negotiation
ii) Reconciliation
iii) Mediation
iv) Arbitration
v) Litigation ( court system)
(Any 2 x 1 = 2 marks)
 Arbitration, whereby arbitrators mediate and resolve conflicts as provided for by the Kenyan
law.
 Diplomacy i.e. negotiation between individuals or countries to create room for understanding
and reconciliation. Diplomacy can be used to solve conflicts at domestic, tribal, Institutional,
international, national and working levels. The U N O is heavily involved in international
diplomacy throughout the world.
 Legislation, which involves passing of laws that can be used to criminalize activities that lead
to conflict.
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 Traditional resolutions, which are enacted by elders or wise men, normally used between
conflicting communities.
 Religious action, which can be used first among parties themselves and their followers.
 Court action, where parties take other parties for arbitration. It can be taken up by any of the
parties in conflict.
 Policing, this is used to maintain law and order and helps in controlling crime that brings about
conflict.
 International agreements, normally between Kenya and her neighbours and between Kenya and
the donor countries or agencies.

Process of resolving conflicts

 The Legal process. The Judiciary, through established courts throughout the country is
empowered to solve cases among citizens.
 Arbitration i.e. Round Table discussion. This involves identifying the source or cause of the
conflict and then sitting to iron out the problems. The arbitrator and the conflicting parties
meet and talk face to face.
 The Court process. Here, the conflicting parties take their case to a court of law. Both parties
are allowed to call witnesses to prove their case. The court may dismiss or allow the case to
continue. Upon delivery of the verdict, any party that is dissatisfied is given chance to appeal
to High court.
 Prosecution. Here, criminal cases are reported to the police, who arrest and present the suspects
for prosecution before a court of law.
 Armed Forces. In the absence of law and order, force is the only option. The police or the army
are required to arrest, detain or shoot at suspects. This method is used to deal with strikes,
mobs, bandits and revolts.
 Negotiation. A mediator calls the conflicting parties for a meeting after individually studying
the points of disagreement, after which a peaceful resolution may be arrived at.

Explanation
 First identify the type of conflict in question. Secondly isolate the people or parties involved in
the conflict. Then cross-examine the major causes of the conflict. Engage an impartial or
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neutral arbitrator. Now use dialogue as a way of settling the dispute. In case of a stalemate or
deadlock, engage more and more arbitrators. They should maintain a high degree of neutrality
and understanding.
 Try to exhaust the available ways, means as well as the existing machinery for resolving
conflicts. You may involve neutral leaders, elders, lawyers, opinion leaders and all other kinds
of mediators. Also refer to the way similar issues were dealt with in the past. If the outcome
was negative then forget about it and try your own.
 If the parties agree, then they should sign binding agreements or treaties which clearly explain
what is expected of them in future. If the parties fail to agree, encourage constant meetings
aimed at resolving the conflict and also employ as many mediators or arbitrators as possible
until an agreement is reached.
 It is therefore important note that when resolving conflict methods such as Negotiation,
mediation and arbitration are very necessary.
- It should also be noted that an arbitrator or a mediator should be a neutral person who is not
likely to favour any side. Arbitration should never include people who have vested interests, or
people who are corrupt and can take bribes. Mediator should not include people who are
related to any one group or individual or those involved in the dispute in question.

Steps does Negotiation take as a process of resolving conflict

 Finding out the facts about the conflict.
 Discussing the possible solutions.
 Reaching an agreement, by which each party shows willingness to compromise.

The role of a mediator during resolving conflicts

 A mediator explains the rules to be followed during the process of helping the parties to reach
an agreement.
 A mediator acts as referee to ensure that no party interrupts the other when explaining the cause
of conflicts.
 The mediator listens to the parties and compiles the facts which he later uses to help reach an
agreement.
 The mediator gives his own solutions and the parties give out their suggestions.

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 If an agreement is reached the mediator records it and the parties concerned are requested to
honour and show commitment to it.

Effects of conflicts
 Massive displacement of people as they become refugees.
 Fear and insecurity due to anarchy.
 Loss of life.
 Destruction of property.
 Starvation due destruction of crops and no time to practice agriculture.
 Poverty/ economic decline.
 Human suffering and misery.

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. What is the meaning of National Integration?
2. Why should there be National Integration?
3. Describe the factors that may limit National Unity.
4. Define the term conflict.
5. Identify the main methods of resolving conflicts.
6. How can conflicts affect the running of schools in Kenya?
7. Discuss the process of resolving conflicts.
8. Identify the ways through which conflicts may be avoided.
9. Outline the advantages of mediation over arbitration

THE END
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F1 TOPICAL REVISION
QUESTIONS

A SERIES OF TOPICAL REVISION FOR

HISTORY &GOVERNMENT QUESTIONS
IN THIS CLASS.

An Intensive Analysis of Past KCSE

Questions. Candidates are Hereby
Advised to Keep attention to this
Crucial Quick Revision Kit.

For Marking Scheme/Answers

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INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY
AND GOVERNMENT
1.Name two sources of the history of the Kenyan communities during the pre- colonial period (2
mks)
2. State two disadvantages of relying on oral traditions as a source of history. (2 mks)
3. Identify two sources of Kenyan history (2 mks)
4. Give two reasons for studying Government. (2mks)
5.Identify one branch in the study of History and Government of Kenya ( 1 mk)
6. Give the meaning of history. (1 mark)
7. Give two unwritten sources of information on History and Government. (2marks)
8. Give two limitations of using anthropology as a source of information on History and
Government. (2 marks)
9 State two ways in which the study of History and Government promotes a sense of
patriotism in the learner. (2 mar

EMERGENCE OF KENYAN SOCIETIES

1. a) Give five reasons, which led to the migration of the Cushites into
Kenya before 1800.
b) Describe the economic activities of the Cushites in the pre - colonial period.
2. a) State five results of the settlement of the Gikuyu in the Mount Kenya
Region during the pre colonial period
b) Describe the political organization of the Agikuyu during the pre-colonial period.
3. a) State five economic activities of the Kalenjin during the pre-colonial
period.
b) Explain the functions of the Orkoiyot among the Nandi during the re-colonial period.
4. State three functions of the Laibon in traditional Maasai society
5. Give two functions of the council of elders among the Akamba during the pre-colonial
period.
6. a) What factors made the Cushites migrate into Kenya during the pre-
colonial period?
b) Explain five results of the migration of the Cushites into Kenya during the pre-colonial
period.
7. a) Explain the result of the migration and settlement of the Somali into
Kenya by 1800.
b) Describe the political organization of the Somali in Kenya during the colonial period.
8. Give TWO factors which led to the migration and settlement of the Iteso into Kenya by
1800.
9. Name two sources of the History of Kenyan communities during the pre - colonial period.
10. In what ways did the Kenyan communities interacted during the pre - colonial period?

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11. a) Describe the migration and settlement of the Eastern Bantu speaking
communities in Kenya up to 1800.
b) Discuss the result of the migration and settlement of the eastern Bantu into Kenya by 1900.
12. What was the base of the political organization among the Cushites during the pre -
colonial period?
13. Identify the TWO economic activities which the Maasai acquired as a result of interacting
with the Agikuyu during their settlement in Kenya.
14. What religious functions did the Orkoiyot of the Nandi perform during the pre - colonial
period?
15. Give two main factors which influenced the Abaluhya to become crop farmers by the
beginning of the nineteenth century.
16. Name two Bantu communities in Kenya whose ancestors settled in the Mt. Elgon area
before migrating to their present homeland.
17. a) Why did the Bantu migrate from their coastal settlement at
Shungwaya in the sixteenth century
b) Describe the political organization of the Mijikenda during pre - colonial period.
18. State two ways in which the Akamba interacted with the Agikuyu in the pre - colonial period.
19. Give two economic reasons why the Cushites migrated from their original homestead into
Kenya.
20. Identify the main reason why the Mijikenda lived in Kenya.

21. a) Explain five results of the migration and settlement of the plain
Nilotes in Kenya.
b) Describe the political organization of the Maasai during the pre - colonial period.
22. State one way in which the Abagusii and the Kipsigis interacted during the pre - colonial
period.
23. State two functions of the council of elders (Njuri Ncheke) of the Ameru.
24. a) What were the results of the settlement of the Luo in Kenya during
the pre - colonial period?
b) Describe the socio - political organization of the Luo during the pre - colonial period.
25. a) Give five reasons which led to the migration of the Cushites into
Kenya before 1800.
b) Describe the economic activities of the Cushites in the pre - colonial period.
26 (a) What factors made the cushites migrate into Kenya during thepre – colonial period?
(10mks)
b) Explain five results of the migration of the cushites into Kenya during the pre-colonial period.
(10mks)
27. Give two factors which led to the migration and settlement of the Iteso into Kenya by 1800.
28. Explain the results of the migration and settlement of the Somali into Kenya by 1800.(7mks)
29. In what two ways did the Kenyan communities interact during the pre- colonial period?
(2mks)

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30(a) Describe the migration and settlement of the Eastern Bantu Speaking communities into
Kenya upto 1800. (5 mks)
(b) Discuss the results of the migration and settlement of the Eastern Bantu into Kenya by 1900
(10mks)
31. What was the base of the political organization among the Cushites during the pre- colonial
period? (1mk)
32. Name two Bantu communities in Kenya whose ancestors settled in the Mount Elgon area
before migrating to their present homeland. (2 mks)
33(a) Why did the Bantu migrate from their coastal settlement at Shungwaya in the sixteenth
century? (3 mks)
[b]Economic reasons why the cushites migrated from their original homeland Kenya
[c] Explain five results of the migration and settlement of the plain nilotes in Kenya
34.One reason why the Mijikenda community migrated from their settlement at Shangwaya
during the Pre- colonial period.
35.(a)State five factors that led to the migration of the Iteso from their original home in the Lake
Turkana region to their present homeland.
(b)Explain five effects of migration and settlement of the Iteso in Kenya
36.a)What were the results of the settlement of the Luo in Kenya during the pre-colonial period?
37.Give one way in which the knowledge of iron working helped in the migration of the Bantu.
34. State two ways in which the Akamba interacted with the Agikuyu in the pre- colonial period
(2 mks)
35 (a) Explain five results of the migration and settlement of the plains Nilotes into Kenya.10 mk
36. State two ways in which the Nandi and the Abaluyia communities interacted during the pre-
colonial period. (2 mks)
37. Give one reason why the Mijikenda community migrated from their settlement at Shungwaya
during the pre- colonial period. (1 mk)
38. (a) What five factors led to the migration of the Iteso from their original home in the Lake
Turkana region to their present homeland? (5 mks)
(b) Explain five effects of the migration and settlement of the Iteso in Kenya. (10 mks)
39. State one way in which the Abagusii and the Kipsigis interacted during the pre-colonial
period. (1mk)
40. (a) What were the results of the settlement of the luo in Kenya during the pre-colonial period?
(7marks)
41. Give one way in which the knowledge of iron working helped in the migration of the Bantu
(1 mk)
42. Give two reasons for the migration of the Borana from Ethiopia into Kenya. (2 mks)
43. (a) Why did the Bantu migrate from their original homeland? (5 mks)
44 (a) Give five reasons which led to the migration of the cushites from their original homeland
into Kenya during the pre- colonial period. (5 mks)
(b) Explain five results of the interactions between the Bantu and the cushites in Kenya during the
pre- colonial period. (10 mks)
45. Name one community in Kenya that belongs to the River Lake Nilotes (1 mk)
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46 (a) Why did the highlands Nilotes migrate from their original homeland during the pre-
colonial period? (5 mks)
(b) Explain five results of the migration and settlement of the highland Nilotes in Kenya(10 mks)
47. Name the dispersal area of the Eastern Bantu. (1mk)
48. a) Give five reasons for the migration of the Luo from their original homeland into Kenya.
(5mks)
b) What were the social effects of the expansion of the Luo into Western Kenya?

49. Name two communities in Kenya who belong to the Plain Nilotes. (2 mks)
50. What was the original homeland of the Eastern Cushites? (1 mk)
51. Apart from the Maasai, name one other plains Nilotes found in Kenya ( 1 mk)
52. State the first settlement area of the Luo during their migration from Sudan. (1 mark)
53 (a) Give five reasons which influenced the migration of the Plains Nilotes to Kenyaduring the
pre-colonial period. (5 marks)
(b) Explain five results of the migration and settlement of the Maasai in Kenyaduring the pre-
colonial period. (10 marks)
54. What was the main reason for the migration of the Eastern Bantu from Shungwaya during thepre-
colonial period? (1 mark)
55. Identify one community in Kenya which belongs to the Southern Cushitic group. (1 mark)
56. Name two Bantu groups in Kenya which settled in Mount Elgon area before migrating to their
present homeland. (2 marks)
57 Name the community in Kenya that belongs to the Southern Cushites. (1 mark)
58 (a) Give five reasons for the migration of the Mijikenda from Shungwaya during the
pre-colonial period. (5 mark)
(b) Explain five social effects of the migration and settlement of the Mijikenda in their
present homeland. (10 marks)

SOURCES OF HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT

1. a) Give five reasons for studying history.
b) Explain three limitations of using the following:
2. Identify two sources of information which Historians use tow rite the History of Africa.
3. Give two limitations of using written records as a source of African History.
4. State two shortcomings of oral tradition as a source of history.
5. What is oral traditional as a Source of History?
6. State one advantage of written materials as a source of History.

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THE EARLY MAN

1. List economic activities of early man during the Stone Age period.
2. Identify two aspects of the culture of the early man that had their origins in the late Stone
Age.
3. a) Describe two theories about the origin of human beings
b) Discuss the benefits of the discovery of fire to early man.
4. Name two factors which influenced early man to begin domestic animals.
5. State two distinct characteristics of Homo erectus
6. a) What things do archaeologists use to reconstruct the activities of
people who lived in prehistoric times?
b) Explain five ways in which Homo erectus attempted to improve his way of life.
7. State one characteristic of Homo sapiens
8. Give one characteristics of Homo Erectus
9. Name two pre- historic sites in Kenya. (2 mks)
10. State two advantages of the discovery of fire by Early Man. (2mks)
11. Identify two ways through which archaeologists obtain information on the history of Kenya.
(2 mks)

AGRARIAN REVOLUTION
1. a) State three factors which contributed to the development of
agriculture in ancient Egypt.
b) Explain six factors which have led to inadequate food supply in Africa
2. a) State three agricultural practices used in Europe before the Agrarian
Revolution.
b) Explain the impact of the Agrarian revolution in Europe
3. a) State three factors which contributed to the development of early
agriculture in Mesopotamia.
b) What was the result of the development of early agriculture in Mesopotamia.
4. Name two main cash crops that were grown in North America during the Agrarian
Revolution.
5. Identify two factors which favoured the development of crop growing in ancient Egypt.
6. Name two ways in which railway transport contributed to the Agrarian Revolution in
Western Europe
7. State one way in which the Agrarian Revolution contributed to rural urban migration in
Europe.
8. a) State one main way in which the Agrarian Revolution contributed to
the development of urban centers in Europe.
b) What were the effects of the Agrarian Revolution?
9. What factors led to the development of early agricultural in India?
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10. a) What factors favoured the beginning of agriculture during the New
Stone Age?
b) Explain six factors which promoted plantation farming in Europe during the Agrarian
Revolution.
11. Identify two similarities between early agriculture and Mesopotamia and Egypt.
12. Explain 4 advantages of the land tenure system in Britain.
13. a) Describe three factors that facilitated the development of agriculture
in America before 1800.

USE OF METALS AND INDUSTRIAL

REVOLUTION
1. a) Give four inventions that improved textile manufacturing it Britain
during the industrial revolution.
b) State six reasons why the industrialization revolution first took place in Britain.
c) State six economic effects of the industrial revolutions in Europe.
2. Identify three uses of bronze in the Kingdom of Lerlin.

FOR MARKING SCHEMES

CONTACT MR ISABOKE

CALL/TEXT 0746 222 000

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THIS IS A PROPERTY OF MWALIMU

CONSULTANCY LTD.

POWERED BY MR
ISABOKE

SUCCESS

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