12  Fundamentals of Mobile Computing

in the core network must allow both voice and control information to be
exchanged between the switching system and the base station. The MSC
is connected to the landline telephone network to allow mobile telephones
to be connected to standard landline telephones. The core network is
responsible for transmitting voice calls, SMS (Short Message Service),
etc. from one phone to another through switches. The core network also
maintains a database that contains information about the subscribers and
the information about billing.

1.9  Wireless Networking Standards

Standardization is very important to the computer networking domain

since many protocols and devices need to interoperate in any practical
networking solution. Further, there can be various vendors manufacturing
the networking equipment. In the absence of appropriate standards, it
would become difficult to interoperate the products manufactured by
different vendors. Mainly, three international standardization bodies are
responsible for formulating the networking standards: ITU, IEEE and ISO.
The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) is a non-
profit, technical professional association of members from over 150 countries.
It acts as a standards body. Standards are very important in networking
since multiple devices that are often heterogoneous and manufactured by
different vendors need to communicate. The IEEE proposes standards for
new technologies and maintains the old standards. The IEEE created the
802 group to help standardize the LAN technology. The 802.3 standard
from this group defines the requirements that a product must meet for it
to be considered “Ethernet”. Wireless Ethernet is defined by 802.11. The
802.11 standard is further broken down into more specific certifications,
such as 802.11a, 802.11b, and 802.11g. Each of these defines a different
method for providing wireless Ethernet. Each protocol specifies various
aspects of data transfer that distinguish them from the other protocols.
The 802.11 standards define rules for communication on wireless local
area networks (WLANs). The popular 802.11 standards include 802.11a,
802.11b and 802.11g. The 802.11 was the original standard in this family,
ratified in 1997. It defined WLANs that operated at 1–2 Mbps. This standard
is obsolete today, but its extensions are being used extensively.
Each extension to the original 802.11 appends a unique letter to its
name. For example, the standards 802.11a, 802.11b and 802.11g define
different types of signal modulation and frequencies of operation as shown
in Table 1.1.
The following IEEE 802.11 standards are being used for wireless local
area networking:
• 802.11a: 54 Mbps standard, 5 GHz signalling (ratified 1999)
• 802.11b: 11 Mbps standard, 2.4 GHz signalling (1999)
 Basics of Communication Technologies   13

TABLE 1.1  Wireless Networking Standards

Standard Data rate Information

IEEE 802.11 Up to 2 Mbps This specification has been extended into
in the 2.4 GHz 802.11b.
band
IEEE 802.11a Up to 54 Mbps Products that adhere to this standard are
(Wi-Fi) in the 5 GHz considered “Wi-Fi Certified.” Eight available
band channels. Less potential for RF interference
than 802.11b and 802.11g. Better than 802.11b
at supporting multimedia voice, video and
large-image applications in densely populated
user environments. Relatively shorter range
than 802.11b. Not interoperable with 802.11b.
IEEE 802.11b Up to 11 Mbps Products that adhere to this standard
(Wi-Fi) in the 2.4 GHz are considered “Wi-Fi Certified.” Not
band interoperable with 802.11a. Requires fewer
access points than 802.11a for coverage of
large areas. Offers high-speed access to data
at up to 300 feet from base station. 14 channels
available in the 2.4 GHz band (only 11 of
which can be used in the U.S. due to FCC
regulations) with only three non-overlapping
channels.
IEEE 802.11g Up to 54 Mbps Products that adhere to this standard are
(Wi-Fi) in the 2.4 GHz considered “Wi-Fi Certified.” May replace
band 802.11b. Improved security enhancements
over 802.11. Compatible with 802.11b.
14 channels available in the 2.4 GHz band
(only 11 of which can be used in the U.S.
due to FCC regulations) with only three non-
overlapping channels.
IEEE 802.16 Specifies Commonly referred to as WiMAX or less
(WiMAX) WiMAX in the commonly as WirelessMAN or the Air Interface
10 to 66 GHz Standard, IEEE 802.16 is a specification for
range fixed broadband wireless metropolitan access
networks (MANs)
IEEE 802.16a Added support Commonly referred to as WiMAX or less
(WiMAX) for the 2 to 11 commonly as WirelessMAN or the Air Interface
GHz range. Standard, IEEE 802.16 is a specification for
fixed broadband wireless metropolitan access
networks (MANs)
Bluetooth Up to 2 Mbps No native support for IP, so it does not support
in the 2.45 GHz TCP/IP and wireless LAN applications well.
band Not originally created to support wireless
LANs. Best suited for connecting PDAs, cell
phones and PCs in short intervals.
(Contd.)
14  Fundamentals of Mobile Computing

TABLE 1.1  Wireless Networking Standards (Contd.)

Standard Data rate Information
HiperLAN/1 Up to 20 Mbps Only in Europe. HiperLAN is totally ad-hoc,
(Europe) in the 5 GHz requiring no configuration and no central
band controller. Does not provide real isochronous
services. Relatively expensive to operate and
maintain. No guarantee of bandwidth.
HiperLAN/2 Up to 54 Mbps Only in Europe. Designed to carry ATM cells,
(Europe) in the 5 GHz IP packets, Firewire packets (IEEE 1394) and
band digital voice (from cellular phones). Better
quality of service than HiperLAN/1 and
guarantees bandwidth.
Open Air Pre-802.11 pro- OpenAir is the proprietary protocol from
tocol, using Proxim. All OpenAir products are based on
frequency Proxim’s module.
hopping and
0.8 and 1.6
Mbps bit rate

• 802.11c: Operation of bridge connections (moved to 802.1D)

• 802.11d: Worldwide compliance with regulations for use of wireless
signal spectrum (2001)
• 802.11e: Quality of Service (QoS) support (not yet ratified)
• 802.11F: Inter-Access Point Protocol recommendation for communi-
cation between access points to support roaming clients
(2003)
• 802.11g: 54 Mbps standard, 2.4 GHz signalling (2003)
• 802.11h: Enhanced version of 802.11a to support European
regulatory requirements (2003)
• 802.11i: Security improvements for the 802.11 family (2004)
• 802.11j: Enhancements to 5 GHz signalling to support the Japan
regulatory requirements (2004)
• 802.11k: WLAN system management (in progress)
• 802.11l: Skipped to avoid confusion with 802.11i
• 802.11m: Maintenance of 802.11 family documentation
• 802.11n: 100+ Mbps standard improvements over 802.11g (in progress)
• 802.11o: Skipped
• 802.11p: Wireless Access for the Vehicular Environment
• 802.11q: Skipped
• 802.11r: Fast roaming support via Basic Service Set transitions
• 802.11s: ESS mesh networking for access points
• 802.11T: Wireless Performance Prediction—recommendation for
testing standards and metrics
• 802.11u: Internetworking with 3G/cellular and other forms of
external networks
 Basics of Communication Technologies   15

• 802.11v: Wireless network management/device configuration

• 802.11w: Protected Management Frames security enhancement
• 802.11x: Skipped (generic name for the 802.11 family)
• 802.11y: Contention Based Protocol for interference avoidance.

1.10  Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)

A brief history of evolution of wireless networks is given in Box 1.2. Today,

Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) provide connectivity between
computers over short distances using the wireless medium. Typical indoor
applications of WLANs may be in educational institutes, office buildings
and factories where the required coverage distances are usually restricted
to less than a few hundred feet. In the absence of obstructions and with the
use of suitable antennas, ranges of up to a few kilometres can be obtained.
Wireless networks are especially useful when it is impossible or prohi-
bitively expensive to carry out wiring within or across buildings, or when
only temporary access is needed between computers. WLANs are useful to
provide connectivity among portable computers. As an example, consider
an educational institute where the students may carry their own laptop
and use those in classrooms, library or lounge as and when they require.

BOX 1.2  History of wireless networks

The concept of communication without wires is not new. Smoke signals and
tribal drums were used to communicate over short distances without cords or
wires. Eventually, communications over long distances became possible through
wires. Claude Chappe invented the telegraph in 1792 and Alexander Graham
Bell first sent voice transmissions over wire in 1876. However in 1894, near
Bologna, Italy, wireless communication was born. Gulielmo Marconi tapped
out a message, causing a bell to ring on the other end of the room without
using any wire. Scientists began searching for ways to broadcast speech using
Marconi’s wireless. In 1906, Reginald Fessenden did it by using amplitude
modulation. In 1935, the American engineer Edwin Armstrong introduced FM
(frequency modulation) radio waves, which used less power and achieved
reception of higher quality signals. On October 13, 1983, the first call on a
commercial cellular system was made in Chicago.

Most commercial WLAN products use a number of technologies in

accordance with the international standards specified by the Institute of
Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). These WLANs operate with
maximum data rates of up to 54 Mbps, which are much lower than the
data rates that can be achieved with the wired Ethernet connections.
WLANs almost universally use Internet Protocols (such as TCP/IP) for
communication between computers. These protocols are basically a set
of standard rules to facilitate communication between computers. The