1 Binary systems and hexadecimal

Denary system - Number system based on the number 10

Binary system - Number system based on the number 2
Hexadecimal system - Number system based on the number 6

Binary value Hexadecimal value Denary value

0000 0 0
0001 1 1
0010 2 2
0011 3 3
0100 4 4
0101 5 5
0110 6 6
0111 7 7
1000 8 8
1001 9 9
1010 A 10
1011 B 11
1100 C 12
1101 D 13
1110 E 14
1111 F 15

Uses of hexadecimal system

1. Memory dumps
2. Colour codes in HTML
3. MAC Address
4. Web addresses (ASCII Code)
5. Assembly code and machine code
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)

Dec Hex Char

32 20 <SPACE>
48 30 0
57 39 9
65 41 A
90 5A Z
97 61 a
122 7A z

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2 Communication and internet technologies
Simplex - Data transmission in one direction only
Half-duplex - Data transmission in two directions but not at the same time
Full-duplex - Data transmission in two directions at the same time
Serial transmission - Data is sent one bit at a time over a single wire or channel (bits are
sent one after the other in a single stream)
Parallel transmission - Several bits of data (usually 1 byte) are sent down several wires or
channels at the same time; one wire or channel is used to transmit each bit.
Asynchronous transmission - Data being transmitted in an agreed bit pattern; data is
grouped together and sent with control bits known as the start bit and stop bit.
Synchronous transmission - A continuous stream of data which is accompanied by timing
signals generated by an internal clock
Universal Serial Bus (USB)
The USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method. Essentially, the USB cable
consists of:

• A four-wire shielded cable

• Two of the wires are used for power and the earth
• Two of the wires are used in the data transmission

Advantages and Disadvantages of USB

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Error checking method
Parity Check

• The system can use even or odd parity check.

• The parity bit is added to the actual data bits.
• In even parity check, the total number of 1s in the data is even.
• The receiver counts the number of 1s in the data bits received.
• If even, no error occurs. If not, data is corrupted during the transmission.
Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)

• It uses Acknowledgement and Timeout.

• Timeout (the time allowed to elapse before acknowledgement is received) is set by
the sender.
• (* When the receiver receives the data, it checks the data for transmission errors like
by parity check or checksum. *)
• If the data is received correctly, (* positive *) acknowledgement is sent by the
receiver to the sender.
• (* If the data received is wrong, negative acknowledgement is sent. *)
• If the (* positive *) acknowledgement is not received before timeout occurs, the
data is automatically resent by the sender.
Checksum

• Sender calculates the checksum value from the actual data bits to be sent.
• The checksum value is attached to the actual data bits at the end and sent along.
• The receiver calculates the checksum value again from the received data bits.
• Two checksum values are compared.
• If the same, no error occurs. If not, data is corrupted during the transmission.
Echo check

• The sender sends the data to the receiver.

• The receiver sends that data back to the sender.
• The sender compares the data sent with the data receive back.
• If the same, no error occurs.
• If different, an error has occurred somewhere in the process.
• It is unreliable.
Internet Service Provider (ISP)
ISP are companies that provide the user with access to the internet. They usually charge a
monthly fee. The ISP gives the user an account and email address.
IP Address

• Internet Protocol Address

• It is assigned by the ISP and is unique.

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 • IP address changes.
• IP address gives the location of a device on the internet.
• IPv4
§ 4 groups of numbers // 12 numbers
§ Separated by full stops (.)
§ 0 – 255 in each group
§ 4 bytes long // 32 bits
§ Represented in denary
• IPv6
§ 8 groups of numbers // 32 numbers
§ Separated by colons (:)
§ 0 – FFFF in each group
§ 16 bytes long // 128 bits
§ Consecutive groups of 0000 can be replaced with ::
§ Represented in hexadecimal
MAC Address

• Media Access Control Address

• MAC address does not change.
• It uniquely identifies a device connected to the internet.
• First part is manufacturer ID.
• Second part is serial number.
• Total is 6 bytes or 48 bits long.
• Each part is 3 bytes.
• It has 6 pairs of 2-digits.
• Between 00 and FF
• Separated by :
HTML

• HyperText Mark-up Language

• NOT a programming language
• HTML structure
§ Structure is the essential part of the HTML document; it includes the
semantics (meaning) and structural mark-up of the document. The contents
of the website are defined using HTML tags.
• HTML presentation
§ Presentation is the style of the document, i.e., how the document will look
(or even sound if it includes multimedia elements). The styles can be defined
in the separate CSS (cascading style sheet) file.
HTTP

• HyperText Transfer Protocol

• A set of rules that must be obeyed when transferring files across the internet.

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 • HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure)
Web browser
It is a software which allows a user to display a web page on the computer screen. Features
of web browser are:

• Have a HOME page.

• Store the user’s favourites and history
• Have navigation buttons (forward and backword)
• Store cookies
http://www.hoddereducation.co.uk/ igcse_computer_science (URL – Uniform Resource
Locator)
http:// - protocol
www.hoddereducation.co.uk – web server’s name
igcse_computer_science - file name
3 Logic gates and logic circuits
NOT gate

AND gate

OR gate

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NAND gate

NOR gate

XOR gate

NOT gate with NAND gate

AND gate with NAND gates

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OR gate with NAND gates

XOR gate with NAND gates

4 Operating systems and computer architecture

Operating systems
The operating system is essentially software running in the background of a computer
system. Tasks of operating system are –

• Human computer interface (HCI) • File utilities (e.g., copy, save)

• Multitasking • Processor management
• Multiprogramming • Memory management
• Batch processing • Real-time processing
• Error handling • Interrupt handling routines
• Loading and running of • Security (manages log on,
applications and software passwords)
• Management of user accounts • Input and output control
When a computer is first powered up, the initiating programs are loaded into memory from
the ROM (read only memory) chip. These programs run a checking procedure to make sure
the hardware, processor, internal memory and bios (basic input-output system) are all
functioning correctly. If no errors are detected, then the operating system is loaded into
memory.
Interrupt

• A signal sent from a device or from software to the processor

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 • Processor stops temporarily what it is doing and service the interrupt.
• Whenever an interrupt is serviced, the status of the current task being run is saved.
• This is done using an Interrupt Handler.
• Once the interrupt has been fully serviced, the status of the interrupted task is
reinstated, and it continues from the point prior to the interrupt being sent.
• Following could generate the interrupt –
§ Paper jam in the printer
§ Printer running out of paper
§ Printer running out of ink
Buffer
A buffer is a temporary memory area in a computer. It is used to compensate for the slower
operating speed of peripherals when compared to a processor. Buffers allow a processor to
carry on with other tasks whilst a print job is being carried out in the background.
Von Neumann Architecture
It is the stored program concept which holds the programs and data in a memory. Data
moves between the memory unit and the processor making use of buses.
Buses

• It moves data around the computer and also send out control signals to make sure
everything is properly synchronised.
• Address bus
§ Carries signals relating to addresses between the processor and the memory
§ Unidirectional
• Data bus
§ Sends data between the processor, the memory unit and the input/ output
devices
§ Bi-directional
• Control bus
§ Carries signals relating to the control and coordination of all activities within
the computer
§ Uni-directional (Can be bi-directional too?)

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Address
An address is the location of where data can be found in a computer memory.
Register

• High-speed storage areas within the computer

• All data must be represented in a register before it can be processed.
• Memory Address Register (MAR)
• Memory Data Register (MDR)
• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
• Program Counter (PC)
• Current Instruction Register (CIR)
Memory Unit

• Consists of an Address and its Contents

Processor

• Contains ALU
• Allows arithmetic (add, subtract) and logic (AND, OR, NOT) operations
Control Unit

• Controls the operation of the memory, processor and input/ output devices
• Contains CIR and PC
§ CIR contains the current instruction during processing.
§ PC contains the address of the next instruction to be executed.
• Reads and interprets the instructions from the memory
• Generate signals along the control bus to synchronise all computer components

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Fetch – Execute cycle

• PC contains the address of the memory location of the next instruction which has to
be fetched.
• This address is copied from the PC to the MAR; this is done using the address bus.
• The contents (instruction) at the memory location (address) contained in MAR are
copied temporarily into the MDR.
• The contents (instruction) of the MDR are then copied and placed into the CIR.
• The value in PC is incremented by 1 so it points to the next instruction to be fetched.
• The instruction is finally decoded and executed by sending out signals (via the
control bus) to the various components of the computer system.
5 Input and output devices
Input devices

• Scanners • Pointing devices (mouse)

• Barcode readers • Microphones
• QR code readers • Touchscreens
• Digital cameras • Sensors
• Keyboards • Interactive whiteboards
Output devices

• Inkjet printers • Actuators

• Laser printers • Loudspeakers
• 3D printers • LCD/ LED monitors
• 2D/ 3D cutters • Projectors (LCD and DLP)
Barcode readers

• Hold up to 30 digits
• Read by a red laser or red LED
• Reflect light back off the barcode
§ Dark areas reflect little or no light.
§ White areas reflect more
• The reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells)
• A pattern is generated which is converted into digital data.
Stock Control System at POS

• Has database which contains data about products, prices and stocks
• Each product has its own unique barcode number
• Barcode number is scanned at the checkout or POS
• The product is looked up in the database using barcode number
• The stock level in the database is reduced by one each time the barcode is scanned.
• The stock level is updated.
• The stock level is compared to the re-order or minimum stock level.

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 • If below or equal, automatically order more stock items.
• The flag is raised to stop re-ordering every time the stock item barcode is read.
• When new stock items arrive, the stock levels in the database are updated.
Quick response (QR) codes

• Made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light background

• Hold over 7000 digits
• Scanned by a camera on mobile phone
• Black and white areas reflect light differently
• Different reflections give different binary values
• Software decodes the data stored in the QR code
Keyboards

• There is circuit board present at the base of keys.

• A key is pressed that presses a switch.
• This completes the circuit.
• The location of the keypress is calculated.
• An index of characters is searched to find the corresponding keypress.
• Each character has an ASCII value.
• The ASCII value has a binary value.
• Keypress generates an interrupt.
• Each character is added to a buffer to wait to be processed.
• The binary can then be processed by the CPU to action the key press.
Infra-red (optical) touchscreen

• Uses glass as the screen material

• Rays are sent across screen from edges.
• Has sensors around the edges.
• Sensors capture beams
• Rays form a grid across the screen.
• Ray is broken by a finger blocking a beam.
• Calculation is made on where beam is broken to locate the touch.
• (Need a warm object to carry out an input operation for heat-sensitive system)
Advantages & Disadvantages
ü Allow multi-touch capabilities
ü Optical system allows the use of bare fingers, gloved fingers or a stylus for input
ü Good screen durability
û Relatively expensive technology
û Heat-sensitive system only allows bare fingers to be used for input.
û Have fairly good screen visibility in strong sunlight
Capacitive touchscreen

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 • Uses layers of glass that acts as a capacitor
• When the top layer is touched, the electric current changes.
• Microprocessor works out the coordinates of where the screen was touched.
Advantages & Disadvantages
ü Medium-cost technology
ü Good visibility in strong sunlight
ü Allows multi-touch capability
ü Very durable
û Can only use bare fingers or a conductive stylus
Resistive touchscreen

• Make use of an upper layer of polyester and a bottom layer of glass

• When the top polyester is touched, the top layer and the bottom layer complete a
circuit.
• Signals are sent out which are interpreted by a microprocessor.
• Calculations determine the coordinates of where the screen was touched.
Advantages & Disadvantages
ü Relatively inexpensive technology
ü Possible to use bare fingers, gloved fingers or a stylus
û Poor screen visibility in strong sunlight
û Doesn’t permit multi-touch capability
û Screen durability is only fair.
Screens and Microprocessor

• Sensors pick up analogue signals and send them to the microprocessor.

• Those analogue signals are first converted to digital signals using an analogue to
digital converter (ADC).
• The microprocess reads those digital data.
• It compares them against stored values or pre-set defined values in the database.
• If the data is within the acceptable range, microprocessor does nothing.
• Monitoring system
§ If the data is outside the acceptable range, a warning message is sent to a
screen, or an alarm is activated.
§ The microprocessor has no effect on what is being monitored.
§ It is simply watching the process.
• Control system
§ If the data is outside the acceptable range, the microprocess sends signals to
actuators to control valves, motors, etc.
§ The output from the system affects the next set of inputs.
• The process is repeated and continuous.
Laser printers

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It relies on positive and negative charges on the print drum and paper. (Dry powder ink)
toner sticks to the paper in only certain areas and is permanently fixed using a fuser.
Inkjet printers
It relies on a liquid ink system which sprays ink onto the paper line by line as the paper
advances. The ink system uses either thermal bubble or piezoelectric technologies.
Dot matrix
It uses a matrix of pins which strike an inked ribbon (either black or up to 4 coloured) to
produce characters in a matrix on the paper.

LCD and LED monitors

• Liquid crystal display/ diode (LCD) monitors

• Back-lit using light-emitting diodes (LEDs) rather than cold cathode fluorescent lamps
(CCFLs)
• Need to be back-lit since LCD does not produce its own light
Advantages of LED over CCFL

• Reaches maximum brightness very • Thinner

quickly • Uses very little power
• More vivid colour • Produces less heat
• Brighter and more accurate colour • Long-lasting, so reliable
Advantages of OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode)

• Very thin and flexible screens

• Very light weight
• Much brighter light than LEDs
• No need for back-lighting
• Much larger field of view
• Uses less power
LCD projector over DLP projector

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 • Reaches maximum brightness faster
• Sharper images
• More vivid and vibrant colours
• Long-lasting technology so more reliable
6 Memory and data storage
Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI)

• associated with the storage of music files

• But doesn’t contain any actual sounds
• A form of communications protocol allowing musical instruments to interact
• Uses asynchronous serial transmission
• Operates on 16 different channels
• Pitch Byte tells the MIDI device which note to play
• Velocity Byte tells the device how loud to play the note.
MPEG-3 (MP3)

• Uses audio compression

• Reduce file size by 90%
• Lossy format
• Perceptual Music Shaping (removes sounds that human ear can’t distinguish clearly)
Joint Photographic Experts Group (jpeg)

• Lossy file compression

• Reduce original file size by a factor of between 5 and 15
Lossless file compression

• Uses file compression algorithm

• Reduce file size
• By replacing the repeated patterns of words or data by index
• Original data is reconstructed when the file is again uncompressed.
• Important for files where loss of any data would be disastrous – spreadsheet file
Lossy file compression

• Uses file compression algorithm

• Reduce file size
• By removing unnecessary data from the original file permanently
• Impossible to get back the original data
• Examples – MP3, jpeg
Memory and storage

• Primary memory
§ RAM

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 § ROM
• Secondary storage
§ Hard-disk drive (HDD)
§ Solid-state drive (SSD)
• Off-line storage
§ DVD/ CD and DVD-RAM
§ Blu-ray disk
§ USB memory stick/ flash memory
§ Removable hard drive
Random Access Memory (RAM)

• Volatile memory
• Store part of the operating system, data files that are currently in use
• Data can be written to and read from
• Greater capacity and faster operation speed than ROM
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
§ Uses millions of transistors and capacitors
§ Capacitors hold bits of information (0 or 1)
§ Transistors allows the chip control circuitry to read the capacitor or change
the capacitor’s value.
§ Need to be constantly refreshed every 15 microseconds
§ Otherwise, data is lost
• Static RAM (SRAM)
§ Uses flips flops to hold each bit of memory
§ No need to be refreshed
§ Faster data access than DRAM
DRAM over SRAM

• Much less expensive

• Consume less power
• Higher storage capacity
Read Only Memory (ROM)

• Non-volatile memory
• Only allow read operation but not write operation
• Store stat-up instructions and BIOS files
Hard Disk Drives (HDD)

• Non-volatile memory
• Have magnetic platters which spin and read-write heads which can access all of the
surfaces in the disk drive
• Store data on the surface in sectors and tracks

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Solid-state Drives (SSD)

• Non-volatile memory
• FLASH technology
• Store data by controlling the movement of electrons within NAND chips
• Store data as 0s and 1s in millions of tiny transistors within the chip
• Electronically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM) technology
• Use NOR chips instead of NAND chips
• Less longevity than HDD
SSD over HDD

• More reliable
• Lighter and thinner
• Less noisy
• Lower power consumption
• Faster data access time
• Run much cooler
Writing data to optical storage media

• The disc is rotated.

• (Red or Blue) Laster beam is shown on the disc.
• Pits and lands on the surface of the disc
• The laser beam makes indentation on the pits and lands
• Data is written in a spiral or concentric tracks.
• Pits and lands represent binary values.
• Called burning data to the disc
Reading data from optical storage media

• The disc is rotated.

• (Red or blue) laser light is used.
• It shines onto the surface of the disc.
• Surface is covered in spiral or concentric track
• Pits and lands on the surface
• Pits and lands represent binary values.
• They give different reflections.
• Optical device can determine different binary values.

CD DVD DVD-RAM Blu-ray

Laser Red Red Red Blue
Layer Single Dual Dual Single (Can be dual)
Track Spiral Spiral Concentric Spiral
Disk Single 1.2mm Two 0.6mm Single 1.1mm
-
construction polycarbonate polycarbonate polycarbonate

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Flash memory/ memory sticks

• Use solid-state technology

• Connect through the USB port
• Very small and lightweight
• Use NAND chips
• Have no physical moving parts
7 High- and low-level languages
Computer program
It is a list of instructions that enable a computer to perform a specific task, normally written
in high-level languages.
High-level languages over low-level languages

• Closer to human language/ English

§ Easier to understand
§ Easier to debug
§ Easier to write
§ Easier to maintain
• Have built-in functions/ libraries
§ Save time when writing the program
• Can use an IDE
• Do no need to manipulate memory address directly
§ No need for specialist knowledge
• Greater range of languages
• Portable
Low-level languages over high-level languages

• Direct access to computer processor

• Uses up less memory
• Executes instructions faster
Assembly languages

• Low-level programming language

• Uses mnemonic codes
• Specific to the computer hardware
• Often used to create drivers for hardware
• Translated into machine code by an assembler
Translators
Translators convert a program into binary instructions that computers can understand.

• Compiler

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 • Interpreter
• Assembler

Syntax errors
A syntax error is where a program statement doesn’t obey the rules of the programming
language. A problem cannot be translated if it contains syntax errors.
Logic errors
A logic error is where the program doesn’t do what the programmer wanted it to do. Logic
errors are found when a program is being run.
8 Security and ethics
Hacking

• The act of gaining unauthorized access to other computer system illegally

• Identity theft or gaining personal information
• Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted.
• Use firewalls
• Use of strong passwords and user ids
• Change passwords regularly
• Use of anti-hacking software
Cracking

• Editing of program source code so that it can be exploited or changed for a specific
purpose
• Often done for malicious purposes, e.g., modifying legitimate software to do
something like redirect a user to a fake website
• Difficult to guard against
Virus

• Malicious program code

• Replicate itself
• With the intention of using up computer storage, slowing it down, deleting and
corrupting data files

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 • Install anti-virus software
• Run up-to-date anti-virus software always
• Scan the computer regularly
• Don’t download software from the unknown sources
• Do not click on links or attachments sent from the email sent by the unknown
senders
Phishing

• Legitimate-looking fake emails are sent to users.

• When click on the links or attachments in the email, the user is redirected to the fake
website.
• Asked to give out personal or financial data (bank account and passwords)
• Identity theft
• Many ISPs filter out phishing emails.
• Do not click on links or attachments sent from the email sent by the unknown
senders
Pharming

• Malicious code is installed on the computer or on the web server.

• Redirect the user to fake website without their knowledge
• Asked to give out personal or financial data (bank account and passwords)
• Identity theft
• Some anti-spywares can identify and remove pharming code.
• User should look out for clues that they are being redirected to fake website (HttpS
or padlock sign)
Wardriving

• The act of locating and using wireless internet connections illegally

• Could lead to stealing of internet time and bandwidth; also, user’s passwords and
other data may be intercepted
• Use of WEP (wired equivalent privacy) encryption
• Use of complex passwords before accessing the internet
• Use of firewalls to prevent outside users from gaining access
Spyware/ key logging software

• Gathers information from the user

• Monitors key presses on the user’s keyboard
• Data is stored and sent back to the third party
• Pattern of data could be analysed to find out the usernames and passwords
• Use of up-to-date anti-spyware software
• Use of virtual on-screen keyboards
• Use of mouse to select drop-down menus

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Cookies

• A packet of information sent by a web server to a web browser

• Cookies are generated each time the user visits the website.
• Allow the detection of web pages viewed by a user on a particular website and store
user preferences
• Create an anonymous user profile and doesn’t contain personal information
Data Loss
Data can be lost due to:

• Accidental or malicious mal operation

• Hardware malfunction
• Software malfunction
Accidental or malicious mal operation

• Regular back-ups of data

• Save data on a regular basis
• Use of passwords and user ids to restrict access to authorised users only
Hardware malfunction

• Regular back-ups of data

• Save data on a regular basis
• Use of UPS
• Use of parallel hardware
Software malfunction

• Regular back-ups of data

• Save data on a regular basis
Firewall

• Software or hardware
• Software – part of the operating system
• Hardware – sits between the external network and the internal network
• Monitors all incoming and outgoing traffic from the network
• Criteria can be set
• Checks whether incoming or outgoing traffic meets the criteria
• If not, blocks the traffic and issues a warning
• Logs all incoming and outgoing traffic
• Blacklist/ whitelist can be set
• Can block requests from certain IP addresses and access to certain web sites
Proxy server

• Software

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 • Acts as a firewall
• Uses the feature know as cache
• Speed up access to information from a website
• Keep the user’s IP address secret
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)

• A protocol (a set of rules used by computers to communicate with each other across
a network)
• The browser request secure connection with the web server.
• It requests the web server to identify itself.
• The web server responds by sending a copy of its SSL digital certificate to the
browser.
• The browser authenticates the digital certificate.
• Encryption method is agreed between the browser and the server.
• SSL-encrypted two-way data transfer begins.
Transport Layer Security (TLS)

• Similar to SSL
• Record protocol layer (contains data being transferred over the internet)
• Handshake protocol layer (permits website and client to authenticate each other and
make use of encryption algorithms)
• Only recent web browsers support TLS
• Use session caching
Encryption

It is scrambling of data to make it meaningless, protecting the data from the hacker in case
it has been hacked. It uses encryption key to encrypt the data and decryption key to decrypt
the data.
Symmetric encryption

• Uses secret key to encrypt the plain (original) text or data into cypher (encrypted)
text or data by using encryption algorithm.
• The recipient needs a key to then decrypt the message back into the plain text.
• Both sender and recipient need the same key.
• It could be hacked or intercepted allowing a third party to decrypt the sent
encrypted message.
• This is Key Distribution Problem.
Asymmetric encryption

• Public key (available to everybody) and private key (only known by the computer
user)
• User A applies a symmetric key to encrypt the message.
• The symmetric key is encrypted using the public key known to both A and B.

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 • User A sends the message over the internet.
• User B decrypts the symmetric key by applying their own private key.
• The decoded symmetric key is now used to decrypt the message sent by user A.
• Encryption keys are generated by using a Hashing Algorithm.
Authentication
It is used to verify that data comes from a trusted source. It makes use of passwords, digital
signatures and biometrics.
Denial of Service Attacks (DOS)

• A large number of requests are sent to the webserver.

• Flood the webserver with useless traffic, taking up bandwidth.
• Web server stops performing while trying to deal with all the incoming requests.
• This prevents the users from accessing the website.
• Use of proxy server can prevent DOS attacks.
Ethics
It is a set of principles set out to regulate the use of computers.
Intellectual property rights – e.g., copying of software without the permission of the owner
Privacy issues – e.g., hacking or any illegal access to another person’s personal data
Effect of computers on society – e.g., job losses, social impacts
Plagiarism
This is when a person takes another person’s idea or work and claims it as their own.
Free software

• Can download software free of charge

• No fees associated with the software after downloading
• Can study or modify the source code
• Can distribute the source code
Freeware

• Can download software free of charge

• No fees associated with the software
• Subject to copyright laws
• Cannot study or modify the source code
• Cannot distribute the source code
Shareware

• Allowed to try out shareware free for a trial period

• After trial period, requested to pay a fee

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 • Trial version doesn’t have all the features of the full version
• All features become available once the fee is paid.
• Subject to copyright

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