Unit Three

The Ethiopian Empire and the Emergence of Autocracy (1906-35)

3.1. Internal Power Struggle and Foreign Intervention inthe Early 20th C

The Problem of Succession and the Tripartite Treaty

✔The year 1906 is regarded as animportant turning point in the political independence and internal stability of
modern Ethiopia due to the following events.

1. The illness of Emperor Menelik II

2. The death of Ras Mekonnen Wolde Mikael (he was expected to becomeMenelik’s successor or heir).

3. The signing of the Tripartite Treatyb/n Italy, Britain and France. They were signed this treaty in
December 1906 due to the following developments.

A. The uncertainty of the internal political stability of Ethiopia following the death of Menelik.

B. The opening of the German Legation in Addis Ababa in 1905made them anxious about Ethiopia’s internal
developments.

✔They partitioned Ethiopia into three spheres of influence without theknowledge of Ethiopia. i.e.

❖ British over the Nile Basin

❖ French the Djibouti-Addis Ababarailway zone

❖ Italy aimed to constructing a railwaythat link Eritrea with Italian Somaliland's.

Measures Taken by Emperor Menelik

• Wrote a letter for the colonial powers (Br. Fr. It.) and underlinedhis need to maintain the unity and

CUSO International - History Page 1

 independence of his country.

• Established a Council of Ministers inOctober 1907 to run the government and a response for foreign
pressures.

• Designated/ announced Lij Iyasu as heir to the throne and Ras BitwadadTessema Nadew (governor of
Illubabor) as a regent. Lij Iyasu was the son of ShewaregedMenelik and Ras Mikael of Wollo.

Power Struggle b/n Empress Tayitu and the Shoan Nobility

• Empress Taytu was not favored the succession arrangements of Menelik. She preferred princess Zewuditu (wife of
Taytu’s nephew Ras Gugsa Wolle Bitul) than Lij Iyasu.

• Taytu hurried to build a political powergroup and making Shum-shirs (appointment and Dismissal) policy.

• Her political strategy challenged thepolitical supremacy of the Shoan nobility and Lij Iyasu.

• Finally, the Shoan nobility, Ras Mikael(father of Lij Iyasu) and individuals who removed from power by Taytu’s
Shum-shir policy united together and removed her from government dutiesin March 1910.

• She was exiled to Entoto and stayedhere until her death in 1918. Emperor Menelik II was died inDecember
1913.

Effects of the Downfall of Taytu

❖ Taytu’s appointment and dismissal /Shum-shirs were cancelled.

❖ Powerful relatives and close allies of Empress Taytu were detained andlost their power.

The Reign and Reforms of Lij Iyasu (1913-16)

• The reign of Lij Iyasu was supposed tohave started after the death of Emperor Menelik II since 1913. The regent
Ras Bitwadad Tessema Nadaw was died in 1911.

CUSO International - History Page 2

 Reforms of Lij Iyasu

⮚ Modified the traditional methods oftithe/asrat collection.

⮚ Outlawed/banned the traditions ofLebashay (A method of criminal detection).

⮚ abolished the Quragna System- a system by which an accused and theaccuser were chained together
untiljustice was given.

⮚ Established a modern municipal police force consisting of former soldiers that served as Italian colonialtroops in
Libya and nicknamed as Trunbulle.

⮚ Formed a separate department of education that had formerly been attached to the Ethiopian Orthodox
Church.

⮚ Introduced an auditing system toprotect public property.

⮚ Followed a more liberal policytowards Ethiopian Muslims.

The Challenges of Iyasu

✔The brief reign of Lij Iyasu wascharacterized by internal and external oppositions.

A. The Internal Oppositions: mainly came from the Shoan nobility dueto the following reasons.

❖ His attempt to weakened theOrthodox Church.

❖ Iyasu’s non-Shoan lineagebackground.

❖ His negative attitude towards the oldShoan nobility.

❖ The coronation of his father Ras Mikael as Negus Mikael of Wollo andTigrai in 1914. he also added Gojjam and
Begemidir in 1915.

CUSO International - History Page 3

 ❖ He dismissed the old Shoan noble menand replaced by his young friends and relatives.

B. The External Oppositions: came fromBritain, France and Italy because of hisforeign policies. His policies
were:

✔The strong relations with Germany andOttoman Turkey. They were a major enemies of Britain, France and Italy
during WWI (1914-18).

✔Iyasu’s moral and material support to the Somalia Nationalistleader Sayyid Mohammed Abdile Hassan against the
British and Italian colonialism.

The Coup d'état against Lij Iyasu

• On 27 September 1916, Lij Iyasu wasexcommunicated by Bishop Abune Mathewos and officially deposed
while he was a visit in Harar and Jigijiga.

The Battle of Mieso: marked the defeat of Lij Iyasu by the Shoan army near Asseb Teferi, Chiro town.

• He was became fugitive and later captured in Tigrai in 1921. He was imprisoned first in Fitche and later
in Garamuleta /Hararghe until his deathin1936.

The Battle Segele: was fought b/n Negus Mikael of Wollo and the army of the central government near Sheno town in
Shoa on 27 October 1916. Negus Mikaelwas defeated, captured and died in prison in 1918.

• The bloody coup against Lij Iyasurestored the Shoan political supremacy.

• On 11 February, 1917 Zewditu wascrowned as an Empress and Ras Tafari as heir to the throne and
regent.

The Diarchy (1916-30)

❖ It was the period of dual rule in Ethiopian politicalhistory due to the existence of two centers of power namely
Progressive and Conservative/Traditionalist.

CUSO International - History Page 4

 Traditionalist/Conservatives: represented by Empress Zewditu, the old nobility, and the Council.

⮚ Defended the old order of religious, social,economic and political system.

⮚ Opposed to the growing power of Ras Tafari, modernization, extensive diplomatic relations andforeign
investment in Ethiopia

Progressive: represented by heir and regent Ras Tafari, the commercial strata, the young, educatedand enlightened
nobility.

❖ Dismissed the members of Council of Ministers in1918 through the public demonstration of the Mehal
Safari.

❖ Mehal Safari- soldiers and civil servants closelyattached to the palace.

❖ set up a new advisory council known as the CrownCouncil consisted of mainly Tafari’s favorites and allies.

❖ Criticized the feudal order, heavy taxation,corruption, the gebbar system and slavery.

❖ Called for the development of their country through the expansion of modern education, veterinary services,
health services, infrastructure.

❖ They used the newspaper called Berhnane Selam for their critics.

The steps in Ras Tafari’s rise to power

⮚ In 1923, Ethiopia became members of the Leagueof Nations and ended slavery.

⮚ in 1924, Ras Tafari made an official visit to Europeand exposed to western civilization.

⮚ In 1926, Tafari’s serious obstacles- Fitawrari Habte Giorgis and Abune Matheos removed by death.

⮚ In 1927, Tafari obtained the unconditionalsurrender of Dejazmach Balcha Safo.

CUSO International - History Page 5

 ⮚ In 1928, Tafari obtained the submission of the Commander of palace guard named DejazmachAbba
Wuqaw.

⮚ In October 1928 Ras Tafari was crowned as Neguswith a ceremony attained by foreign diplomats.

The Battle of Anchim: fought between Negus Tafariand Ras Gugsa Wolle (ex-husband of Zewditu andgovernor of
Begemidir) on 31 March, 1930.

❖ Caused by personal, political and economic issues.

❖ Ras Gugsa was died in the battle.

⮚ Empress Zewditu was died on 2 April 1930.

⮚ Negus Tafari was crowned as Emperor Haile Sellassie I King of Kings of Ethiopia on 2 November1930.

3.2 The Emergency of Autocracy in Ethiopia (1930-35)

❖ Autocracy is a type of political system in which power has concentrated in the hands ofone person/ruler who
exercised unlimited power.

Changes and Reforms introduced by HaileSelassie

1. the Constitution of 1931

✔The first written constitution of Ethiopia which served as a legal basis of the incipientautocratic state.

Factors behind the need for the constitution

❖ Emperor wanted to resolve the challenge of regional forces to the central government andthe problem of succession.

❖ He also wanted to demonstrate his intereststo modernize the country.

CUSO International - History Page 6

 The constitution:-

❖ Gave extensive power to the Emperor.

❖ Reserved the imperial throne for the family ofHalie Selassie I and his descendents.

❖ Had established two houses: the Chamber ofSenate and the Chamber of Deputies.

❖ Reduced the political power of the hereditarynobility of provinces.

❖ Consisted of the rights and duties of citizens butcivil rights remained on paper.

❖ The only beneficiary of the constitution was theruling class.

2. Administration

❖ Adopted a policy of monarchical control over the provinces aiming to eliminate the possibility of regional
challenges to the central government andestablishing complete control over their human and material resources.

❖ Except Tigray, allowed to continue to be ruledby the local Tigrean princes to win their loyalty, other provinces lost
their autonomy.

Eg. Wollo in 1916, Begemidir in 1930, Gojjam in 1932 and Jimma in 1933

3. Economy

⮚ The government introduced the centralization of the financial resources andthe collection of two major
sources of stateincome-land tax and tax on goods.

❖ Land sale practice became common and increasing the number of landless tenantsmainly in the South.

❖ Encouraged settlement on uncultivated landsthrough exemption from tax for some years.

❖ Introduced cash payment- 30 Maria Theresatalers per gasha (40 hectars of land).

CUSO International - History Page 7

 ❖ Reduced the number of traditional customsposts and established its own.

❖ Customs officials were regulated and supervised by the central administration.

4. Military Reform

❖ Embarked the creation of national army andreorganized military training.

❖ Began the training of the Imperial Bodyguardby the Belgian officers in 1930.

❖ Opened the first modern military academy forthe training of officers at Holeta Gennet in 1934.

3.3 Socio-Economic Developments (1906-35)

❖ Growth of urbanization- garrison centers in the newly conquered and incorporated regions later evolved into
ketemas/towns

❖ The establishment of Addis Ababa as apermanent capital in 1886 due to the following factors

✔The relative peace and internal stabilityfollowing Adwa victory.

✔The completion of the construction of the Djibouti-Addis Ababa railway in 1917, contributed to urban
development and the revival of external trade through Djibouti.

✔The introduction of eucalyptus tree solvedthe shortage of wood.

❖ The ruling classes began to involve in business undertakings – money lending, hotel,taxi transport, cinema, banking
etc.

❖ The import of modern communicationtechnology

Eg. Telephone Telegraph Postal services in the 19th C, Motor Car-1904, Airplane-1929,
Railway-1917, Bank of Abyssinia- 1905, Menelik II School-1908, Menelik II Hospital-1910

CUSO International - History Page 8

 ❖ Technical innovation in the country , the craftsmen, were ostracized, looked down upon and associated with evil
spirits and practices by traditional Ethiopian society.

Unit Four

African Resistance to Colonialism and Struggle against Colonial Rule

4.1. African Peoples Resistanceagainst Colonial Expansion (1870s to 1914)

✔The struggle against colonialism inAfrica can be divided into three stages.

1. Early Resistance: was a militaryresistance began early in the course of European colonial
expansion (1870s-1914). It was organized by peoples and states that already existed at the
time of colonial conquest. They were subdued by the colonizers before the outbreak ofWWI.

2. The Struggle for Independence from Colonial Rule: was the inter- war period struggle between 1918-
1939. It was ended with little success.

3. The National Liberation Movements: were the last and decisive stage emerged after theend of WWII since 1945.
They freed the continent from theyoke of Colonialism.

The Early African Resistances

1. Samori Toure of the Mandinka

✔Samori Toure of West Africa was conducted a stiff/strong resistance against the French colonial conquestfrom
1891-94.

✔He built an empire that include thepresent-day Senegal, SE Mali and Guinea by Jihad.

CUSO International - History Page 9

 ✔He had admirable military skills andleadership qualities and earned the name “the Napoleon of West Africa”.

✔The Mandinka metal workers engaged in manufacturing and repairing rifles and muskets for
Samori.

✔He fought back the French forseveral years.

✔Finally, he was captured by the Frencharmy in 1898.

✔Samori was exiled to the French colony

of Gabon until his death in 1900 at ageSeventy.

2. The Ashanti Empire

✔the Ashanti/Asante kingdom, in what isnow Ghana, was the most powerful andlargest West African state by the 19th
C.

✔The king of Ashanti was called the Ashantehene.

✔The Ashanti derived its wealth from Gold, hence, the region was known tothe Europeans as the Gold Coast.

✔In 1874, the British established the Gold Coast colony at the coast and trying to take the hinterlands but defended by
the well-organized armyof the Ashanti.

✔In 1896, the British made the first military campaign and occupied theAshanti Empire.

✔The Ashanti bravely fought against the British and paid immense sacrifices but unable to defend Ghanafrom the British
colonialism.

✔Gold Coast/present-day Ghana/ became under the British rule by the2nd military campaign in 1900.

CUSO International - History Page 10

 3. The Urabi Pasha’s Rebellion in Egypt

❖ This rebellion was organized and led byColonel Urabi Pasha against the British and French imperialism as well
as the puppet Egyptian rulers.

❖ it was caused by the cuts in the payment of the Egyptian army due tothe financial bankruptcy of the Egyptian
government.

The Battle of Tel El-Kabir: marked

the final defeat of the army of UrabiPasha by the British forces in 1881.

❖ In 1882, Britain took full control ofEgypt. This event became a cause for a bitter Anglo-French colonial
rivalries in Africa.

4. The Mahdist Movement in the Sudan

• The word “Mahdi” means the correctway of practicing Islam.

• The movement was founded by the Sudanese military leader MohammedAhmed Ibn Abdallah (the Mahdi) as a
religious revivalist and nationalist movement against Egypt in 1881.

⮚ As the colonial master of Egypt, Britaintook over the Sudanese problem.

⮚ The Mahdists had defeated, killed andbeheaded the British General Gordon (colonial governor of the
Sudan) in 1884.

The Battle of Omdurman: marked the defeat of the heroic resistance of KhalifAbdullahi (successor of Mahdi) by the
British General Kitchner in 1898.

⮚ Sudan fell under the joint control ofBritish and Egyptian known as the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium rule.

CUSO International - History Page 11

 5. The Maji Maji Rebellion

✔The German East African company bought the coast ofZanzibar in 1885.

⮚ Bushiri Ibn Salim /an Arab sugar planter/ organized the ethnic communities against the Germans inZanzibar.

⮚ But he was killed and the resistancewas crushed in 1889.

⮚ In February 1885, German declared aprotectorate over the Tanganyika mainland.

✔In 1905, the Maji Maji rebellion /uprising was outbreak due to theharsh colonial policies of Germany i.e. forced cotton
production for export and ruthless taxation.

✔The term “Maji” means water inSwahili language.

✔The revolt had a religious dimension.

❖ They believed that the German bullets could be made ineffectivewhen the warriors sprinkle their
bodies with magic water.

❖ In 1907, the Maji Maji revolt was brutally suppressed and the Germanscontinued with their harsh colonial rule.

4.2 Anti-Colonial Struggle in Africa Between the Two World Wars /1918-39/

⮚ It was the second phase of Africanpeoples resistance against colonialrule.

⮚ It had regional variations anddifferent forms.

1. Welfare Organizations

❖ The welfare/self-help associationsdemanded the restoration of the expropriated lands to the natives.

CUSO International - History Page 12

 A. the Young Kikuyu Association inKenya

✔ It was a native association organized by African workers in urban areas andwhite farmlands against British
colonialism.

⮚ It was founded by Harry Thuku – ayoung telephone workers.

⮚ Demanded the return of lands expropriated by the white settlers.

⮚ But it was crushed by the British andHarry Thuku was imprisoned in 1922.

B. The Bataka Association in Uganda

❖ Bataka was the title of the clan heads that ruled the people of Buganda in theancient times.

❖ Kabakas was the kings/rulers ofBuganda.

❖ Lukiko was the colonial assembly in which the Ugandan Chiefs/Kabakas were allowed to represent the
people.

❖ The Bataka Association was organized by the young and educatedAfricans.

❖ They opposed the representation of the Kabakas in the Lukiko and the government of protectorate of Uganda(made
up of Ankole, Buganda,Bunyoro and Toro).

2. Political Parties

❖ The emergent political parties weremobilized Africans for national independence.

A. ANC/ African National Congress

⮚ It was established in 1912 in South Africa against the white minority rule.

CUSO International - History Page 13

 ✔The ANC greatly influenced the workers from other parts of Africa to organize struggle for both democraticrights and
independence from colonial rule.

B. National Congress of West Africa

✔It was founded in Gold Coast in 1918by lawyer J.E Casely Hayford and spread to Nigeria in 1922.

✔It demanded that Africans should participate in the government tohave a saying in the local affairs.

C. The Wafd

⮚ It was emerged in Egypt in 1919 bySaad Zaghlul Pasha.

⮚ The term “Wafd” means delegation.

⮚ Zaghlul Pasha presented the demand of Egyptian independence from British in the Versailles Peace Conference
but he was deported bythe British to Malta.

⮚ The Wafd granted partial independence to Egypt in 1922.

D. The Neo Datsur Party

❖ It was founded in Tunisia in 1934 byHabib Bourguiba and demanded the independence of Tunisia from
French colonial rule.

3. Armed Struggle: The Riff Communities: were founded by Abdel-Kerim in Morocco against French and
Spanish colonial rule.

❖ He formed an independent Riff Republic in Morocco in the 1920s but destroyed by the combined
military forces of France and Spain.

CUSO International - History Page 14

 4.3. National Independence Movements

• It was the 3rd phase of African anti-colonial struggle after 1945.

• The year 1945 was a turning point inthe course of struggle for independence in Africa due to the
following reasons.

1. The exhaustion of the supremacy of the former European colonial powers byWWII.

2. The Europeans were unable to suppress the liberation movements inAfrica.

3. Expensiveness and difficulty to maintain colonial powers due to the coldwar situation.

✔The struggle against colonial rule wasdifferent in many African countries inlength of time in winning
independence and strength of liberation organizations and the quality of leadership.

Apartheid in South Africa

Apartheid: was the policy of separation/ segregation of races orthe domination of minority whites over
the black majority.

✔It denied all political rights to the blacks and gave 87% of land in SouthAfrica to the whites.

The ANP: was the Afrikaner National

Party formed in 1948.

❖ It was made up of extreme racistgroups and passed a number of laws to suppressed the black
Africans.

❖ It promoted a policy of discrimination which came to beknown as Apartheid.

The ANC: was the African National Congress formed in 1912.

CUSO International - History Page 15

 ❖ It was led by Albert Luthuli, Oliver Tambo, Nelson Mandela and WalterSisulu.

❖ The ANC struggle for the rights of black population in South Africa andcalled for “One Man, One Vote”

The Sharpeville Massacre

✔It was an event in which the policies of theracist South African government fired on a peaceful and unarmed
demonstrators at Sharpeville on 21 March 1960.

Nelson Mandela: was arrested by the racistgovernment at the Robben Island for 27 years until 1990.

✔He won the South Africa’s first multi-racialelections in April 1994.

✔He reconcile the blacks and the whites in peace, introduce “one man one vote”, left the presidencyfor the
next democratically electedpresident and left a rich legacy of democratic government in South Africa.

4.4 Pan-Africanism

• Pan-Africanism was the all African movement that seeks to unify all blacks peoples of the world whose ancestors
originally came from Africa.

• It was started in North America and the Caribbean Islands with the aim ofa “Back to Africa” movement.

▪ It was first advocated by MarcusGarvey of Jamaica.

▪ The first phase of Pan-Africanism (1900-45) was Pan-Black or Pan- Negro Movement that took shape
outside Africa.

Du Bois was considered as The Father of Pan-Africanism.

❖ The Six Pan-African Congress was held in Manchester in 1945 which attended by Du Bois, Kwame Nkrumah
(Ghana), Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya),Nnamdi Azikiwe (Nigeria), Peter Abraham (S. Africa), Haile Sellassie I
(Ethiopia) and Wallace Johnson (Sierra Leone).

CUSO International - History Page 16

 ❖ It was an historic congress because it was

✔Attended by workers, trade unionists, farmers,cooperative societies etc

✔Demanded the independence of Africa and to endcolonialism.

✔Advised to use “Positive Actions” such as strikesand boycotts.

• The independent African states held the first conference at Accra in April and December 1958.

• It was attended by Egypt, Ethiopia, Liberia, Ghana,Guinea, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia.

• They called for the independence of Africa fromcolonialism.

Division of the Pan-African Members

1. the Brazzaville Group: composed of the ex-French colonies formed in 1944.

❖ They advocated neo-colonialism (economic dependence on formercolonial powers).

2. The Casablanca Group: made up of Egypt, Ghana, Morocco, Tunisia and Guinea.

❖ They proposed the union of all African countriesknown as “ The United States of Africa”.

3. The Monrovia Group: composed of Ethiopia, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Togo, Sudan, Nigeria and
Senegal.

❖ They agreed to solve their own internal problemsbefore the formation of an inter-state political union.

❖ The Brazzaville group later joined this group.

CUSO International - History Page 17

 4.5. The Formation of OAU

• The Organization of African Unity/OAU was formedon 25 May 1963 with its headquarter in Addis Ababa.

• Its charter was signed by 32 independent Africanstates.

Aims

⮚ Promoting unity and solidarity among Africanstates

⮚ Eliminating colonialism in Africa.

⮚ Approving the existing boundaries and neutrality

• Settling disputes between member states throughpeaceful and diplomatic negotiations.

Principal Organs of OAU

1. The General Assembly: is the Supreme Organwhich made up of heads of States and
Governments. It meets once a year.

2. The Council of Ministers: made up of ForeignMinisters and meets twice a year or when
required.

3. The General Secretariat: has an administrative Secretary General and run the day-to-day activities

4. The Commission of Mediation, Conciliation andArbitration

5. Other specialized Commissions

CUSO International - History Page 18

 4.6. Problems of Independent African States

❖ Frequent border conflicts

❖ Frequent military coup d'état- b/n 1958 and 1969, 20coups were took place out of 38 African countries

❖ Prevalence of a single party regimes

❖ Economic dependence on the former colonialpowers and extreme poverty.

❖ Extremely limited social services- health, education,infrastructures etc.

❖ Spread of HIV/AIDS mainly in the Sub-Saharan

Problems of OAU

• Lack of economic, political and military power.

• Influenced by the former colonial powers.

Successes of OAU

⮚ Liberate the continent from colonialism

⮚ Solve the conflicts b/n Ethiopia and Somalia,Morocco and Nigeria, Rwanda and the GreatLakes.

⮚ Set up regional organizations to bring economiccooperation among the member states.

4.2. The First World War (1914-18)

⮚ WWI was a global military conflict between the Allies(principally France, Britain, Russia, Italy after 1915
and USA after 1917) and the Central Powers (principally Germany,Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Turkey).

✔The war was mainly fought in Europeand the Middle East.

CUSO International - History Page 19

 ✔It was known as the Great War/theWorld War before the outbreak of WWII in 1939.

Causes of WWI

1. Imperialism/colonial Rivalry: the rivalry among the imperialist powers ofGreat Britain, France and Germany
wasone of the major cause.

✔It was caused by the Industrial revolution in order to control foreign

markets and raw materials for theirgrowing industry.

2. Nationalism: it created tension between France and Germany. It wascaused by the Treaty of Frankfurt in 1871
which humiliating France because of its loss of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany.

• The Balkan Nationalism was also another sources of tension betweenAustria-Hungary and Serbia as well
as the Balkan States struggle for independence from the Ottoman Turks domination.

3. Military Alliances: the formation ofalliances (two armed camps) was another development that led to the
outbreak of WWI.

A. Triple Alliance: was a military alliances of the Central powers whichformed in 1882.

✔It was made up of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. Ottoman Turks joined in 1914 and Bulgaria in 1915.

✔Italy left the alliance and joined theTriple Entente in 1915.

B. Triple Entente: the military alliances of the Allied powers.

✔It was first formed between Franceand Britain in 1904 known as the Entente Cordiale.

✔In 1907, Russia joined the allianceand became Triple Entente. It alsoincludes USA (1917), South Africa,
Portugal and Romania.

4. Arms Race: was the mutual suspicion and fear caused by themenace of the hostile division ofEurope into two

CUSO International - History Page 20

 armed camps.

✔It was also a persistent competition among the Europeanpowers mainly between Britain and Germany in Naval
powers.

❑ The Balkan Crisis: caused by the annexation of Bosnia Herzegovinaby Austria-Hungary in 1908.

✔ This event also known as the Bosnian Crisis which brought abitter enmity between Austria-
Hungary and Serbia.

The Immediate Cause of WWI

✔ The breaking point/immediate causeof WWI was the assassination of the Austria-Hungarian Crown Prince
(Archduke) Francis Ferdinand and hiswife Sofia by Gavrilo Princip, a Serb nationalist, on 28 June 1914 at
Sarajevo (Bosnian capital).

Course of WWI

✔The assassination of Francis Ferdinand triggered the tension builtover the past years to explode and move the great
powers to war one after the other in support of one’s ally.

A. The Western Front: the most

decisive front fought between France, Britain and Belgium in the one side and Germany on the otherside.

The Schlieffen Plan: the war plan of Germany designed by Alfred Von Schlieffen in 1905 to attack France
through Belgium.

✔It was aimed to occupy Paris with in six weeks through “A Swinging Door Operation”.

The Trench Warfare: was run from English to Switzerland in which theopposing armies face each other in
entrenched positions. No Man’s Land: was the spacebetween opposing positions.

B. The Eastern Front: was fought between Russia and Germany.

CUSO International - History Page 21

 ❖ The USA was entered to WWI on theside of the Allied powers on 6 April 1917. it was caused by the German’s
Submarine attack that sank a Commercial ship of Britain which resulted the death of many Americancitizens on 7
May 1915.

⮚ WWI was came to an end with Alliedvictory on 11 November 1918 when Germany accepted an armistice.

Consequences of WWI

❖ Millions of soldiers and civilians losttheir lives, wounded and dislocated.

❖ Destroyed industrial plants, bridges,buildings and infrastructures.

❖ USA and USSR became the leadingworld powers

❖ Disintegration of the old dynastiesin Europe.

✔Hohenzollern of Germany, Romanovs of Russia, Hapsburg of Austria-Hungary, and Ottoman Turkish of Turkey

❖ Formation of Nation-States likeTurkey and Arab states

❖ Facilitated the anti-colonial strugglein Africa by developing sense of identity, nationalism and self-rule.

❖ Established the League of Nations in1920 to solve global problems and advanced world peace.

❖ Woodrow Wilson /US president/proposed self-determination of nations in his “Fourteen Point”

❖ The Versailles Peace Treaty was signedbetween the Allied powers and Germany on 28 June 1919. By this
Treaty Germany was:

✔Forced to pay large amount of warindemnity.

✔Lost the rich mineral deposit regions ofRhineland.

✔Put a strict limit on Germany’s militarypower.

CUSO International - History Page 22

 UNIT FIVE

THE ITALO - ETHIOPIAN WAR 1935 -41AND ITS AFTERMATH

The Italo - Ethiopian Relation 1906-1935

• Following its defeat at Adwa, the international and domestic crisis forced the Italian government to adopt a
policy of "friendly" relations with Ethiopia. However, the colonial ambitions did not totally die out. There
were signs of revival of the Italiancolonial interests in Ethiopia.

A. Italy's plan of building a railway connectingher colonies of Eritrea and the Italian Somaliland by the
Treaty of 1906.

B. Italy's intention to became the supreme colonial power of the Horn of Africa by taking over British and
French Somaliland's, Bank of Abyssinia and theDjibouti - Addis Ababa railway in 1915.

C. The Fascist seized power in Italy in 1922 andwin the support of the masses by promising the avenge /
revenge the defeat of Adwa and the restoration of the "glory" of the Roman Empire to Italy.

D. By the 1925 Anglo - Italian Agreement, the Italiangovernment agreed to give a diplomatic support to
Britain's plan of building a Dam on Lake Tana.

• Yet, Italy tried to hide her colonial designsby showing friendly gestures towards Ethiopia in the first three
decades of the 20th C.

* Italy gave a diplomatic support to Ethiopia's membership in the League ofNations in 1923.

* Ras Tafari's European tour included anofficial visit to Italy in 1924.

* A Treaty of Peace and Friendship was signed in August 1928 b/n Ethiopia and Italy.

To advance her real colonial plans, Italy used the following activities.

A. Made intensive military preparations whichbased at her colonies of Eritrea and Italian Somaliland.

CUSO International - History Page 23

 B. The Subversive activities used to undermined the internal unity of Ethiopia. Italy obtained the collaborations of the
hereditary regional rulers who antagonizedby the autocratic rule of Haile Selassie.

eg. * Ras Hailu of Gojjam, Dejazmach Ayalew Biru of Semen, Abba Jobir Abba Jiffar of Jimma, and Dejazmach Haile
Selassie Gugsa of Tigray.

The Walwal Incident

• Walwal is the place located inside the Ethiopia territory ofOgaden.

• The Italian troops opened fire on the Anglo - Ethiopian Boundary Commission passingthrough the
area around the water wells of Walwal on 5 December 1934.

• This led to an armed clash betweenEthiopia and Italy and marked as a pretext to Italy 's future
invasion.

• Ethiopia present the issue to the League of Nations seeking arbitrationand justice.

• The League of Nations lacked both will and the power to give a just decision because it was influenced by
the imperialist power of Britain and France.

The Italo - Ethiopian War of 1935/36

• The Fascist Italian war of aggression against Ethiopia was started on 3 October 1935 when theItalian troops crossed
the Mereb River.

• The Italians invaded Ethiopia from two directions.

A. North: from Eritrea led by Marshal Emilio DeBono, who later replaced by more ruthless
commander General Pietro Badoglio.

B. South: from Italian Somaliland led by GeneralRudolfo Grazziani.

Ethiopia 's counter offensive against Italian aggression came very late becauseof the following reasons.

CUSO International - History Page 24

 * Ethiopia trusted the League of Nationsand the international community and hoped fair justice.

* Ethiopians wanted to stretch out Italy 'sline of supplies by allowing them to proceed deep in to the interior.

The Ethiopian forces set out to confrontthe Italians on both the Northern and southern fronts.

Northern: under the overall commander of Ras Kassa Hailu, the Ethiopian army fought the Italiansin three directions.

1. Eastern Direction: the Ethiopian forces underthe War Minister, Ras Mulugeta Yigezu, fought the
Italians at the battle of Amba Aradom. He lost his life at this battle.

2. Center: the Ethiopian forces led by Ras Kassa andRas Seyoum Mengesha

3. Western Direction: Ras Imiru Haile Selassieled a force that fought the Italians at the battle of Shire.
Southern: the Ethiopian forces led by
* Dejazmach Nassibu Zeamanuel
* Dejazmach Desta Damitew
* Dejazmach Balcha Safo
* Dejazmach Mekonnen Endalkachew
The southern front had effective and unitedleadership.

The Battle of Maychew

✔Fought between the Imperial Bodyguard led by Emperor Haile Selassie and the Italians on 31 March 1936.

✔The Ethiopian troops defeated and retreated in a disorderly manner.

✔ In April 1936, the Council of Ministers under the chairmanship of the Emperor, decided to continue adiplomatic
campaign at the League of Nations.

✔On 2 May 1936, Emperor Haile Selassie, his royal family and notable officials left Addis Ababaand went to
Europe via Djibouti.

CUSO International - History Page 25

 ✔On 5 May 1936, Addis Ababa was came under the control ofthe Italian army led by MarshalBadoglio.

The reasons for Ethiopian defeat in the Italo-Ethiopian war of 1935/36 were:

• The absolute military superiority ofItaly. Eg. Air control and poison gas

• Lack of proper coordination de to traditional Ethiopian commanders.

• An arms embargo on Ethiopia dueto its encirclement by colonial powers.

• Some regional rulers collected military intelligence to Italy to crush Ethiopian resistance.

5.3. The Fascist Rule (1936-41)

• The fall of Addis Ababa to Italian control on 5 May 1936 marked thebeginning of Fascist occupation of
Ethiopia.

• Italy declared the establishment ofItalian East African Empire/ Africa Orientale Italiana/ which consisted
of Eritrea, Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia.

⮚ Badoglio: was the first Italian viceroy who governed the ItalianEast African Empire.

⮚ Grazziani: ruled between May1936 and February 1937.

⮚ Amadeo Umberto D’Aosta: wasthe last Italian viceroy and relatively liberal.

• The administration of Italian East AfricanEmpire was organized into six major divisions.

1. Eritrea and Tigray→Asmara

2. Amhara →Gondar

3. Shoa →Addis Ababa

CUSO International - History Page 26

 4. Oromo and Sidama →Jimma

5. Harar and Dire Dawa →Harar

6. Italian Somaliland and Ogaden → Mogadishu

 The Italian rule was mainlyurban centered due to theexistence of a nation-widepatriotic resistance.

The Consequences of the Fascist Rule

• Caused great human and materialdestruction to Ethiopia.

• Establishment of some factories toproduce items for colonial consumption.

• Construction of Road for the need ofeffective control of the colonies.

• Expansion of hotels and prostitution.

• Left modern buildings and garages.

• linguistic influences in words like, Asquala (School), Ospedale (Hospital), Bandira (flags), Machina
(car) and Pena (Pen).

5.4. The Patriotic Resistance Movement (1935-1941)

• There were two stages of the patriotic resistance movementagainst the Italian.

A. The First Phase of Patriotic Resistance (1935-1937)

• It was a continuity of the major warsand lasted in February 1937.

• It was characterized by vacillationand compromise.

• It was largely led by members of theupper nobility.

CUSO International - History Page 27

 • The Black Lion Organization led by Ras Imiru Haile Sellassie (designatedviceroy or Prince regent of the
Emperor) planned to liberate Addis Ababa in 1936 when he was in Gorein Illubabor. But they were defeated
near River Gojeb in Kaffa by the Italian army.

• The plan was easily crushed by theItalians because it lack proper coordination.

Abune Petros: was a unifying figures of the patriots executed bythe Fascists in July 1936 at Addis Ababa.

Dejazmach Balcha Safo: was lost his life fighting for his country’sindependence in 1937.

The February/ Grazziani Massacre: was caused by the unsuccessful/abortive attempt to killGrazziani by Moges
Asgedom and Abraha Deboch on February 19, 1937.

• A reign of terror was unleashed in Addis Ababa and 30, 000 Ethiopianswere killed with in three days.

• This massacre targeted chiefly educated Ethiopians aiming to create“the Missing Generations” in Ethiopia's
intellectual and political history between pre and post war generations.

B. The Second Phase of Resistance (1937-41)

• It was provoked by the FebruaryMassacre of 1937.

• Led by members of the lower nobilityand local notables.

• It was characterized by a guerrillawarfare and uncompromise.

• It was largely centered in the rural areas of Shoa, Gojjam and Begemidir.

• Some of the renewed patrioticleaders were:

Shoa: Haile Maraim Mamo, Abebe Aregay, Geresu Duki & Bekele Woya, Gojjam: Belay Zeleke, Gondar:
Amoraw Wubineh

• The problems which faced patriotswere:

CUSO International - History Page 28

 *Shortage of food, arms, clothes andmedicines.

*Absence of national organization tocoordinate them.

*personal conflicts among patrioticleaders.

❖ The Ethiopian peasantry and ordinary people contributed food, shelter and valuable information tothe patriots.

Yewust Arbegnoch/Inner Patriots

⮚ Were Ethiopian woman patriotswho worked with the Italians in towns.

⮚ They passed on useful information, arms, medicine and food to the Ethiopian resistance fighters secretly.

⮚ they also arranging secret killings of Italian authorities and exert influenceon Italian officials to be moderate

• The prominent examples of Ethiopianwomen patriots were:

* Shewareged Gedle of Addis Alem

* Kebedech Seyoum of Shoa
* Shewanesh Abera of Lasta
* Abebech Cherqos of Gondar
* Lekyelesh Beyene of Jirru
• Generally, the Ethiopian patrioticresistance movement:

⮚ Played a great role in the gradualweakening of the Fascist forces.

⮚ Marked a demonstration of theEthiopian’s readiness to die for liberty and independence.

⮚ Marked a glorious chapter in the history of modern Ethiopia and enhanced the liberation of Ethiopia.

5.5. The Liberation of Ethiopia

• The liberation campaign of Ethiopianpatriots was accelerated with the military intervention of the British

CUSO International - History Page 29

 government.

• Britain was involved due to thefollowing reasons:

✔The entry of Italy into WWII on theside of Germany in June 1940.

✔To defend her colonial interests inAfrica.

❖ The joint Anglo-Ethiopian liberationcampaign was launched from three directions.

A. North: General William Plat attacked the Italians in Eritrea.

B. West: General Orde Charles Wingate and Birgader General DanielSandford led a force known as the Gedeon
Force with Emperor Haile Selassie in the Sudan. They entered Gojjam in April 1941.

C. South: Lieutenant General Sir AllanCunningham through British East Africa (Kenya) and controlled Addis
Ababa on 6 April 1941.

• On 5 May, 1941, Emperor Haile Selassie I re-entered Addis Ababaand officially hoisted the
Ethiopian flag.

5.6. The Second World War (1939-45)

• WWII was a global military conflictwhich fought between two major military blocs. Namely :-

The Allied Powers: consisted mainlyBritain, France, the USA (after December 1941) and the
USSR

The Axis Powers: composed of Germany,Japan and Italy (after June 1940).

CUSO International - History Page 30

 Causes of WWII

1. The Rise of Fascism: Fascism was aphilosophy of totalitarian governments in which one party controls
total power.

✔ It was characterized by extremenationalism (chauvinism), glorification of violence, Imperialism,

dictatorship and opposed democracy.

• Fascism was first started in Italy (1922) led by Benito Mussolini, in Germany (1933) led by Adolf Hitler and
the militarist Japan in the 1930s.

2. Expansionism: was a doctrine of expanding the territorial base / economic influence of a country by
means of military aggression.

✔The Nazi /Nationalist Socialist German Worker’s Party/ made a military coup d'état with the army
known as “Brown Shirts” in November 1923.

✔Hitler was imprisoned.

✔Mein Kampf (My Struggle): was thephilosophical book of Adolf Hitler written in prison.

• He assumed the Germans (Aryans) as asuperior race over the non-Aryan people, declared the restoration of
theold Germany’s and opposed the Versailles Treaty.

• The Nazi party also occupied the RhineLand (demilitarized zone by VersaillesTreaty) in March 1936,
Anschluss of Austrian German in March 1938, Czechoslovakia in March 1939 and Poland on 1
September 1939.

• The Fascist Party in Italy aspired to create a great Italian Empire in the Horn of Africa and invaded
Ethiopiain 1935.

• Italy and Germany were also intervened in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) by supporting the Spanish
nationalist Party led by General Francisco Franco against the democratically elected republican government

CUSO International - History Page 31

 of Spain.

• The Militarist Japan was invaded Manchuria / North China in 1931 andstarted the second Sino-Japanese War
(1937-45) for total subjugation of China.

3. The Great Depression: was an international economic crisis of the whole world following WWI between1929-
1933.

• This crisis created economic troubles and political instabilities in many countries and resulted the rise of Nazi in
Germany and the militarist governmentin Japan.

4. Isolationism: the western powers werefailed to create a united front against Fascist aggressors. Rather Britain
and France followed the Policy of Appeasement where as the USA preferred a Policy of Isolation (not to ally
with any power).

• Thus, the Fascist states (Germany, Italy and Japan) were encouraged tointensify their war of conquest on a
global scale.

5. The Failure of the League of Nations: was an international organization established in 1920 to prevent future
wars and to achieve astable peace for the world.

• But it was now unable to stop theaggressive Fascist powers of Germany, Italy and Japan in the
1930s

• N.B: the League of Nations had 63 members. Of them 28 were foundingand permanent members throughout
its entire existence. And 35 members were joined and withdrew at various times.

Eg. Japan: founding member and withdrew in May 1933

Germany: joined in 1926 and withdrewin October 1933.

Italy: founding member and withdrewin 1937

CUSO International - History Page 32

 The Munich Deal

• It was an agreement signed betweenBritain, France and Germany on 30 September 1938.

• Britain and France allowed Germanyto take part of Czechoslovakia inhabited by German-speaking peoples
called the Sudetens.

The Non-Aggression Pact

• Was the Nazi-Soviet agreement signedb/n Vyachelav Molotov (Soviet ForeignMinister) and Joachim Von
Ribbentrop(Germans Foreign Minister) in Moscowon 23 August 1939.

• It was aimed at territorial and politicalrearrangements in the independence countries of Finland,

Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Romania.

The Axis Alliance

• It was known as the Rome-Berlin- Tokyo Axis formed by Italy, Germanyand Japan in the period between 1936
and 1940.

Immediate Cause

• The breaking point that led to the outbreak of WWII was the invasion of Poland by the Nazi Germany on 1
September 1939.

The Course of WWII

The Blitzkrieg /Lightning War: was aGerman war strategy to invaded Poland. Germany invaded Western
Poland on 1 September 1939 whichmarked the beginning of WWII.

✔On 3 September 1939, Britain andFrance declared war on Germany.

• Russia annexed Eastern Poland and the Baltic countries of Estonia, Latvia,Lithuania and Finland between 1939-
40.

CUSO International - History Page 33

 Operation Barbarossa: was the code name for Hitler’s invasion of Russia inJune 1941.

The operation was expected to be aquick victory for Nazis but Russia proved to be a strong enemy.

The Maginot Line: was a French defensive fortification on the Franco-German border.

It was invaded by Germany through neutral Belgium in May, 1940.

It proved ineffective against the German invasion and marked thecollapse of the Allied powers in
Dunkirk.

The Vichy Government: was founded by the Nazi in Southern Franceheaded by Marshal Petain.

The French Free Government: was formed by General Charles de Gaullein England and determined to continue a
war of liberation.

• Japan made a surprise attack on the US naval base at Pearl Harbor on thepacific Island of Hawaii on 7
December, 1941.

• This was because of the opposition ofUSA to Japanese expansion in the FarEast and the prevention of Japanese
loan request.

• The US declared war on Japan and joined WWII on the side of the Alliedpowers and began to sending
continues supplies to them.

• Japan secured the support of Italyand Germany.

• B/n 1939 and 1942, the Axis powerswere at the height of their success.But their was a strong resistance of
British against the Nazi invasion.

The Battle of Stalingrad and Kursk

⮚ At the battles of Stalingrad (1942) and Kursk (1943), the Soviet Union scored a decisive victory and turned
back the tide of the Nazi success in Europe.

CUSO International - History Page 34

 ⮚ It also marked the beginning of theAllied counter-offensive in Europe and Africa.

The Battle of El-Alamein

• In May 1943, Britain, France and USA drove out Germany and Italyfrom North Africa.

• The balance of power was evidentlyshifting in favor of the Allied powers from 1943-45.

The Liberation of France and Russia

⮚ The overthrow of Mussolini from powerby the Allied invasion in 1943 was followed by the liberation of France in
1944.

⮚ Russia was also liberated her provinces between 1943 and 1944 and continuedher advance towards Germany and
entered Berlin (Germany’s capital).

• On 30 April, 1945, Adolf Hitler wascommitted suicide while Benito Mussolini was murdered by the
Italian communists.

• Germany was unconditionally surrender and WWII came to an endin Europe.

The Defeat of Japan

❖ USA dropped an atomic bomb on theJapanese cities of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945 and Nagasaki on August 9,
1945.

❖ USSR declared war on Japan andinvaded Manchuria on August 8, 1945.

❖ USA was occupied Tokyo (Japanesecapital) on 2 September, 1945.

❖ Japan was unconditionallysurrender.

❖ The Second World War was overwith the complete victory of the Allied powers.

CUSO International - History Page 35

 The Factors for the Defeat of the Axis Powers

• The Axis powers were extended overthe vast territories and inability to defend them.

• The shift of the military balance in favor of the Allied because the Axis powers invited powerful enemies called
USSR and USA by Germany andJapan respectively.

• The coordinated military operations of the Allied powers.

Consequences of WWII

✔Caused immense loss of lives,homes, industries and communications.

✔Hastened the process of decolonization in Asia and Africa.

✔USA and USSR become superpowersof the world.

✔The bloodless diplomatic and political competitions and conflictsknown as the Cold War (1945-91) was
started b/n the USA and The USSR.

✔The UNO was emerged in place ofthe League of Nations to maintainworld peace and order.

CUSO International - History Page 36

 Unit Six

POST- SECOND WORLDWAR GLOBAL DEVELOPMENTS

6.1 The Cold War (1945-91)

• It was the international political conflicts, military tension and economic competition between the USSR (led the
Eastern Blocs) and the USA (led the Western blocs).

• It was expressed through military coalitions, arms race, conventional andstrategic force deployment,
espionage, proxy wars, propaganda and space race.

Causes

 The differences of principles between the Communists (USSR)and the Capitalists (USA).

 The hostility of USA and UK politicians to the soviet government.

 Stalin’s foreign policy aiming tostrengthen Russian influence inEurope.

• Stalin established the Russian Communist Satellite states between1945 and 1948: Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary,
Rumania, Czechoslovakia, Poland and East Germany.

• Yugoslavia under Tito was exceptional

• The communist governments were alsoestablished in the Middle East, Latin America, Africa and SE Asia
countries.

CUSO International - History Page 37

 The Western Reaction

A. The Truman Doctrine /Containment/

 Was the policy of US president Harry S.Truman aimed to contain the expansion of communism
throughout the world.

 It was started in 1947 as a counter communist attack in Greece, Turkey,Korea and Vietnam.

• The Western blocs formed a military alliance known as the North AtlanticTreaty Organization/NATO in 1949
where as the Eastern blocs military alliance called the Warsaw Pact formed in 1955.

• Other western sponsored military alignments were SEATO and METO.

B. The Marshal Plan

 It was a policy announced by George Marshal (US Secretary of State) on 5 June 1947 for the
recovery/rebuildingof the European economy.

COMECON: was a Council for Mutual Economic Assistance established in January 1949 by Russia to
assist andcoordinate the economic developments of its members.

C. The Point Four program

 It was another economic defense ofthe USA for non-European countriesof SE Asia and Africa.

The Arab-Israeli Wars

• The root causes for the Arab-Israeliconflicts were:

 The Arab Vs Jewish nationalism overthe historic land of Jerusalem.

CUSO International - History Page 38

  The strategic position of the MiddleEast region.

Zionism: was an international political movement for the establishment of a nationalhomeland for the Jewish in
Palestine.

 It was led by Theodor Herzl.

 The first Zionist congress was held in1897 in Switzerland.

The Balfour Declaration: was issuedby Britain in 1917.

• Britain supported the establishment of a Jewish national homeland in Palestinebut it was protested by the Arabs.

The UN General Assembly Decision of 1947

 Palestine was divided into two independent states i.e. Arab & Jewish

 Jerusalem was recognized as aninternational city.

• On 14 May 1948, the state of Israel was created as a national home land ofthe Jewish.

• David Ben-Gurion was its first PrimeMinister.

The First Arab-Israeli War (1948-49)

• Caused by the creation of the State of Israel.

• The Jewish state of Israel fought against the Arab states of Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Trans-Jordan.

 Israel controlled half of Jerusalem and the NW Coast of theMediterranean Sea.

CUSO International - History Page 39

 The Second Arab-Israeli War

 It was also known as the Suez CanalCrisis of 1956.

 Caused by the nationalization of the Suez canal by Gamal Abdel Nasser ofEgypt.

• Fought between Egypt and Israel (supported by Britain and France).

• By the diplomatic intervention of theUN, USSR and USA, the war was came to an end and saved Egypt from
total defeat.

The Third Arab-Israeli War

 It was also known as “the Six Day War” fought from 5-10 June 1967.

 It fought between Israel (supported by USA, UK, Federal Republic of Germany) and the Arab States ofSyria,
Egypt, Iraq and Jordan (supported by USSR).

 Israel occupied

* the Golan Heights of Syria

* the West Bank of Jordan

* the Sinai and Gaza Strip ofEgypt

 The PLO (Palestinian Liberation Organization): was founded in 1964 to create the Arab State of Palestine.

 It was led by Yassir Arafat and begana guerrilla warfare/ Fedayeen against Israel.

The Fourth Arab-Israeli War

 It was also known as “The Yom Kippur War” fought on 6 October1973.

CUSO International - History Page 40

 • The Arab States fought to restore the territories occupied by Israel inthe Six Day War.

• The Arab forces were defeated byIsrael.

• The PLO, Popular Front for theLiberation of Palestine and the “Black September”
intensified their struggle against Israel through the Fedayyen / guerrilla fighter.

The Camp David Agreement

 Signed between Jimmy Carter (USA),Anwar al-Sadat (Egypt) and Menachem Begin (Israel) in September
1978 in Washington DC.

 Egypt under al-Sadat gave recognition to the State of Israel tosolve the Arab-Israel conflicts peacefully.
However, he was assassinated by the Arab extremists.

The Non-Aligned Movement

• It was a policy of Neutralism intendedto avoid political or ideological affiliations/ links with either
blocs of the Cold War (the Capitalist or the Socialists).

• Endorsed by the African and Asian countries such as Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Sukarno of Indonesia, Gamal
Abdel Nasser of Egypt and Joseph Broz

• The first conference of Non- Alignment was held at Bandung in Indonesia in1955.

Aims of the Non-Alignment

 To protect their own sovereignty.

 to get the much needed economic andtechnical assistance from both blocs.

CUSO International - History Page 41

  to relax the East-West tension before itwas develop in to a total and catastrophic war.

Setbacks/problems of Non- Alignment

 Differences in political ideologiesamong member states.

 Economic backwardness of themember states.

 in the late 1980, Neutralism/Non-Alignment was lost much of its influence.

CUSO International - History Page 42

 UNIT EIGHT

ETHIOPIA FROM 1941-91

8.1. CONSOLIDATION OF AUTOCRACY

8.1.1. Foreign Relations

A. Relations With Britain

❖ After the liberation of Ethiopia, the British government controlled the Ethiopian key sectors like the police
force, finance, the army and set upthe military government known as the Occupied Enemy Territory
Administrative/OETA over Ogaden and Eritrea.

The First Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement

❖ It was signed in 1942.

❖ The British controlled all key posts, made Ethiopia dependent and Emperor Haile Sellassie had no anyreal
powers.

The Second Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement

❖ It was signed in 1944.

❖ The sovereignty of Ethiopia was restored and HaileSellassie re-gained freedom to appoint foreigners of any
nationality as an advisor or officers.

B. Relations with America

✔By the Treaty of 1953, Ethiopia allowed the US touse the Qagnew forces stationed in Asmara.

✔The US agreed to give military assistance, improving and extending the communication sectors and supported
the Ethiopian educationalsystem.

CUSO International - History Page 43

 8.1.2. Socio-Economic and Political Developments

⮚ Emperor Haile Sellassie introduced reforms toconsolidated his autocratic rule.

❑ The establishment of the Council of Ministers in 1943 composed of men of service than birth and
absolutely obedient to the Emperor.

❑ The establishment of the Crown Council (advisorybody) made up of the hereditary nobility.

❑ expansion of modern education to produce educated manpower for modern bureaucracy. Eg.University
College of Addis Ababa.

❑ The promulgation of a revisedconstitution of 1955 due to:

▪ Changing political realities and international situations of the post warperiod.

▪ Federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia since1952.

❑ Reestablishing the Imperial Bodyguardwith Swedish assistance in 1942.

❑ Building the army and establishing thepolice force on the British model.

❑ Agriculture became the dominant economic activity used for subsistenceand export.

❑ The process of land privatization wasincreased which forced the southern peasants became landless.

❑ The peasants had no security of tenure which later led to the outbreak of peasant rebellions in different regions
ofEthiopia.

8.2. Crisis of Autocracy and Oppositions to the Imperial Rule

A. Internal Plots and the 1960 Coup D'état

❖ It was an open revolt led by Brigadier General Mengistu Neway/Commander of theimperial bodyguard and

CUSO International - History Page 44

 his brother Germame Neway/ USA educated and administrator of Wolayta and Jijiga/.

❖ On 14 December 1960, they proclaimed theestablishment of a new government, the Constitutional Monarch.

❖The Crown Prince Asfa Wossen was made head ofstate.

❖Ras Imiru Haile Sellassie was to the Prime Minister.

❖The coup failed because it lacks proper coordination and inability to involve the army.

❖General Tsige Debu, Chief of the Police Force andally of the coup leaders, killed in battle.

❖Germame Neway was killed.

❖Mengistu was sentenced to death and hanged inAddis Ababa in March 1961.

❖ this coup proved to the Ethiopian people that theauthority of the Emperor could be challenged.

B. The Ethiopian Student Movement

⮚ Began following the expansion of secondaryand higher level education in the post – liberation period, mainly
in the 1950s.

⮚ Opposed the exploitive and oppressivesystem of the state

⮚ Began to struggle for the freedom of the masses and the development of their nation.

⮚ Demanded improvement in educationfacilities and services.

⮚ Demanded freedom of the press, the right to form their union freely and they produced their own newspaper
first “Newsand Views” in 1959 and then replaced by “Struggle” in 1967.

The Factors that have strengthened studentconsciousness and radicalism were:

CUSO International - History Page 45

 ✔The role of foreign educated Ethiopians.

✔The attempted coup of 1960.

✔The introduction of Marxist-Leninist ideas

⮚ They formed the University Students Unionof Addis Ababa/USUAA and the movement became highly radical.

⮚ Their famous slogan was “Land to theTiller”.

⮚ They called for civil rights and liberties, andprotested against the economic, religious and ethnic inequalities.

⮚ they exposed the weakness of the feudo-bourgeois regime and the irresponsible nature of the state to the
international community.

⮚ The government reacted by detaining, flogging and killing the students.

C. The Peasant Rebellions

✔The ever growing peasant discontent andtheir miserable life were attributed to:

▪ Increasing land tax, process of privatizationand land sale.

▪ The expansion of commercial farms whichresulted in eviction of peasants.

The Gojjam Peasant Rebellion

❖ Broke out in 1968 in the districts of Mota andDega Damot.

❖ Its immediate cause was the introduction of a new agriculturalincome tax.

The Reaction of the Peasants were:

CUSO International - History Page 46

 ✔Refusal to permit government taxassessors to work in the region.

✔Presented their petition to the state.

✔Elected leaders and agreed to expelstate officials.

✔Agreed to stop taking their produce to markets.

The Reaction of the government were:

✔Attacking the rebellious districts by a combined force of local militia and thepolice.

✔Removed unpopular governmentofficials.

✔Postponed the new tax.

✔Exempted peasants from back-paymentof taxes for the years 1950 to 1968.

The Bale Peasant Rebellion

⮚ Caused by land alienation, religious andethnic domination, inhumane and corrupt administration.

⮚ Began in the frontier district of Elkere in1963 and spread to Wabe, Dello and Genale in 1964.

⮚ The Republic of Somalia government gave valuable material and moral support the rebellious peasants of
Bale.

The Measures of the Peasants were:

✔Refused to pay government taxes and tosell grains at markets.

✔Fought wars against the combined forces of the police and the territorialarmy.

CUSO International - History Page 47

 ✔It was led by Waqo Gutu.

✔Finally, the rebellion was crashed by an army sent from the central government.

The Measures of the government were:

✔Introduced Martial law and set up a militaryadministration over Bale.

✔Suspects were detained, right of the movement of people was restricted andrebel peasants were
disarmed.

✔Appointed an Oromo General Jagema Kello as governor of Bale.

✔Most of the rebel leaders were set free andgiven positions in different offices.

✔The government taxes for up to 1970 were cancelled.

D. The Outbreak of Famines.

⮚ Caused by various natural and human factors such as: drought, overpopulation,deforestation, soil erosion, scarcity
of resources, backward system of production, exploitive feudal system of production,

⮚ b/n 1958 and 1974, all regions of Ethiopia were affected by famines ofvarying degrees. The most
horrible famine affected areas were:

✔Tigrai in 1958/59

✔Wag-Lasta in 1965/66

✔Wollo in 1972/73

⮚ They were characterized by great humanlosses and population dislocations.

CUSO International - History Page 48

 ⮚ The government tried to hide the famines but exposed to the international communityby Ethiopian students and a
documentary film produced by the British Journalist, Jonathan Dimbilby.

E. The Eritrean Problem

⮚ Following its liberation from Italy, severalpolitical groups were emerged in Eritrea.

The Unionist Party: supported the union ofEritrea with Ethiopia.

The Muslim League: demanded theindependence of Eritrea.

The Liberal Progressive Party: demanded forthe independence of Eritrea united with Tigrai.

A Pro-Italian Group: consisting of Italian settlers and ex-askaris supported separateindependence for Eritrea.

❖ In 1948, the UN General Assembly appointed Five commissions to investigatethe wishes of the Eritrean
people such as Burma, Guatemala, Norway, Pakistan andSouth Africa.

❖ Investigation results

✔Independence= Guatemala and Pakistan

✔Union= Norway

✔Federation= South Africa and Burma

❖ On 2 December 1950, the UNO decided thatthe federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia.

❖ In 1952, Eritrea was federated with Ethiopiaunder the Ethiopian crown.

⮚ The Federal Government of Eritrea was authorized to control Eritrean foreign affairs, defense, finance,
commerce andports.

⮚ The local assembly made up of unionistsand separatist were responsible for the internal affairs of Eritrea.

CUSO International - History Page 49

 ⮚ But the Ethiopian government was intolerable for the democratic developments in Eritrea and started to
interfere the internal affairs of Eritrea.

⮚ On 14 December 1962, the Assembly dissolved itself and Eritrea was mergedwith Ethiopia. i.e. it became
just one among the other provinces of the imperial government.

⮚ It was followed by a public opposition inEritrea against Emperor Haile Sellassie’s regime.

⮚ Different political groups fought a devastating war against the Ethiopianstate from 1961-91.

The ELF (Eritrean Liberation Front): was the armed struggle of the Muslimdominated Eritrean people.

✔It was also known as Jabaha/Front

✔It obtained moral and material supportfrom the Muslim world.

The EPLF (Eritrean People’s LiberationFront): popularly known as Sha’bya/Popular.

8.3. The Popular Revolution of 1974

• In February 1974, the Ethiopian massesfrom different sections of the society made a series of strikes,
protests, and demonstrations against the Imperial regime.

• They demanded radical changes.

1. The Army: in January 1974 the army stationed at Negele Borena mutinied inprotest due to poor living
conditions ofthe soldier.

⮚ They detained higher ranking military officials, demanded salary increment andimprovement the living conditions.

2. Ethiopian Workers: protested against long working hours, little payment, poorworking conditions and corrupt
management.

⮚ They started their struggle in the form of strikes among the workers of the Railway,the Wonji Sugar

CUSO International - History Page 50

 Factory, and the Akaki Textile Factory.

⮚ In 1962, a self-help organization known asthe Confederation of Ethiopian Labor Unions /CELU was set
up.

⮚ It demanded salary increases, pensions, annual leave, insurance, medical care, andreduction of working
hours.

⮚ It improved the political maturity of the workers and strengthened their solidarity.

3. Ethiopian Teachers: rose against the exploitive system of the state and the newly introduced educational reform
program called Education Sector Reviewof 1971-72.

❖ It was intended to better the situation inthe country’s educational system i.e. the regional urban-rural and male
female in balance in education.

❖ Opposed by the teacher due to its tendency to perpetuate the existing class distinction in the country.

4. The Taxi Drivers: demanded an increase in transport fees in accordance with the50% rise of petrol prices that
followed the 1973 Middle East Energy crisis.

⮚ They got the support of the students.

5. Ethiopian Muslims: demanded religiousequality, separation of church and state and official observance of
Muslim holidays.

The Derg / Committee

❖ Was formed on 28 June 1974 by therepresentatives of various units suchas the Coordinating Committees of the
Armed Forces, the Police and theTerritorial Army.

❖ Its members were consisted of soldiers of the lowest rank, non- commissioned officers
(NCO’s), and low ranking officers.

CUSO International - History Page 51

 Reforms of the Imperial regime to pacify themass revolts were:

❖ Stopped the implementation of the neweducational reform program.

❖ Reduced petrol prices.

❖ Increased the salaries of soldiers.

❖ Prime Minister Aklilu Habtewold was replaced by Endalkachew Mekonnen on 28February 1974.

❖ However, the new cabinet unable to stopthe national crisis and mass oppositions grew to a more and more
militant stage.

Measures taken by the Derg

❖ High ranking officials and Prime MinisterEndalkachew were detained.

❖ Lij Mikael Imiru became Prime Minister.

❖ Deposed and detained Emperor Haile Sellassie on 12 September 1974. This eventmarked the end of 44
years of Haile Sellassie rule and the Solomonic Dynasty.

❖ Proclaimed the establishment of the Provincial Military Administrative Council(PMAC) and assumed
supreme political power which marked the beginning of dictatorial military rule in Ethiopia.

8.4. The Military Rule (1974-91)

❖ The Derg took over the state power underthe chairmanship of Lieutenant General Aman Mikael Andom-
later killed in November 1974.

❖ Ruthlessly suppressed oppositions to the military government and executed leading officials of the imperial
regime without trial.

❖ Teachers, students, workers and other civil servants as well as sections of the army werefirmly opposed to the

CUSO International - History Page 52

 military junta.

⮚ Popular strikes and demonstrations demanded the formation of a Provisional

People's Government in place of PMAC.

⮚ However, the response of the Derg wasrepression throughout its stay in power.

⮚ Physical elimination of opposing forces and ruthless measures of the Derg multiplied its enemies both at home
andabroad.

Measures of the Derg

❖ The Development Through CooperationCampaign: launched in December 1974.

✔Aimed at implementing a literacy program and a subsequent proclamationof Rural Land Reform.

✔Involved high school and universitystudents and teachers.

✔Helped reduce illiteracy and increased the political awareness of rural masses.

❖ The Nationalization of industries, banks andinsurance companies in 1975.

❖ The Nationalization of Rural land and itsredistribution to the landless peasants inMarch 1975.

✔It was a radical land reform proclamationthat abolished all forms of private land ownership, tenancy and
landlordism.

✔Peasant associations were formed to implement rural land distribution andadministration and
eliminating rural opposition to the state.

❖ Agricultural Marketing Corporation (ErshaSebil Gebeya Dirijit) was established.

✔Peasants were forced to sell their productsto the corporation with prices fixed by the corporation.

CUSO International - History Page 53

 ❖ The Nationalization of Urban Land andExtra Houses 26 July 1975.

✔The Urban Dweller’s Associations ,the qebeles, were established by the Derg to control and eliminate
opposition forces inthe towns.

The Red Terror

❖ It was the bloody campaign of physical elimination of the opposition forces by theDerg.

❖ The military regime carried out systematicand ruthless elimination against the suspected members and
supporters of:

✔Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party/EPRP

✔Tigray People’s Liberation Front /TPLF

✔Oromo Liberation Front /OLF

❖ In 1984, the celebration of the tenth anniversary of the outbreak of the revolution, the Workers Party of Ethiopia

(WPE) came into being.

❖ These organizations were served as bridges between the party, the state andthe people.

❖ In 1987, the Socialist Constitution was adopted and the official name of the country became the People's
DemocraticRepublic of Ethiopia (PDRE) - ኢሕድሪ

❖ Mengistu Haile Mariam assumed all keyposts such as:

✔Head of the WPE

✔The commander-in-Chief of the ArmedForces.

✔The president of the PDRE.

CUSO International - History Page 54

 Decline and Fall of the Military Regime

⮚ Internal and external factors were hastenedthe decline and fall of the military regime.

Internal Factors

⮚ The famine of 1984/85 was followed by a program of forced resettlement and villagization without the good will
of the people. It brought that the military regime lost popular support and its inability to solve such serious
problems of drought and famine.

⮚ The attempt coup of May 1989 againstMengistu resulted in adverse effects on the morale and fighting spirit
of themilitary.

⮚ The coordinated military challenges of the Eritrean people’s Liberation Front – EPLF and the Tigray
People’s Liberation Front- TPLF popularly known as Wayane.

✔In 1989, the TPLF gained a decisivevictory at the battle of Shire.

✔In 1990, the EPLF took control over theport of Massawa.

✔Later, the EPRDF/ Ethiopian People’sRevolutionary Democratic Front/ wasformed.

✔It was made up of TPLF-Tigray People’sLiberation Front, EPDM- Ethiopian People’s Democratic Movement,
OPDO- Oromo People’s Democratic organization and EDORM- the Ethiopian Democratic Officers’
Revolutionary Movement.

External/International Factors

⮚ The introduction of a new policy by the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985.

1. The Perestroika- the restructuring of theeconomy.

2. Glasnost- openness that stimulates moreopen discussion and criticism in political life.

CUSO International - History Page 55

 ❖ These policies brought about the declineof communism and Mengistu Haile Mariam lost the support
of the Soviet Union.

⮚ The above mentioned internationalsituation and internal political and military crisis of the Derg
finally led to itsdecline.

⮚ The EPLF controlled the Eritrean capitalAsmara in 1991.

⮚ The EPRDF controlled Addis Ababa on 28May 1991.

⮚ Mengistu Haile Mariam had made hisflight to Harare, Zimbabwe.

CUSO International - History Page 56