SECTION 4.

3 More on the Cross Product 213

a
39. (a) Show that n = S T is orthogonal to every 43. Let v ≠ 0 be a nonzero vector and let a ≠ 0 be a
b scalar. If u is any vector, show that the projection
vector along the line ax + by + c = 0.
of u on v equals the projection of u on av.
✸(b) Show that the shortest distance from
|ax0 + by0 + c| 44. (a) Show that the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality
P0(x0, y0) to the line is _____________
_______ . |u · v| ≤ u v holds for all vectors u and
√a2 + b2 v. [Hint: |cos θ| ≤ 1 for all angles θ.]
[Hint: If P1 is on the line, project u = P1P0
on n.] (b) Show that |u · v| = u v if and only if
u and v are parallel.
40. Assume u and v are nonzero vectors that are [Hint: When is cos θ = ±1?]
not parallel. Show that w = u v + v u is a
(c) Show that
nonzero vector that bisects the angle between u
and v. |x1x2 + y1 y2 + z1z2|
___________ ___________
≤ √x 21 + y 21 + z 21 √x 22 + y 22 + z 22
41. Let α, β, and γ be the angles a vector holds for all numbers x1, x2, y1, y2, z1, and z2.
v ≠ 0 makes with the positive x, y, and z axes,
respectively. Then cos α, cos β, and cos γ are ✸(d) Show that |xy + yz + zx| ≤ x2 + y2 + z2 for
called the direction cosines of the vector v. all x, y, and z.
a (e) Show that (x + y + z)2 ≤ 3(x2 + y2 + z2)
a ,
(a) If v = S b T , show that cos α = ____
v holds for all x, y, and z.
c
cos β = ____ b , and cos γ = ____
c . 45. Prove that the triangle inequality
v v u · v ≤ u + v holds for all vectors u
✸(b) Show that cos α + cos β + cos γ = 1.
2 2 2
and v. [Hint: Consider the triangle with u and v
as two sides.]
42. Let v ≠ 0 be any nonzero vector and suppose
that a vector u can be written as u = p + q,
where p is parallel to v and q is orthogonal to v.
Show that p must equal the projection of u on v.
[Hint: Argue as in the proof of Theorem 4.]

SECTION 4.3 More on the Cross Product

x1 x2
3
The cross product v × w of two -vectors v = y1 and w = y2 was defined in
z1 z2
Section 4.2 where we observed that it can be best remembered using a determinant:
i x1 x2
y1 y2 x1 x2 x1 x2
| | |
v × w = det j y1 y2 = z z i - z z j + y y k
1 2 1 2 1 2
| | | (∗)
k z1 z2

1 0 1
Here i = 0 , j = 1 , and k = 0 are the coordinate vectors, and the determinant
0 0 0
is expanded along the first column. We observed (but did not prove) in Theorem 5
Section 4.2 that v × w is orthogonal to both v and w. This follows easily from the
next result.
214 Chapter 4 Vector Geometry

Theorem 1

x0 x1 x2 x0 x1 x2
If u = y0 , v = y1 , and w = y2 , then u · (v × w) = det y y y .
0 1 2
z0 z1 z2 z0 z1 z 2

PRO OF
Recall that u · (v × w) is computed by multiplying corresponding components of
u and v × w and then adding. Using (∗), the result is:
x0 x1 x2
y1 y2 x1 x2 x1 x2
|
1 2
| 1 2
| 1 2
| | |
u · (v × w) = x0 a z z b + y0 a- z z b + z0a y y b = det y0 y1 y2
z0 z1 z2
where the last determinant is expanded along column 1.

The result in Theorem 1 can be succinctly stated as follows: If u, v, and w are three
vectors in 3, then
u · (v × w) = det[u v w]
where [u v w] denotes the matrix with u, v, and w as its columns. Now it is clear
that v × w is orthogonal to both v and w because the determinant of a matrix is
zero if two columns are identical.
Because of (∗) and Theorem 1, several of the following properties of the cross
product follow from properties of determinants (they can also be verified directly).

Theorem 2
3
Let u, v, and w denote arbitrary vectors in .
1. u × v is a vector.
2. u × v is orthogonal to both u and v.
3. u × 0 = 0 = 0 × u.
4. u × u = 0.
5. u × v = -(v × u).
6. (ku) × v = k(u × v) = u × (kv) for any scalar k.
7. u × (v + w) = (u × v) + (u × w).
8. (v + w) × u = (v × u) + (w × u).

PRO OF
(1) is clear; (2) follows from Theorem 1; and (3) and (4) follow because the
determinant of a matrix is zero if one column is zero or if two columns are
identical. If two columns are interchanged, the determinant changes sign, and
this proves (5). The proofs of (6), (7), and (8) are left as Exercise 15.
 SECTION 4.3 More on the Cross Product 215

We now come to a fundamental relationship between the dot and cross products.

Theorem 3

Lagrange Identity11
3
If u and v are any two vectors in , then
2 2 2
u×v = u v - (u · v)2

11

PRO OF
x1 x2
Given u and v, introduce a coordinate system and write u = y1 and v = y2 in
z1 z2
Joseph Louis Lagrange.
Photo © Corbis.
component form. Then all the terms in the identity can be computed in terms of
the components. The detailed proof is left as Exercise 14.

An expression for the magnitude of the vector u × v can be easily obtained

from the Lagrange identity. If θ is the angle between u and v, substituting
u · v = u v cos θ into the Lagrange identity gives
u×v 2
= u 2
v 2
- u 2
v 2
cos2 θ = u 2
v 2
sin2 θ
using the fact that 1 - cos2 θ = sin2 θ. But sin θ is nonnegative on the range
0 ≤ θ ≤ π, so taking the positive square root of both sides gives
u×v = u v sin θ
This expression for u × v makes no reference to a coordinate system and,
u u sin θ moreover, it has a nice geometrical interpretation. The parallelogram determined
θ by the vectors u and v has base length v and altitude u sin θ (see Figure 1).
v Hence the area of the parallelogram formed by u and v is
FIGURE 1 ( u sin θ) v = u × v
This proves the first part of Theorem 4.

Theorem 4

If u and v are two nonzero vectors and θ is the angle between u and v, then
1. u×v = u v sin θ = area of the parallelogram determined by u and v.
2. u and v are parallel if and only if u × v = 0.

11 Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736–1813) was born in Italy and spent his early years in Turin. At the age of 19 he solved a famous
problem by inventing an entirely new method, known today as the calculus of variations, and went on to become one of the greatest
mathematicians of all time. His work brought a new level of rigour to analysis and his Mécanique Analytique is a masterpiece in
which he introduced methods still in use. In 1766 he was appointed to the Berlin Academy by Frederik the Great who asserted
that the “greatest mathematician in Europe” should be at the court of the “greatest king in Europe.” After the death of Frederick,
Lagrange went to Paris at the invitation of Louis XVI. He remained there throughout the revolution and was made a count
by Napoleon.
216 Chapter 4 Vector Geometry

PRO OF OF ( 2 )
By (1), u × v = 0 if and only if the area of the parallelogram is zero. By Figure 1
the area vanishes if and only if u and v have the same or opposite direction—that
is, if and only if they are parallel.

EX AMP L E 1
Find the area of the triangle with vertices P(2, 1, 0), Q(3, -1, 1), and R(1, 0, 1).
1 2
Solution We have RP = 1 and RQ = -1 . The area of the triangle is half
-1 0
P the area of the parallelogram (see the diagram), and so equals _12 RP × RQ . We
have
Q i 1 2-1
RP × RQ = det j 1 −1 = -2 ,
-3
R k −1 0
_________ ___
so the area of the triangle is _12 RP × RQ = _12 √1 + 4 + 9 = _12 √14 .

u×v If three vectors u, v, and w are given, they determine a “squashed” rectangular
solid called a parallelepiped (Figure 2), and it is often useful to be able to find the
w
h volume of such a solid. The base of the solid is the parallelogram determined by
v
u and v, so it has area A = u × v by Theorem 4. The height of the solid is the
u length h of the projection of w on u × v. Hence
FIGURE 2
|
w · (u × v)
h = __________
u×v 2 | |w · (u × v)| |w · (u × v)|
u × v = ___________ = ___________
u×v A
Thus the volume of the parallelepiped is hA = |w · (u × v)|. This proves

Theorem 5

The volume of the parallelepiped determined by three vectors w, u, and v (Figure 2) is

given by |w · (u × v)|.

EX AMP L E 2
Find the volume of the parallelepiped determined by the vectors
1 1 -2
w = 2 , u = 1 , and v = 0 .
-1 0 1
1 1 −2
Solution By Theorem 1, w · (u × v) = det 2 1 0 = -3.
−1 0 1
Hence the volume is |w · (u × v)| = |-3| = 3 by Theorem 5.
 SECTION 4.3 More on the Cross Product 217

O We can now give an intrinsic description of the cross product u × v. Its

x y magnitude u × v = u v sin θ is coordinate-free. If u × v ≠ 0, its direction
is very nearly determined by the fact that it is orthogonal to both u and v and so
z points along the line normal to the plane determined by u and v. It remains only
to decide which of the two possible directions is correct.
Left-hand system Before this can be done, the basic issue of how coordinates are assigned must be
z clarified. When coordinate axes are chosen in space, the procedure is as follows: An
origin is selected, two perpendicular lines (the x and y axes) are chosen through the
origin, and a positive direction on each of these axes is selected quite arbitrarily.
Then the line through the origin normal to this x-y plane is called the z axis,
x O y but there is a choice of which direction on this axis is the positive one. The two
possibilities are shown in Figure 3, and it is a standard convention that cartesian
Right-hand system coordinates are always right-hand coordinate systems. The reason for this
terminology is that, in such a system, if the z axis is grasped in the right hand with
FIGURE 3
the thumb pointing in the positive z direction, then the fingers curl around from
the positive x axis to the positive y axis (through a right angle).
Suppose now that u and v are given and that θ is the angle between them
(so 0 ≤ θ ≤ π). Then the direction of u × v is given by the right-hand rule.

Right-hand Rule

If the vector u × v is grasped in the right hand and the fingers curl around from u to v
through the angle θ, the thumb points in the direction for u × v.

z To indicate why this is true, introduce coordinates in 3 as follows: Let u and v

have a common tail O, choose the origin at O, choose the x axis so that u points in
the positive x direction, and then choose the y axis so that v is in the x-y plane and
O the positive y axis is on the same side of the x axis as v. Then, in this system, u and
a c a b
θ
x
b u v y
S T S T
v have component form u = 0 and v = c where a > 0 and c > 0. The situation
0 0
FIGURE 4 is depicted in Figure 4. The right-hand rule asserts that u × v should point in the
positive z direction. But our definition of u × v gives
i a b 0
S T
u × v = det j 0 c = 0 = (ac)k
ac
k 0 0
and (ac)k has the positive z direction because ac > 0.

EXERCISES 4.3

1. If i, j, and k are the coordinate vectors, verify 3. Find two unit vectors orthogonal to both u and
that i × j = k, j × k = i, and k × i = j. v if:
1 2 1 3
2. Show that u × (v × w) need not equal (a) u = 2 , v = -1 ✸(b) u = 2 , v = 1
(u × v) × w by calculating both when 2 2 -1 2
1 1 0
u = 1 , v = 1 , and w = 0 .
1 0 1