- A collection of molecules that are

randomly arranged and held

together by weak cohesive forces
and by forces exerted by the walls
of a container.

- Any form of matter that flows,

such as a liquid or a gas, is called a
“fluid”.
 - The study of fluids at rest.

Because fluids are not rigid, often lack definite size

and shape, it is convenient to use the quantities
pressure and density rather than force and mass
when studying fluids.
- density is more useful than mass to describe
the internal property of fluids.

a. MASS DENSITY or DENSITY (ρ)

- defined as the ratio of the mass m of the
substance and its volume V.

m
ρ = Units: kg, g, slug
V m3 cm3 ft3
b. WEIGHT DENSITY or SPECIFIC WEIGHT (δ)

- defined as the ratio of an object’s weight w

and its volume V.

w Units: N , lb
δ =
V m3 ft3

Note: Since w = mg, ρ and δ are related by:

δ = ρg
c. RELATIVE DENSITY or SPECIFIC GRAVITY (R)

- defined as the ratio of a substance density

to the density of water at 3.98 oC.

ρsubs where : ρH2O = 1000 kg/m3

R= ρ at 3.98 oC
H2O

Note: The reciprocal of the density of a substance is its specific volume.

V 1 Units: m3, cm3 , ft3

Vs = = kg g slug
m ρ
Densities of some common substances at standard
temperature (0°) and pressure (atm)

Substance kg/m3
Air 1.29
Aluminum 2700
Copper 8890-8920
Ethyl alcohol 806
Fresh water 1000
Ice 917
Blood 1060
Lead 11300
Seawater 1030
Mercury 13600
 EXAMPLES:

1.A single–level home has a floor

area of 200 m2 with ceilings that are
2.6m high. Determine the mass of
the air in the house when at 20 oC.

ρair = 1.21 kg/m3

Ans: m = 629.2kg
 EXAMPLES:

2. About 2/3 of your body mass

consists of water. Calculate the
volume of water in a 70kg person.

Ans: v = 0.047m3
 EXAMPLES:

3. A 75 kg person’s density is
changed from 970kg/m3 to
990kg/m3. Calculate the person’s
percent changed in volume.

Ans: 2%
 EXAMPLES:

4. A person’s mass while dieting

decreases by 5%. Exercise creates
muscle and reduces fat, causing the
person’s density to increase by 2%.
Calculate the percent change in the
person’s volume.

Ans: 7%
 EXAMPLES:
5. Two liquids of different densities
ρ1= 1500kg/m3, ρ2= 500kg/m3 are
poured together into a 100–liter
tank, filling it. If the resulting density
of the mixture is 800kg/m3 , find the
respective quantities of liquids used.

Ans: m1 = 45kg, m2 = 35kg

 - defined as the ratio of the magnitude of a
force applied perpendicular to a surface and
the area over which the force is exerted.

F Units: N = Pa, lb
P=
, bar = 1 x 105 Pa
m2 in2
A

When we study fluids, the quantity pressure assume a role of primary

importance. What “force” is to solids, “pressure” is to fluids.
 - defined as the ratio of the magnitude of a
force applied perpendicular to a surface and
the area over which the force is exerted.

F Units: N = Pa, lb
P=
, bar = 1 x 105 Pa
m2 in2
A

Force is a vector and pressure is a scalar. There is no direction associated

with pressure, but the direction of the force associated with pressure is
perpendicular to the surface of interest.
CONSIDER,

The fluid exerts a force on every part of

the surface of the container that the fluid
touches.

A static fluid at pressure P exerts a

force F perpendicular to and toward a
surface of area A.
 a. PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
1. Atmospheric Pressure (Po)
- it is a standard reference pressure,
the pressure of air at sea level.

1 atm = 760 mmHg (torr)

= 29.9 inHg
= 1.01 x 105 Pa
= 14.7 psi ; 1 psi = 6895 Pa
= 1.01 bar
= 1.03 x 103 cmH2O

Note: Evangelista Torricelli discovered the pressure of the atmosphere.

CONSIDER,

Po Po

If the manometer is open on both

ends, air pushes down on each
column with equal pressure making
each side at the same elevation.

manometer
Note: A manometer is a U – shaped tube used to measure
pressure containing mercury or water.
CONSIDER,
The height “h” in
the evacuated
Po Poside is a measure
of the pressure of
the air.

h If one side of the manometer is

closed, creating a vacuum, the air
pressure pushes the fluid down and
up into evacuated side.

manometer
 a. PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
2. Gauge Pressure (Pg)
- the pressure difference between the
atmospheric pressure and an unknown air
pressure.
- the pressure due to height difference.

Pg = ρhgg

where: hg = height difference

 CONSIDER,

Pg
Po Po

hg Pressure tank
source

If one side of the manometer is attached to a container of gas at a

pressure different from Po, it will result to a height difference which
indicates the pressure difference.
 a. PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
3. Absolute Pressure (P)

- the unknown air pressure different

from the atmospheric pressure.

3.1 If the absolute pressure is greater than the

atmospheric pressure.

P = Po + Pg
 CONSIDER,

Po
Pg

hg Po level Pressure tank

source

P > Po

If one side of the manometer is attached to a container of gas at a

pressure different from Po, it will result to a height difference which
indicates the pressure difference.
 a. PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
3. Absolute Pressure (P)

- the unknown air pressure different

from the atmospheric pressure.

3.2 If the absolute pressure is less than the

atmospheric pressure.

P = Po – Pg

vacuum pressure (Pv)

 CONSIDER,

Po

hg Po level Pressure tank

source

P < Po

If one side of the manometer is attached to a container of gas at a

pressure different from Po, it will result to a height difference which
indicates the pressure difference.
 EXAMPLES:
1. Given the atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psi,
make these conversions:
a)80 psig to psia and to atm.
b)20 in.Hg vacuum to in.Hg abs and to psia.
c) 10 psia to psia vacuum and Pa.
d)15 in.Hg gage to psia, to torrs, and to Pa.

Ans: a. 94.7psia, 5.44atm b. 9.92inHga, 4.87psia

c. 4.7psia, 6.87x104Pa d. 22.1psia, 381.02torrs,
5.1x104Pa
 EXAMPLES:

2. Air is sucked from straw, reducing

the absolute pressure of the straw
by 10% below atm. pressure. What
is the absolute pressure in Pa in the
straw after sucking? The gauge
pressure?

Ans: P = 0.91x105Pa, Pg = 0.1x105Pa

 EXAMPLES:
3. The gauge pressure of blood in the
aorta increases from 80 to 120mmHg
when blood is pumped into the aorta
from the heart. Calculate the percent
increase in the absolute blood
pressure in the aorta.

Ans: 5%
b. PRESSURE VARIATION W/ DEPTH
- the pressure exerted by a fluid varies
with depth, the deeper an object is in a
fluid, the greater the pressure acting on
the object due to the weight of the fluid
above.

P1 = P2 + ρgh

P1 = pressure at the bottom ρgh = pressure due to the height

P2 = pressure at the surface

b. PRESSURE VARIATION W/ DEPTH
CONSIDER,

F2 ∑ Fy = F1 – F2 – w = 0
P1A – P2A – w = 0

h P1A – P2A – ρgAh = 0

P1 = P2 + ρgh

F1
w
 EXAMPLES:

1. Calculate the pressure on a skin

diver 10m below the surface of the
water. The density of seawater is
1025kg/m3 and the air pressure at
water’s surface is 1.01x105Pa.

Ans: P1 = 2.01x105Pa
 EXAMPLES:
2.A rectangular tank 6x8ft is filled
with gasoline to a depth of 8ft. The
pressure at the surface of the
gasoline is 14.7psi. Find the
pressure at the bottom of the tank
and the force exerted on the
bottom.
ρgas = 1.28 slug/ft3
Ans: P1 = 2.44x103lb/ft2, F1 = 117.4x103lb
 EXAMPLES:
3. In a U–tube, the right–hand arm is
filled with mercury, while the other arm
is filled with liquid of unknown density,
find the density of the unknown liquid.
Po Po

h2 = 14 cm
P2 h1 = 2 cm
P1
Ans: ρ2 = 1.9g/cm3
 EXAMPLES:
4. The window of a deep–sea diving
vessel has an area of 0.36m2. The
window can withstand a net force of
1.4x106N before breaking. Calculate the
maximum depth in the ocean that the
vessel can go. The air pressure inside is
the same as the air pressure at the
ocean’s surface.

Ans: h = 386.52m
 EXAMPLES:
5. The pressure at the top of the
water in a city’s gravity–fed water
reservoir is 1x105Pa. Calculate the
pressure at the faucet of a home
42m below the reservoir.

Ans: P1 =5.1x105Pa
c. EXTERNALLY APPLIED PRESSURE

- An external pressure exerted on a

static, enclosed fluid is transmitted
uniformly throughout the volume of the
fluid.

P = F1 = F2
A1 A2
F1 = force on the smaller A1
F2 = force on the larger A2
c. EXTERNALLY APPLIED PRESSURE

CONSIDER,

P1 P2

Piston 1 Piston 2
A1 A2

This is called “PASCAL’S Principle” (Blaise Pascal): P1 = P2

 EXAMPLES:
1. A hydraulic lift is used to raise a
900kg car. Compressed air with a
pressure of 4x105Pa is applied to a
small cylinder. Calculate the area
of a large piston supporting the
car’s weight.

Ans: AL = 0.022m2
 EXAMPLES:
2. In a hydraulic process, the small
cylinder has a diameter of 8cm,
while the large piston has a
diameter of 20cm. If a force of 500N
is applied to a small piston, what is
the force on the large piston?

Ans: FL = 3.12x103N
 EXAMPLES:
3. A 10kg mass is placed on top of a
piston of a hydraulic lift; the piston’s
area is 3cm2. A 100kg woman
wrestler sits on a piston of 60cm2
area. Will she cause the 10kg mass
to rise?

Ans: the mass will not rise.

P2 > P1: P1 = 32.67 N/cm2; P2 = 16.33 N/cm2

 EXAMPLES:
4. Water from city mains with a
pressure of 75psi is used to operate
a hydraulic lift in a garage. If the
piston area is 1.5ft2 and the
efficiency is 90%, what is the
maximum load that can be raised?

Ans: m = 452.8slug