Halliday’s Functions of Language

Function

Examples

Classroom

Experiences

Instrumental

"I want to ..."

Problem solving,

language is used to

gathering materials,

communicate

role playing,

preferences, choices,

persuading

wants, or needs

Personal

"Here I am "

Making feelings

language is used to

public and

express individuality

interacting with others

Interactional

"You and me "

Structured play,

language is used to

"I'll be the

dialogues and

interact and plan,

cashier, "

discussions,

develop, or maintain a

talking in groups

play or group activity or

social relationship

Regulatory

"Do as I tell you "

making rules in

language is used to

"You need "

games, giving

control

instructions, teaching

Representational

"I'll tell you."

Conveying

Use language to explain

"I know."

messages, telling about the real world, expressing a proposition

Heuristic

"Tell me why "

Question and

language is used to find

"Why did you do

answer, routines,

things out, wonder, or

that?"

inquiry and research

hypothesize

"What for?"

Imaginative

"Let's pretend "

Stories and

language is used to

"I went to my

dramatizations,

create, explore, and

grandma's last

rhymes, poems, and

entertain

night."
riddles, nonsense and word play

Second, research shows that while mothers often respond to the semantic content
of what their children say ("No, that's not a doggie; it's a cow"), they very rarely
respond to the grammatical status of their children's phrases. Indeed, when parents
do respond to speech errors, they most often respond positively. Here are a few
advanced errors from the history of my family. What do you think our response was
—correction or laughter (which I take to be a positive response)?

Mama, mama, there's a tree-knocker in the back yard!

It's raining, where is the underbrella?

Give me the beach-lookers! (binoculars)

In fact, parents themselves make grammatical errors when they speak. Despite the
fact that children don't know when their parents are speaking grammatically and
when they are making errors, all children grow up knowing (if not always speaking)
the language perfectly.

So how do we learn to speak? Recall the example above, "He hitted me." Although
hitted is not a word children hear adults utter, it is wrong for an interesting reason:

the verb, in a sense, has the "right" ending on it for the past tense. In other words,
the only way a child learning language could make such an error is that he or she is
learning a rule that derives past tense verbs from verb stems. What the child hasn't
mastered at this stage is the exceptions to the rule. Still, it shows that children look
for and learn grammatical rules from nothing more than the utterances they hear.

Notice also that the words in the erroneous phrases are all in the correct order. No
child would say "go Daddy" for "Daddy is going" or "cookie mommy" for "Mommy's
cookie". By the time a child begins putting two words together, he or she has already
mastered the basic rules of syntax and applies them correctly even in their
erroneous speech. It takes the child a little longer to master the rules of morphology,
i.e. affixes and suffixes.

The evidence then indicates that children do, in fact, absorb a massive number of
sentences and phrases but rather than parrot them back, they abstract rules from
them and create their own grammar which they then apply to create new utterances
they have never heard before. Over the years from 2-6, when language is mastered,
children constantly adjust their grammar until it matches that of the adult speaker
population.
This critical period between the ages of 2-6 suggests that first language learning, like
walking, is an innate capacity of human beings triggered by a level of development
more than feedback from the environment.

Can I have it?That is, so long as a child hears a language–any language–when they
reach this critical period they will learn it perfectly. If this is true, any child not
hearing language during this period not only should not learn to speak but also
should not be able to learn to speak. The ethical implications of research on this
question are obvious. However, there have been a few tragic non-scientific bits of
evidence that supports the innateness + critical period hypothesis.

The first bit of evidence comes from the so-called Wild Boy of Aveyron, Victor. Victor
is the name given to a boy found roaming the woods of Averyon in southern France
toward the end of September 1799. He behaved like a wild animal and gave all
indications that he had been raised by wild animals, eating off the floor, making
canine noises, disliking baths and clothes. He also could not speak. He was taken in
by Doctor Jean Marc Itard who had developed a reputation for teaching the deaf to
speak. However, after years of work, Itard failed to teach Victor to more than a few
basic words without correct endings, the indicators of grammar.

A similar event unfolded in Los Angeles in November 1970 when a 13-year-old girl
was discovered who had been isolated in a baby crib most of her life and never
spoken to. She was physically immature, but had difficulty walking and could not
speak. Psychologists at UCLA spent years trying to teach "Genie" (as they called her
to protect her identity) to speak. While Genie did get to the point where she could
communicate, her speech never advanced beyond the kind of constructions we saw
in the first set of examples above, the point where the language explosion in normal
children begins. In other words, she could use words to the same extent as
chimpanzees but could not manipulate grammar, as indicated in the prefixes,
suffixes and 'function' words missing in the first set of examples above. At middle
age she stopped talking altogether and was soon committed to a mental institution.

The evidence is not conclusive but, such as it is, it suggests that language is an innate
capacity of human beings which is acquired during a critical period between 2-6.
After that period, it becomes increasingly more difficult for humans to learn
languages.

Learning Exercises / Activities.

I. Multiple Choice: Answer the following questions:

1. Which of these is one of Halliday's functions of speech?

A. Instrumental
B. Social
C. Action
D. Personal
2. What do Halliday's functions help us to understand about child language?
A. Lexis
B. Semantics
C. Pragmatics
D. Grammar
3. Which of the following is NOT an example of language acquisition from a
behaviorist perspective?
A. Babies learn language by repeatedly associating the object 'dog' with the word
'dog.'
B. Babies learn language by imitating adult patterns of speech.
C. Babies are born with an innate ability to learn language.
D. Babies are rewarded for attempts at speech when their caregivers smile and
applaud their efforts.
4. Noam Chomsky argues that babies acquire language
A. because humans are born with the ability to learn language.
B. when caregivers speak softly to infants.
C. by watching adults interact.
D. by repeated exposure to sounds that have meaning.
5. Which theorist places the most importance on social interaction in the
development of language?
A) Chomsky
B) Piaget
C) Skinner
D) Vygotsky
6. In the nature-nurture debate as it applies to language acquisition, Chomsky
emphasizes ______.
A. the ‘harmony and mutual dependence’ of nature and nurture
B. the fundamental antagonism of nature and nurture
C. the importance of nature over nurture
D. the importance of nurture over nature
7. Every time young Haley says the word 'teddy,' she is given her favorite stuffed
bear, which reinforces her understanding and continued use of the word for getting
the toy. According to behaviorist theory, this is an example of:
A. Operant conditioning
B. Information processing
C. Conditioned stimulus
D. Repetitive-style language learning
8. Regardless of culture, children begin to learn language around the same time all
over the world. At about what age is this?
A) between 6 and 8 months
B) between 8 and 28 months
C) between 2 and 4 years
D) between 5 and 7 years
9. Susie and Jen, identical twins, appear to speak and understand their own "secret
language"; however, upon listening to them, their mother is unable to discern any
consistency in the words and grammar they use. When she asks the girls, they reply
that they change it whenever they feel like it. What characteristic of language does
their "language" violate?.
A. The language code is conventional.
B. Language is a representational tool.
C. Language is socially shared.
D. Language is a code that uses a system of arbitrary symbols.
10.While studying for your upcoming Language Development test, you ask your
friend to define the term speech. He tells you that it is the process of sharing
information among individuals. Your friend gave you the definition for:
A. Communication.
B. Hearing.
C. Language.
D. Speech.

Week 10 – 12. Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning:

Philosophies of Education
Learning Objectives.

1. To recognize the common philosophies of education

2. To explain the involvement of philosophies of education in developing child’s
language acquisition and learning
3. To analyze the theories of language learning presented by experts.
Discussion.

Language. It’s all around us. It’s vital for our everyday existence.

And yet many of us find it challenging to pick up a new one.

The problem, we tell ourselves, is that we’re thinking too hard.

The solution, we say, is to be more like those kids that we once were when we
learned our first language. Simply absorbing things the way kids do without really
thinking about the language must surely be our best bet, we convince ourselves.

But here’s the thing. We’re not kids anymore and we never will be again.

We’re not going to have the same opportunities as we did in our native language
where we were in constant contact with mothers, fathers and siblings who corrected
our every mistake (though a girlfriend or boyfriend might compensate). Nor do most
of us want to spend 18 years of our lives studying a language just to achieve high
school level fluency.

We don’t need to abandon the lessons we’ve taken from childhood language
learning, but we must surely temper them with something else. And that thing is
theory.
Theory, that most highly condensed form of thought based on principles and
evidence, can help us as adults to excel in language learning in ways that would
otherwise not be possible.

Of course, learning about language learning theory in no way needs to occupy the
bulk of your time. By devoting just a fraction of your time to theory right now, you’ll
reap benefits far beyond getting in an extra 10 minutes of studying. So without
further ado, let’s start at the beginning.

7 Great Theories About Language Learning

Theories of language learning have been bandied about since about as far back as
one would care to look. It may be surprising to know that the problems that
philosophers in Ancient Greece and 16th century France were concerned about are
largely still relevant today.

To get a quick rundown of early language learning theory, let’s take a quick look at
the ideas of three brilliant philosophers who you’ve probably already heard of.

1. Plato’s Problem

The writings of Plato stretch all the way back to the beginnings of Western
philosophical thought, but Plato was already posing problems critical to modern
linguistic discourse.

In the nature versus nurture debate, Plato tended to side with nature, believing that
knowledge was innate.

This was his answer to what has become known as Plato’s Problem, or as Bertrand
Russell summarizes it: “How comes it that human beings, whose contacts with the
world are brief and personal and limited, are nevertheless able to know as much as
they do know?” Being born with this knowledge from the get-go would naturally
solve this little quandary and consequently he viewed language as innate.

2. Cartesian Linguistics, by Descartes

Centuries later, the French philosopher Descartes took a crack at linguistic

philosophy. In his opinion, language acquisition was a simple and easy process,
barely worthy of his attention. Like Plato he believed in the innateness of language
because he thought it reflected the general rationality of human beings.

But rather than Descartes himself, it was the rationalist movement that he
symbolized and that was thriving in the time period when he lived that was most
important for linguistics. This “Cartesian” movement, according to Chomsky (who
we’ll get to later), noted the creativity involved in everyday language and presented
the idea that there were universal principles behind every language.
3. Locke’s Tabula Rasa

Most people familiar with Locke’s philosophy have heard of his concept of tabula
rasa, or the blank slate.

To state it briefly and in a simplified manner, this is the idea that all knowledge
comes from outside ourselves through sensory experience rather than through
innate knowledge that we have at birth. This naturally carried over to language
theory with Locke rejecting the idea that there was an innate logic behind language.

Obviously these theories don’t touch too much on the practical, everyday level of
language learning. They’re far less detailed and more philosophical than the modern
scientific theories we’re used to. But they have important implications. If Plato and
the Cartesians are right, then the emphasis in language learning must lie on what we
already know, using our innate abilities to come to an understanding of the
particularities of a specific language. If Locke is right, then we must focus our
attention on sensory input, gaining as much external input as possible.

In the practical, everyday world, all of this can easily be done with FluentU. FluentU
takes real-world videos with familiar formats—like movie trailers, music videos,
news and inspiring talks—and turns them into personalized language lessons.

4. Skinner’s Theory of Behaviorism

In the middle of the 20th century, B.F. Skinner took Locke’s ideas of sensory input
and ran with them.

According to behaviorism, a radical variant of which was put forward by Skinner, all
behavior is no more than a response to external stimuli and there’s no innate
programming within a human being to learn a language at birth.

What differentiates Skinner from those who came before him is the level of detail he
went into when connecting behaviorism and language learning. In his concept of
what he called “operant conditioning,” language learning grew out of a process of
reinforcement and punishment whereby individuals are conditioned into saying the
right thing. For instance, if you’re hungry and you’re able to say “Mommy, I’m
hungry,” you may be rewarded with food and your behavior will thereby be
reinforced since you got what you wanted.

To put it another way, Skinner described a mechanism for language learning that
hadn’t existed before on the tabula rasa side of the language acquisition debate.
What this means for us as language learners, should his theory be even partially true,
is that a process of conditioning must be achieved for us to succeed. When we say
the right thing, we must be rewarded. When we say something incorrectly, that too
must be made clear. In other words, we need feedback to succeed as language
learners.
5. Chomsky’s Universal Grammar

Around the same time as Skinner there came another linguistic powerhouse who
would leave a lasting impression on the field of linguistics. Namely, Noam Chomsky.

The theory that Chomsky proposed would be called Universal Grammar and it would
assert nearly the exact opposite of what Skinner had offered in his theory. Where
Skinner saw all learning coming from external stimuli, Chomsky saw an innate device
for language acquisition. What Skinner understood to be conditioning according to
particular events Chomsky, understood to be the result of the universal elements
that structure all languages.

In fact, one of Chomsky’s major bones to pick with Skinner’s theory had to do with
Plato’s problem, as described above. After all, if Skinner is right, how is it that
children can learn a language so quickly, creating and understanding sentences they
have never heard before?-------------

Universal Grammar has been around for roughly a half a century by now, so it’s
hardly the last word on the subject. It has also received plenty of criticism. One
critique that particularly concerns us is that it may have little to do with learning a
second language, even if it’s how we learn a first language. There are certainly
theories about applying this concept to organize syllabi for language learning, but
this seems unnecessarily complex for the average, independent learner.

In short, while Chomsky’s theory may be still be important in the linguistics field as
part of an ongoing discussion, it offers little help for learning a second language
other than to provide you with the confidence that the grammar for all languages is
already inside your head. You just need to fill in the particulars.

Over the past half century or so, a slew of other language learning theories have
cropped up to try to deal with the perceived flaws in Chomsky’s theory and to fill in
the cracks for more specific areas of language learning (i.e. areas of particular
interest to us).

Next up are two theories that, while not the philosophical bombshells like the ones
listed above, arguably have more of a practical edge.

6. Schumann’s Acculturation Model

John Schumann’s Acculturation Model describes the process by which immigrants

pick up a new language while being completely immersed in that language.

This theory doesn’t deal with the process of language learning as we normally think
of it (such as how we acquire grammar or listening skills), but rather focuses on
social and psychological aspects that influence our success.
For instance, an immigrant is more likely to acquire their new target language if their
language and the target language are socially equal, if the group of immigrants is
small and not cohesive and if there is a higher degree of similarity between the
immigrant’s culture and that of their new area of residence.

The obvious takeaway is that language learning is not an abstract subject like physics
that can be learned out of a book regardless of the world around you. There are
sociological factors at play, and the more we do to connect with the culture on the
other end of our second language, the faster and easier it will be for us to learn that
language.

7. Krashen’s Monitor Model

Stephen Krashen’s Monitor Model in fact consists of several distinct hypotheses

which make up what is probably the most cited theory in second language
acquisition. There’s so much to take away from Krashen’s theory that I’ll just let you
peruse the link given for details and give a rundown of the highlights here.

Language acquisition is subconscious and results from informal, natural

communication.

Language learning is conscious and driven by error correction (more formal).

Grammar structures are acquired in a predictable order.

Language acquisition occurs with comprehensible input (i.e. hearing or reading

things that are just slightly above our current language level).

A monitor is anything that corrects your language performance and pressures one to
“communicate correctly and not just convey meaning” (such as a language teacher
who corrects you when you make a grammatical mistake).

It should be noted that this is just Krashen’s theory. While this theory is quite
popular, there has been criticism and direct contradiction of certain parts of it
(particularly his idea about the predictable order of grammar structures). Still, it’s
useful to get ideas for language learning.

This theory suggests that we should both strive to increase our second language
inputs (like by watching video clips on FluentU and going through books for reading)
and make sure we receive proper error correction in one form or another.

As this selection of important theories should make clear, the subset of linguistics
which deals with language learning is both wide and deep.

Some of it is highly theoretical and complex and is most relevant to scholars of the
field. Other parts are extremely zoomed in and tell us highly specific details about
how to learn a language.
Regardless, it’s all connected.

By understanding more bits and pieces of it all, you’ll gradually begin to understand
yourself and your own language learning process better than ever before.

The philosophy of education examines the goals, forms, methods, and meaning of
education. The term is used to describe both fundamental philosophical analysis of
these themes and the description or analysis of particular pedagogical approaches.
Considerations of how the profession relates to broader philosophical or
sociocultural contexts may be included. The philosophy of education thus overlaps
with the field of education and applied philosophy.

For example, philosophers of education study what constitutes upbringing and

education, the values and norms revealed through upbringing and educational
practices, the limits and legitimization of education as an academic discipline, and
the relation between educational theory and practice.

Idealism

Idealism is the oldest system of philosophy known to man. Its origins go back to
ancient India in the East, and to Plato in the West. Its basic viewpoint stresses the
human spirit as the most important element in life. The universe is viewed as
essentially non material in its ultimate nature. Although Idealist philosophers vary
enormously on many specifics, they agree on the following two points; the human
spirit is the most important element in life; and secondly the universe is essentially
non material in its ultimate nature. Idealism should not be confused with the notion
of high aspirations that is not what philosophers mean when they speak of Idealism.
In the philosophic sense, Idealism is a system that emphasizes the pre-eminent
importance of mind, soul, or spirit. It is possible to separate Idealism into different
schools, but for our purposes we shall be content to identify only the most general
assumptions of the Idealists in metaphysics, epistemology, and value theory, without
regard to the idiosyncrasies of the various schools.

If we study the basic principles, Idealism puts forth the argument that reality, as we
perceive it, is a mental construct. It means that experiences are result of sensory
abilities of the human mind and not because reality exists in itself, as an
independent entity. In the philosophical term this means that one cannot know the
existence of things beyond the realm of the intellect. Plato describes “reality” in his
Theory of Forms. For him the “Form” is actual substance of 'Things' which 'Formed'
matter and perceptible reality. Plato wants convey the message that matter is real
and can be experienced as a rational living entity; it is not a mere projection of
consciousness. According to Knight (1998) Augustine (354-430), Rene Descartes
(1596-1650), George Berkeley and the German philosopher Immanuel Kant and
George William Hegel are the prominent names who represent idealism.
Berkeley and Kant have interpreted idealism in very different ways. Kant described
idealism as transcendent, whereas Berkeley called it 'immaterialism' which is
commonly termed as subjective materialism. George Berkeley says that the material
world exists because there is a mind to perceive it and that things which are not
within the conceptual framework of the human mind cannot be deemed real.
Berkeley admits that objects exist, but their presence in the physical realm is as long
as there is a mind to perceive them. For this Berkeley has used a Latin phrase 'Esse
est percipi' (to be perceived).On the other hand Kant is of the opinion that reality
exists independently of human minds but its knowledge is inherently unknowable to
man because of sensory filters in our consciousness. These filters slow down our
ability to see the 'thing in itself'. Thus our ultimate perception of things is always
through the mind's fixed frame of reference (Shahid, 2008).

Idealism and curriculum

According to idealism the teacher is the symbol or model of good character, he is the
masters of all sort of knowledge, so the teacher has the central role in the teaching-
learning (Singh, 2007). The teacher has right to choose suitable content from the
available literature and to teach. The student is a passive receptor, who has to gain
the knowledge transferred by the knowledge. The teacher certifies the disciple at the
successful completion of education as per the above given age levels (Singh).

Idealism and aim of education

Plato says that to become a philosopher or king, a person has to go through all the
processes of education. He describes the aim of education as to drag every man out
of the cave as far as possible. Education should not aim at putting knowledge into
the soul, but at turning the soul toward right desires continuing the analogy
(similarity) between mind and sight. The overarching goal of the city is to educate
those with the right natures; so that they can turn their minds sharply towards the
Form of the Good. The philosophers must return periodically into the cave (society)
and rule there. Aristotle says that education is essential for complete self realization
as he says, “The supreme good to which we all aspire is the happiness. A happy man
is the one who is educated. A happy man is virtuous, virtue is gained through
education.” Plato says that Education is for the individual’s personal betterment and
that of the society.

Idealism and stages of education

Plato has also divided the process of education into five major steps;

1. Age 7 to 18; study general mathematic, music, astronomy and so on,

2. Age 18 to 20; considers best for physical training,
3. Age 20 to 30; study of logic, knighthood, and mathematics
4. Age 30 to 35; study of dialectics
5. Age 35 to 50; practice of dialectics in various official affairs in the state
6. 50 years +; a person can become a philosopher or king as his tern comes.
Plato says that in each step the person is given with different sort of education. He
suggests screening those in each step who cannot perform well. The ones who can
successfully pursue all the six stages can be called philosophers who have the
understanding of the form of good.

Idealism and method of teaching

idealism is traditional philosophy of education in which teacher has centeral role

who has to be role model so that the students will adopt his model to become good
citizen. In idealism the lacture method is considered the most important one in
which a delivers lecture and students listen to the teacher. Teacher selects any topic
or issue for teaching first he teaches the topic then asks the questions about that
topic. Students answer the asked questions, Teacher provides the feedback and
students improve themselves according to the teacher’s feedback. This is teacher
centered approach therefore students do not participate in a well manner and do
not understand the taught content. This method of teaching is not suitable for young
or elementary level of students because they are not habitual for listening long time.
This method is only used for adults. Because their mind is mature and they can
understand easily. The second method that suits idealism the most is the Socratic
Method in which the teacher involves the students in learning activities. The teacher
raises an issue and the students are encouraged to discuss it in a dialogue form and
reach to a conclusion.

Realism

If a tree falls in the woods and no one hears it, does it make a sound? You've
probably heard that question asked before and may have thought about it for a few
minutes before coming to an answer. Or you may have taken it as a silly question
and laughed at it.

But the fundamental question behind that question is simple: is there a true reality,
which exists outside of human perception or is reality only what we perceive?
Realism is a philosophy started by the ancient Greek writer, Aristotle. It states that
there is a true reality, and things exist whether humans perceive them or not.

Educational realism is the belief that we should study logic, critical thinking, and the
scientific method to teach students to perceive and understand reality. As you might
imagine, there is a heavy emphasis on math and science, though the humanities can
also be influenced by educational realism.

What does educational realism look like in a classroom? To figure that out, let's
imagine a teacher, Henry, who is trying to plan his curriculum for the upcoming
school year. Henry is a realist and believes that Aristotle was on the right path all
those years ago. So how can Henry plan a year of learning to help students perceive
and understand reality?
The first thing that Henry, as a realist, is likely to do is to include lots of opportunities
to study the natural world. Realists believe that the job of schools is to teach
students about the world around them. This means that Henry wants to teach his
students how to use logical processes to find truth in the natural world.

For example, instead of teaching his students about gravity from a textbook, Henry
might take them outside and recreate Sir Isaac Newton's moment of clarity when he
saw the apple fall. Henry can climb a tree and drop objects of different masses to
allow students to figure out how gravity and mass work together.

Meaning of Pragmatism:

The word Pragmatism is of Greek origin (pragma, matos = deed, from prassein = to
do).

But it is a typical American school of philosophy. It is intimately related with the

American life and mind. It is the product of practical experiences of life.

Pragmatism means action, from which the words practical and practice have come.
The idealist constructs a transcendental ideal, which cannot be realised by man. The
pragmatist lays down standards which are attainable. Pragmatists are practical
people.

They face problems and try to solve them from practical point of view. Unlike
idealists they live in the world of realities, not in the world of ideals. Pragmatists
view life as it is, while idealists view life as it should be. The central theme of
pragmatism is activity.

According to existentialism:

Existence is always particular and individual—always my existence, your existence,

his existence, her existence.
Existence is primarily the problem of existence (i.e., of its mode of being); it is,
therefore, also the investigation of the meaning of Being..
That investigation is continually faced with diverse possibilities, from among which
the existent (i.e., the human individual) must make a selection, to which he must
then commit himself. Because those possibilities are constituted by the individual’s
relationships with things and with other humans, existence is always a being-in-the-
world—i.e., in a concrete and historically determinate situation that limits or
conditions choice. Humans are therefore called, in Martin Heidegger’s phrase,
Dasein (“there being”) because they are defined by the fact that they exist, or are in
the world and inhabit it.

Learning Exercises / Activities

I. Multiple Choice: Choose the letter of the correct answer.

1. This philosophy places the highest priority on students directing their own
learning. Learning is self-paced and includes a lot of individual contact with the
teacher.
A. Essentialism
B. Existentialism
C. Progressivism
D. Social Reconstructionism
2. True or False: Teachers must reflect on societal values in order to target student
learning and behavior effectively.
A. True
B. False
3. Which of the following philosophies emphasizes personal choice and individual
freedom?
A. Realism
B. Idealism
C. Existentialism
D. Pragmatism
4. According to Realism, human beings are rational beings and are expected to
behave accordingly.
A. True
B. False
5. Teacher A always starts her lessons with a real-life problem which the students
have to solve collaboratively by the end of the class period.
What is the philosophy Teacher A is possibly adhering to?

A. Existentialism
B. Pragmatism
C. Idealism
D. Realism
6. Which of the following is important to an Existentialism?
A. Purpose
B. Reason
C. Ideas
D. Individuality
7. According to Pragmatist, education is ___________ life.
A. Preparation for
B. To support
C. Analysis of
D. Part of
8. Which of these is emphasized by Pragmatic education?
A. Abstract thinking
B. Practicality
C. Values formation
D. Discipline
9. What should be the characteristics of teachers according to Confucianism?
A. Gentle and caring
B. Firm and autocratic
C. Intellectual and scholarly
D. Loving and committed
10. Which of the following virtues does Confucianism give a high regard?
A. Uprightness
B. Tolerance
C. Courage
D. Curiosity

Week 13 – 15. Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning:

Reading Approach
Learning Objectives.

1. To define approach.
2. To understand why reading is important in language acquisition.
3. To determine the different reading approaches in language.
Discussion.

Approach describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught.

Approach is a set of correlative assumption based on nature of language teaching

and language learning.

Approach is axiomatic.

Approach is not practical.

Why Reading is Important in Language Acquisition?

1. Reading offers a wide range of vocabulary and grammar, it essentially supports

and feeds the brain with the correct language structure.
2. As learning is facilitated with learning cues, reading helps the brain to remember
these language structures as the learner will connect an image to the world it
represents.
3. Reading improves and develops your communication skills, it helps you learn how
to use the language creatively.
4. Reading is important because it is an active skill which involves referencing,
guessing, predicting, and etc.

Reading Approach Brief History

1. Reading approach or reading method was first devise for English Learners in India
and French or German learners in the United States of America.
2. It has been advocated in England for pupils of inferior language-learning ability.
3. Reading approach is like GMT (Grammar, Translation, Melody), only grammar
necessary for reading comprehension and fluency is taught.

Reading Approach Theory of Language

Reading approach is a way to start teaching beginning readers.
The Three Main Theories

1. Traditional Theory
2. Cognitive view
3. Metacognitive View

Different Approaches to Teaching Reading

Phonics Approach-Tries to create an association in the child minds between the

‘graphemes’ (written symbols) and phonemes (sound) of language.

Described as bottom-up approach which build towards comprehension through a

journey from the smallest elements of the text.

Whole Language Approach

Focuses on comprehension from the outset, with children being given continuous
texts to read in order to build an understanding of vocabulary and meaning.

Identified as the top-down approach which places less emphasis on the rules and
minuute of language.

Reading Approach

Types of Teaching Learning Activities

Skimming

It is an activity to read shorter texts to extract accurate detailed information.

Used to quickly identify the main idea of a text .

Done at the speed three to four times faster than normal reading.

This technique is useful when the students are seeking specific information rather
that reading for comprehension.

Works well to find dates, names, and places.

Scanning

A technique that often used when looking up a word in the telephone book or
dictionary.

Involves moving eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases.
Also used when the reader first find a resource to determine whether it will answer
the questions.

The students look for the author’s used of organizers such as numbers,letters, steps,
or the words, first, second or next.

Extensive Reading/ Vocabulary Reading

A reading longer text , usually for pleasure.

Extensive reading is an approach to language learning, including foreign language

learning, by the means of a large amount of reading.

Extensive reading is the free reading of books and other written materials that is not
too difficult nor too easy.

Extensive reading will help the students to motivate them and enjoy reading and
learning independently.

The Role of Extensive Reading in Language Learning

1, It can provide comprehensible input.

1. It can enhance learner’s general language competence.
2. It increases the student’s exposure to the language.
3. It can increase knowledge of vocabulary.
4. It can lead to improvement in writing.
5. It can motivates learner to read.
6. It can consolidate previously learned language.
7. It helps to build confidence.
8. It encourage the exploitation of textual redundancy.
9. It facilitates the development of prediction skills.
Learning Exercises / Activities

I. Essay: Answer the following briefly:

1. How does a person learn to communicate their thoughts?
2. How does reading helps learners to acquire language?
Enumeration

1. List down at east 5 role of Extensive Reading in Language and

Learning.

1.
2.

3.

4.
5.

2. Give the 2 types of reading teaching strategies.

1.
2.
Week 15 - 18. Approaches to Language Teaching
Learning Objectives.

1. To define language and language learning.

2. To analyze different views on language teaching and learning.
3. To detect the influence of the views on the language teaching methodology.
Discussion.

Language is a means of communication among human beings.

We communicate with each other using some meaningful sounds or symbolism a

systematic way.

According to Aristotle, language is speech which is produced by human beings in

order Exchange their experiences, ideas, and emotions

Language Learning is a process by which we can develop our ability to use language
for communication to others.

Purposes of Language Learning

1. To develop the ability to understand and produced language.

2. To express functional activities.
3. To create and maintain social relations between / among people.

Views on Language Teaching-Learning

1. Structural View
2. Functional View
3. Interactional View

Structural View of Language

Structural view considers that language is a system of all systems.

It means that language is a linguistic system that has some subsystems such as;
Phonological units (e.g. phonemes)
Grammatical unit (e.g. sentences, phrases, clauses)
Grammatical operations (e.g. adding, shifting, joining, or transforming elements)
Lexical items (e.g. function words and content/structure words)
Each language has a finite number of such structural elements.

The structural view of language generates the language teaching-learning methods

such as:

1. Audio-lingual method
2. Total physical response
3. Silent way

Functional view of Language

As per the functional view, language is not only a linguistic system but also a means f
doing things

Language is used to express our emotions, feelings, attitudes, etc.

Language involves our day to day functional activities or notions such as:

Inviting
Advising
Suggesting
Making an appointment
Apologizing
Asking for directions
Agreeing, disagreeing and etc.

This view language is also called communicative view.

Therefore learning language is learning how to combine grammatical rules and

vocabulary to express our notions.

Methods in Teaching-Learning Functional Language Views

1. Functional-Notional Syllabuses
2. Communicative approaches
3. Natural approach
4. English for specific purposes
Interactional View of Language

According to interactional view, language is a means of creating and maintaining

social relations or social transactions between people.

Learning Exercises / Activities.

I. Essay: Answer the following briefly.

1. Explain what is functional view.
2. What are the purposes of language learning?
3. What do you mean when we say structural view of language? Cite an example.
RATING GUIDE
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