MATHEMATICS - I

(Calculus and Linear Algebra)

For Computer Science Engineering Branches

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MATHEMATICS - I electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
(Calculus and Linear Algebra) For recording or otherwise without prior
Computer Science Engineering Branches permission of the publisher.
by Reena Garg
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 Acknowledgement

T he author grateful to AICTE for their meticulous planning and execution to publish the technical
book for Engineering and Technology students.
I sincerely acknowledge the valuable contributions of the reviewer of the book Prof. Garima
Singh, for making it students’ friendly and giving a better shape in an artistic manner.
This book is an outcome of various suggestions of AICTE members, experts and authors who
shared their opinion and thoughts to further develop the engineering education in our country.
It is also with great honour that I state that this book is aligned to the AICTE Model Curriculum
and in line with the guidelines of National Education Policy (NEP) -2020. Towards promoting
education in regional languages, this book is being translated in scheduled Indian regional
languages.
Acknowledgements are due to the contributors and different workers in this field whose
published books, review articles, papers, photographs, footnotes, references and other valuable
information enriched us at the time of writing the book.
Finally, I like to express our sincere thanks to the publishing house, M/s. Khanna Book
Publishing Company Private Limited, New Delhi, whose entire team was always ready to cooperate
on all the aspects of publishing to make it a wonderful experience.

Reena Garg

(v)
 Preface

M athematics is a necessary avenue to scientific knowledge which opens new vistas of

mental ability. Engineering mathematics offers a balance of theory and practice, which is
intellectually stimulating. Learning the craft of applying mathematics to real world problems allow
an Engineering student to find the solutions of the problem.
Calculus and Linear Algebra is intended mainly for undergraduate students of B.Tech (CSE)
of 21st century with the aim to provide a sound understanding in the subject of mathematics..
This book is strictly aligned with AICTE model curriculum incorporating student centric and self-
learning activities as per New National Education Policy based on OBE and Bloom Taxonomy. The
topics are well organized to create interest among readers to study and apply the mathematical tools
in engineering and science disciplines. The book mainly emphasizes on the practical applications
of the concepts discussed in the units which will help the students to incorporate a deliberate focus
on problem - solving skills.
The book consists of 5 units. For more understanding of the topic, a good number of relatively
competitive problems are given at the end of each unit in the form of short questions, HOTS,
assignments, MCQs and know more. Practical/Projects/Activity also given in each unit for
enhancing the student’s capability and to increase the feeling of team work. To clarify the subject,
the text has been supplemented through Notes, Observations and Remarks. An attempt has been
made to explain the topics through maximum use of geometries wherever possible.
Unit-1 deals with the application of derivatives, curvature, definite and improper integrals,
Beta-Gamma functions with their properties,
Unit-2 is concerned to find the solution by using Rolle’s theorem, Mean value theorem, Taylor’s
and Maclaurin’s theorems, L’Hospital Rule and Maxima-minima for one variable.
Unit-3 deals with matrices, determinant, solution of linear system of equations with various
methods, rank, Crammer’s Rule, Gauss Elimination method and Gauss Jordan method with
examples.
Unit-4 focuses on vector space, dependence, independence of vectors, basis, dimension,
Inverse of a linear transformation, rank- nullity theorem, composition of linear maps with matrix
associated with it.
Unit-5 discusses eigen values, eigenvectors, diagonalization, Inner product spaces, Gram-
Schmidt orthogonalization and theorems based of symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices.
Mathematics is a subject that can be mastered only through hard work and practice. Practice is the only
key word in the learning process of mathematics.
I hope this book will meet the requirements and expectations of all the engineering students.
Although every care has been taken to avoid misprints and mistakes, yet it is difficult to claim
perfection. I will gratefully receive and acknowledge every comment and suggestions from the
teachers and the students leading to improvements in the text as well as in solved examples.

Reena Garg
(vii)
 Outcome Based Education

For the implementation of an outcome based education the first requirement is to develop an
outcome based curriculum and incorporate an outcome based assessment in the education
system. By going through outcome based assessments evaluators will be able to evaluate whether
the students have achieved the outlined standard, specific and measurable outcomes. With the
proper incorporation of outcome based education there will be a definite commitment to achieve
a minimum standard for all learners without giving up at any level. At the end of the programme
running with the aid of outcome based education, a student will be able to arrive at the following
outcomes:
PO-1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
PO-2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO-3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
PO-4. 
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
PO-5. 
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.
PO-6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.
PO-7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
PO-8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
PO-9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

(ix)
PO-10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give
and receive clear instructions.
PO-11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO-12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

(x)
 Course Outcomes

After completion of the course the students will be able to:

CO-1: Apply Differential and Integral Calculus to notion of curvature, Centre of curvature and
evaluate improper integrals using correct mathematical limit notation. Apart from these
applications they will have a basic understanding of Beta and Gamma Functions
CO-2: Examine the behaviour of function for a given interval and expansion of trigonometric and
transcendental functions
CO-3: Formulate, analyse, solve and apply the concept of matrices on the problems based on
linear system of equations and relate them with linear transformations.
CO-4: Classify linear Independence and linear dependence of vectors and explain the concepts of
rank, basis and dimension of vector Space, in addition of this, also learn to composition of
linear maps and association with matrices.
CO-5: Apply essential tool to solve numerical problems based on Eigen values, Eigen vectors,
Eigenbases, diagonalisation and orthogonalisation with the help of, linear algebra. Also
deal with various properties of Eigen values which are used to solve many complex
problems in various branches of engineering. In addition to that aware with the concept of
norm of a vector , orthonormal and orthogonal vectors
Mapping of Course Outcomes with Programme Outcomes to be done according to the matrix
given below:
Expected Mapping with Programme Outcomes
Course (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Outcome
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12
CO-1 3 2 2 1 1 - 2 - - - - -
CO-2 3 2 2 2 - - - - - - - 1
CO-3 3 3 3 1 2 2 - - 1 1 - 1
CO-4 3 2 1 1 1 1 - - - - - -
CO-5 3 2 2 2 2 1 - - - - 1 -

(xi)
 Abbreviations and Symbols

SYMBOLS AND FORMULAE

1. Number System ⊂ – proper subset

N – set of natural numbers  – not a proper subset
 – set of integers ⊃ – superset
Q – set of rational numbers { } – set
I – set of irrational numbers f – empty set
 – set of real numbers < – strictly less than
C – set of complex numbers > – strictly greater than
Rn – set of n-tuples ≤ – less than or equal to
2. Greek Letters ≥ – greater than or equal to
a – alpha 4. Some Other Useful Symbols
b – beta ∼ – equivalent to
g – gamma ↔ – interchange
G – capital gamma ∞ – infinity
d – delta ∫ – integral
D – capital delta ! – factorial
e – epsilon ⇒ – implies
ι – iota ∀ – for all
q – theta ⇔ – implies and implied by
l – lambda || || – norm
m – mu | | – modulus
f – phi : – colon
y – psi ; – semicolon
h – eta [A : B] or [A/B] – Augmented Matrix
p – pi 5. Nature of Roots of an Quadratic equations
r – rho If ax2 + bx + c = 0 is quadratic, then
κ – kappa
−b ± b2 − 4ac
3. Notation in sets (a) its roots are given by
2a
∈ – belongs to
∉ – not belongs to (b) the sum of the roots is equal to –b/a
∪ – Union (c) product of the roots is equal to c/a
∩ – Intersection (d) b2 – 4ac = 0  ⇒  the roots are equal
( ) – open interval (e) b2 – 4ac > 0  ⇒  the roots are real and
distinct
[ ] – close interval
(f) b2 – 4ac < 0  ⇒  the roots are complex
⊆ – subset
(g) If b2 – 4ac is a perfect square, then the
⊆ – not subset
roots are rational.

(xii)
6. Properties of Logarithm sin 2 A 2 tan A
(a) loga 1 = 0, loga 0 = –∞ for a > 1, (i) tan 2A = 
cos 2 A 1  tan2 A
loga a = 1
(j) sin 3A = 3 sin A – 4 sin3 A
loge 2 = 0.6931
(k) cos 3A = 4 cos3 A – 3 cos A
loge 10 = 2.3026, log10 e = 0.4343
3 tan A − tan3 A
(b) loga p + loga q = loga pq (l) tan 3A =
p 1 − 3 tan2 A
(c) loga p – loga q = loga
q AB AB
(m) sin A + sin B = 2 sin cos
(d) loga pq = q loga p 2 2
7. Nature of Trigonometric Ratios in Quadrant AB AB
(n) sin A – sin B = 2 cos sin
90° 2 2
(II quadrant) (I quadrant) (o) cos A + cos B = 2 cos A  B cos A  B
2 2
sin q and cosec q All trigonometric AB BA
(p) cos A – cos B = 2 sin sin
are +ve ratios are +ve 2 2
1
(q) sin A cos B = [sin(A + B) + sin(A – B)]
180° 0° 2
1
(III quadrant) (IV quadrant) (r) cos A sin B = [sin(A + B) – sin(A – B)]
2
tan q and cot q cos q and sec q
1
are +ve are +ve (s) cos A cos B = [cos(A + B) + cos(A – B)]
2
1
(t) sin A sin B = [cos(A – B) – cos(A + B)]
270° 2
8. Product and Sum Formulae for trigono- (u) sin x = 0 ⇔ x = np, n ∈ Z
π
metric functions (v) sin x = ± 1 ⇔ x = (4n ± 1) , n ∈ Z
2
(a) sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
(b) sin (A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B (w) cos x = 0 ⇔ x = (2n + 1) π , n ∈ Z
(c) cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B 2
(d) cos (A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B (x) cos x = ± 1 ⇔ x = 2np and x = (2n + 1)p,
n∈Z
tan A  tan B
(e) tan (A + B) = (y) eax ≠ 0, ∀ x ∈ R; a ∈ R
1  tan A tan B
9. Basic differentiation formulae
tan A  tan B
(f ) tan (A – B) = d
1  tan A tan B (a) (sin x) = cos x
dx
2 tan A
(g) sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A = d
1 + tan2 A (b) (cos x) = – sin x
dx
(h) cos 2A = cos2A – sin2 A
      = 1 – 2 sin2 A d
2
(c) (tan x) = sec2 x
     = 2 cos2 A – 1 = 1  tan A dx
1  tan2 A

(xiii)
 (d)
d
(cot x) = –cosec2 x (c) ∫ tan x dx = – log cos x + c = log sec x + c
dx
(e)
d
(sec x) = sec x tan x
(d) ∫ cot x dx = log sin x + c
dx
d
(e) ∫ sec x dx = log (sec x + tan x) + c
(f ) (cosec x) = –cosec x cot x
dx (f ) ∫ cosec x dx = log (cosec x – cot x) + c
d x (g)
∫ sec x dx = tan x + c
2
(g) (e ) = ex
dx
∫ cosec x dx = – cot x + c
2
d x (h)
(h) (a ) = ax loge a
dx
∫e
x
d 1 (i) dx = ex
(i) (log a x) =
dx x log a ax
∫ a dx =
x
d 1 (j) + c; a > 0, a ≠ 1
(j) (log e x) = log e a
dx x 1
d
(k) ∫ x dx = loge x +c
(k) (ax  b)n  na(ax  b)n  1
dx x n +1
∫ x dx =
n
(l) + c, n ≠ −1
d 1 n +1
(l) (sin 1 x)  , x ≠ ±1
dx 1  x2 dx 1 x
(m) ∫ 2 = tan −1 + c
d 1 a +x 2
a a
(m) (cos 1 x)   , x ≠ ±1
dx 1  x2 dx 1 a+x
(n)
d
(tan 1 x) 
1 (n) ∫ a2 − x 2 = 2a log  a − x  + c
dx 1  x2
dx 1  x −a
(o)
d
(cot 1 x) 
1 (o) ∫ x 2 − a2 = 2a log  x + a  + c
dx 1  x2
dx x
(p)
d
(sec 1 x) 
1
, x ≠ 0, ±1
(p) ∫ a2 − x 2
= sin −1
a
+c
dx x x2  1 dx x
(q)
d
(cosec 1 x)  
1
, x ≠ 0, ±1
(q) ∫ 2
a +x 2
= sin h −1
a
+c
dx x x2  1 dx x
(r)
d
(sin hx) = cos hx
(r) ∫ 2
x −a 2
= cos h −1
a
+c
dx
e ax
d
∫e
ax
(s) (cos hx)   sin hx (s) (a sin bx sin bx dx =
dx a + b2 2
– b cos bx)
10. Basic Integration Formulae
e ax
(a) ∫ sin x dx = – cos x + c ∫
(t)
e ax
cos bx dx = (a cos bx
a2 + b2
+ b sin bx)
(b) ∫ cos x dx = sin x + c

(xiv)
 ABBREVIATIONS

lim – limit diag. – diagonal

\ – therefore L.H.S. – left hand side
∵ – because of R.H.S. – right hand side
i.e., – that is dim – dimension
n
f (a) – nth derivative of (f ) at ‘a’ adj (A) – adjoint of matrix A
sup. – supremum min. – minimum
Inf. – infimum max. – maximum
Lf ′(a) – left hand derivative of ‘f ’ at ‘a’ L.C. – linear combination
Rf ′(a) – right hand derivative of ‘f ’ at ‘a’ L.D. – linear dependence
Lf (a) – left hand limit of ‘f ’ at ‘a’ L.I. – linear independence
Rf(a) – right hand limit of ‘f ’ at ‘a’

(xv)
 List of Figures

Unit 1: Calculus I
Fig. 1.1: Bending of curve 2
Fig. 1.2: Curvature at a point 3
Fig. 1.3: Mathematical definition of curvature 3
Fig. 1.4: Specifics of curvature at a point 4
Fig. 1.5: Radius of curvature for Cartesian curve 4
Fig. 1.6: Radius of curvature for polar curve 5
Fig. 1.9: Centre of curvature 14
Fig. 1.10: Evolute 15
Fig. 1.11: Involute of a circle 16
Fig. 1.12: Involute of a Catenary 16
Fig. 1.13: Involute of a Deltoid 16
Fig. 1.14: Involute of a parabola 17
Fig. 1.15: Involute of an Ellipse 17
Fig. 1.17: Revolution of Right angled Triangle 75
Fig. 1.18: Rotation of circle 75
Fig. 1.19: Rotation of Square 75
Fig. 1.20: Volume of solid generated by revolution of a Cartesian curve 76

Unit 2: Calculus II
Fig. 2.1: Rolle’s theorem 101
Fig. 2.5: Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem 107
Fig. 2.6: Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem 113
Fig. 2.7: Maxima –Minima 148
Fig. 2.8: Test for Extrema 149
Fig. 2.9: Local Extrema 150

Unit 3: Matrices
Fig. 3.1: Application of Unit Matrix 179
Fig. 3.2: Area of Triangle 195

(xvi)
 Guidelines for Teachers
To implement Outcome Based Education (OBE) knowledge level and skill set of the students
should be enhanced. Teachers should take a major responsibility for the proper implementation of
OBE. Some of the responsibilities (not limited to) for the teachers in OBE system may be as follows:
• Within reasonable constraint, they should manipulate time to the best advantage of all
students.
• They should assess the students only upon certain defined criterion without considering
any other potential ineligibility to discriminate them.
• They should try to grow the learning abilities of the students to a certain level before they
leave the institute.
• They should try to ensure that all the students are equipped with the quality knowledge as
well as competence after they finish their education.
•  They should always encourage the students to develop their ultimate performance
capabilities.
• They should facilitate and encourage group work and team work to consolidate newer
approach.
• They should follow Blooms taxonomy in every part of the assessment.

Bloom’s Taxonomy
Teacher should Student should be Possible Mode of
Level Check able to Assessment
Students ability to
Creating Design or Create Mini project
create
Students ability to
Evaluating Argue or Defend Assignment
Justify
Students ability to Differentiate or Project/Lab
Analysing
distinguish Distinguish Methodology
Students ability to use Operate or Technical Presentation/
Applying
information Demonstrate Demonstration
Students ability to
Understanding Explain or Classify Presentation/Seminar
explain the ideas
Students ability to
Remembering Define or Recall Quiz
recall (or remember)

Guidelines for Students

Students should take equal responsibility for implementing the OBE. Some of the responsibilities
(not limited to) for the students in OBE system are as follows:
• Students should be well aware of each UO before the start of a unit in each and every
course.
• Students should be well aware of each CO before the start of the course.
• Students should be well aware of each PO before the start of the programme.
• Students should think critically and reasonably with proper reflection and action.
• Learning of the students should be connected and integrated with practical and real life
consequences.
• Students should be well aware of their competency at every level of OBE.

(xvii)
 Contents

Foreword iii
Acknowledgement v
Preface vii
Outcome Based Education ix
Course Outcomes xi
Abbreviations and Symbols xii
List of Figures xvi
Guidelines for Teachers xvii
Guidelines for Students xvii

1. Calculus I ................................................................................................. 1–97

Unit Specifics 1
Rationale 1
Pre-Requisites 1
Unit Outcomes 1
Mapping of Unit Outcomes with Course Outcomes 2
History 2
1.1 curvature 2
1.1.1 Mathematical definition of a curvature 3
1.1.2 Radius of Curvature 3
1.1.3 Centre of Curvature, Circle of Curvature 13
1.1.4 Coordinates of the Centre of Curvature 14
1.1.5 Evolute 15
1.1.6 Involute 15
1.1.7 Envelope 17
1.2 Evaluation of Definite and Improper Integral 33
1.2.1 Definite Integral 33
1.2.2. First Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus 35
1.2.3 Second Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus 36
1.2.4 Properties of definite Integrals 37
1.2.5 Improper Integral 42
1.2.6 Types of Improper Integral 42
b
1.2.7 Comparison Tests for Convergence of ∫ a f ( x ) dx at ‘a’ 46
1.2.8 Important Theorems 48

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 1.2.9 Comparison Test for Convergence at ∞ 51
1.2.10 Important Theorem 52
1.2.11 Absolute Convergence 54
1.3 Beta, Gamma Functions and Their Properties 55
1.3.1 Gamma Function 55
1.3.2 Beta Function 60
1.3.3 Relation Between Beta and Gamma Function 62
1.3.4 Duplication Formula 68
1.4 Applications of Definite Integrals to Evaluate Surface Areas and Volumes of Revolution 75
1.4.1 Volumes of Solids of Revolution 76
1.4.2 Surface Areas of Solid of Revolution 76
Applications to Real Life  85
Summary 92
Project/Practical/Activity 96
Know More 96
References/Suggested Readings 97

2. Calculus II ............................................................................................ 98-170

Unit Specifics 98
Rationale 98
Pre-Requisites 98
Unit Outcomes 98
Mapping of Unit Outcomes with Course Outcomes 99
History 99
2.1 Rolle’s Theorem 99
2.1.1 Geometrical Interpretation of Rolle’s Theorem 101
2.1.2 Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem 106
2.1.3 Geometrical Interpretation of Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem 107
2.1.4 Cauchy Mean Value Theorem 111
2.1.5 Geometrical Interpretation of Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem 112
2.2 Taylor’s Theorem 116
2.2.1 Taylor’s Theorem with Lagrange’s form of Remainder 116
2.2.2 Maclaurin’s Theorem with Lagrange’s Form of Remainder 118
2.2.3 Taylor’s Theorem with Cauchy’s Form of Remainder 118
2.2.4 Maclaurin’s Theorem with Cauchy’s Form of Remainder 120
2.3 Indeterminate forms and L`Hospital’s Rule 126
0
2.3.1 L’Hospital Rule for Evaluation of Indeterminate form (Type-I) 126
0

∞
2.3.2 L’Hospital Rule for Evaluation of Indeterminate Form (Type-II) 133
∞

(xx)
 2.3.3 L’ Hospital Rule for Evaluation of Indeterminate form 0 × ∞ (Type-III) 135
2.3.4 L’Hospital Rule for  Evaluation of the Indeterminate form ∞ – ∞ (Type-IV) 136
2.3.5 L’Hospital Rule for Evaluation of Indeterminate Form 0° (Type-V) 139
2.3.6 L’Hospital Rule for Evaluation of Indeterminate Form 1∞ (Type-VI) 141
2.3.7 L’Hospital Rule for Evaluation of Indeterminate form ∞0 (Type-VII) 142
2.4 Maxima and Minima 148
2.4.1 Condition for Maxima and Minima 148
2.4.2 First Derivative Test for Extrema (Maxima or Minima) 149
2.4.3 Second Derivative Test for Extrema (Maxima or Minima) 152
Applications to Real Life 160
Summary 165
Project/Practical/Activity 169
Know More 169
References/Suggested Readings 170

3. Matrices .............................................................................................. 171–266

Unit Specifics 171
Rationale 171
Pre-Requisites 171
Unit Outcomes 171
Mapping of Unit Outcomes with Course Outcomes 172
History 172
Introduction 172
3.1 Definition 173
3.1.1 Various types of matrices 173
3.1.2 Operation on matrices 179
3.2 Vectors 182
3.2.1 operations on vectors 183
3.3 Elementary Operations (Transformation) 184
3.3.1 Elementary Matrix 185
3.4 Echelon Form of a matrix 185
3.4.1 Row-Echelon Form of a Matrix 185
3.4.2 Row Reduced Echelon Form of a Matrix 185
3.4.3 Column Echelon Form of a Matrix 185
3.4.4 Column Reduced Echelon Form of a Matrix 186
3.5 Determinants 186
3.5.1 Explanation of Determinant of Order Two (or Second Order) 186
3.5.2 Expansion of Determinant of Third Order 187
3.5.3 Properties of Determinant 189
3.5.4 Applications of Determinants 195
3.5.5 Minors and co-factors 198

(xxi)
 3.5.6 Adjoint of a Square Matrix 200
3.6 Rank of a Matrix 206
3.6.1 Another way to Find the Rank of a Matrix 206
3.7 Normal Form of a Matrix (Canonical Form) 211

I 0
3.7.1 To calculate P and Q where PAQ =  r  217
 0 0
3.8 Linear System of Equations 222
3.8.1 Types of Linear Equations 223
3.8.1.2 Homogeneous Equations 232
3.9 Solution of System of Linear Equations by Determinants 236
3.9.1 Cramer’s Rule 236
3.9.2 gauss Elimination method (To Solve system of linear equations) 239
3.9.3 Gauss-Jordan Method (To Solve System of Linear Equations) 243
3.9.4 Gauss Elimination Method for Finding the Inverse of a Matrix 248
3.9.5 Gauss-Jordan Method for Finding the Inverse of a Matrix 251
Applications to Real Life 254
Summary 261
Project/Practical/Activity 265
Know More 265
References/Suggested Readings 266

4. Vector Spaces I ................................................................................... 267–323

Unit Specifics 267
Rationale 267
Pre-Requisites 267
Unit Outcomes 267
Mapping of Unit Outcomes with Course Outcomes 268
History 268
4.1 Vector Space 268
4.1.1 Vectors in r 269
n

4.1.2 Vectors in Matrices 269

4.1.3 Vectors in Polynomial of Degree Atmost n 269
4.2 Linear Dependence and Independence of Vectors 274
4.3 Linear Combination of Vectors 277
4.3.1 Linear span 281
4.3.2 Basis of a vector space 284
4.3.3 Dimension of vector space 284
4.4 Linear Transformations 290
4.5 Matrix Associated with Linear Map/Transformation 295
4.5.1 Matrix of a Linear Transformation Relative to Ordered Basis 295
4.6 Composition (Product) of Two Linear Transformation 300

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 4.6.1 Inverse of a Linear Transformation (Operator) 302
4.7 Null Space or Kernel Of L.T. 304
4.8 Range or Image of a Linear Transformation 304
4.9 Rank and Nullity of a L.T. 304
4.9.1 Sylvester’s Law/Rank–Nullity Theorem 305
Summary 317
Know More 321
References/Suggested Readings 322

5. Vector Spaces II .................................................................................. 324–384

Rationale 324
Pre-Requisites 324
Unit Outcomes 324
Mapping of Unit Outcomes with Course Outcomes 325
History 325
5.1 Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors of a Linear Operator 325
5.2 Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors of a Matrix 326
5.2.1 Properties of Eigen Values 327
5.2.2 Eigen Space 328
5.2.3 Eigen bases 328
5.3 Theorems Based on Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric (Anti-Symmetric) Matrices 344
5.4 Orthogonal Matrix 348
5.4.1 Properties of Orthogonal matrix 348
5.5 Diagonalization of Linear Operator 353
5.5.1 Diagonalization of Matrices 354
5.6 Inner Product Space 359
5.6.1 Properties of Inner Product Space 360
5.6.2 Length (Norm) of a Vector 361
5.6.3 orthogonal vectors (Perpendicular vector) 366
5.6.4 Orthonormal Vectors 366
5.7 Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Process 367
Applications to Real Life 372
Summary 377
Project/Practical/Activity 381
Know More 382
References/Suggested Readings 382

  Index 385
  CO and PO Attainment Table 387

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