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 Acknowledgement

T he author(s) are grateful to AICTE for their meticulous planning and execution to publish the
technical book for Engineering and Technology students.
We sincerely acknowledge the valuable contributions of the reviewer of the book Prof. R.P
Dahiya, for making it students’ friendly and giving a better shape in an artistic manner.
This book is an outcome of various suggestions of AICTE members, experts and authors who
shared their opinion and thoughts to further develop the engineering education in our country.
It is also with great honour that we state that this book is aligned to the AICTE Model
Curriculum and in line with the guidelines of National Education Policy (NEP) -2020. Towards
promoting education in regional languages, this book is being translated in scheduled Indian
regional languages.
Acknowledgements are due to the contributors and different workers in this field whose
published books, review articles, papers, photographs, footnotes, references and other valuable
information enriched us at the time of writing the book.
Finally, we like to express our sincere thanks to the publishing house, M/s. Khanna Book
Publishing Company Private Limited, New Delhi, whose entire team was always ready to cooperate
on all the aspects of publishing to make it a wonderful experience.

A. B. Bhattacharya, Atanu Nag

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 Preface

T he book titled “Physics - Introduction to Mechanics” is an outcome of the rich experience

of our teaching of basic physics courses. The initiation of writing this book is to expose basic
science to the engineering students to the fundamentals of physics as well as enable them to get
an insight of the subject. Keeping in mind the purpose of wide coverage as well as to provide
essential supplementary information, we have included the topics recommended by AICTE, in a
very systematic and orderly manner throughout the book. Efforts have been made to explain the
fundamental concepts of the subject in the simplest possible way.
During the process of preparation of the manuscript, we have considered the various
standard text books and accordingly we have developed sections like critical questions, solved and
supplementary problems etc. While preparing the different sections emphasis has also been laid
on definitions and laws and also on comprehensive synopsis of formulae for a quick revision of the
basic principles. The book covers all types of medium and advanced level problems and these have
been presented in a very logical and systematic manner. The gradations of those problems have
been tested over many years of teaching a wide variety of students.
Apart from illustrations and examples as required, we have enriched the book with numerous
solved problems in every unit for proper understanding of the related topics. Under the common
title “Physics” there is a set of four books covering different aspects and applications of physics
in engineering. Out of those, the first one covers Introduction to Electromagnetic Theory, the
second one is based on Introduction to Mechanics, the third one is related to Quantum Mechanics
for Engineers and the fourth one is based on Oscillations, Waves and Optics. It is important to
note that in all the books, we have included the relevant laboratory practical. In addition, besides
some essential information for the users under the heading “Know More” we have clarified some
essential basic information in the appendix and annexure section.
As far as the present book is concerned, “Physics - Introduction to Mechanics” is meant to provide
a thorough grounding in applied physics on the topics covered. This part of the physics book will prepare
engineering students to apply the knowledge of Mechanics to tackle 21st century and onward engineering
challenges and address the related aroused questions. The subject matters are presented in a constructive
manner so that an Engineering degree prepares students to work in different sectors or in national laboratories
at the very forefront of technology. 
We sincerely hope that the book will inspire the students to learn and discuss the ideas behind
basic principles of engineering physics and will surely contribute to the development of a solid
foundation of the subject. We would be thankful to all beneficial comments and suggestions which
will contribute to the improvement of the future editions of the book. It gives us immense pleasure
to place this book in the hands of the teachers and students. It was indeed a big pleasure to work
on different aspects covering in the book.

A. B. Bhattacharya, Atanu Nag

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 Outcome Based Education

For the implementation of an outcome based education the first requirement is to develop an
outcome based curriculum and incorporate an outcome based assessment in the education
system. By going through outcome based assessments evaluators will be able to evaluate whether
the students have achieved the outlined standard, specific and measurable outcomes. With the
proper incorporation of outcome based education there will be a definite commitment to achieve
a minimum standard for all learners without giving up at any level. At the end of the programme
running with the aid of outcome based education, a students will be able to arrive at the following
outcomes:
PO-1: Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
PO-2: Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO-3: Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
PO-4: Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO-5: Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
PO-6: The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.
PO-7: Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
PO-8: Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
PO-9: Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

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PO-10: Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give
and receive clear instructions.
PO-11: Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO-12: Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

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 Course Outcomes

After completion of the course the students will be able to:

CO-1: Describe planar, spatial and dynamical motion of rigid bodies with the help of Euler’s
equations
CO-2: Explain rotational motion characteristics from the idea of torque and angular momentum
CO-3: Apply vector calculus and Newton's laws to fundamental level problems of mechanics
CO-4: Apply Kepler’s laws with the aid of other conservation laws to formulate central force
problems
CO-5: Apply the concepts of Coriolis force in different environmental and geographical aspects
CO-6: Analyze different types of oscillatory and vibratory motion problems in real life

Expected Mapping with Programme Outcomes

Course
(1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Outcomes
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12

CO-1 3 2 2 2 1 - - - - - - -
CO-2 3 1 2 1 - - - - - - - -
CO-3 3 3 2 1 - - - - - - - -
CO-4 3 3 3 2 1 - - - - - - -
CO-5 3 3 2 1 1 - - - - - - -
CO-6 3 3 3 2 1 - - - - - - -

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 Abbreviations and Symbols

List of Abbreviations
General Terms
Abbreviations Full form Abbreviations Full form
CO Course Outcome LCR Inductor Capacitor Resistor
CG Centre of Gravity MI Moment of Inertia
CM Centre of Mass PE Potential Energy
Div Divergence PO Programme Outcome
Grad Gradient SHM Simple Harmonic Motion
KE Kinetic Energy UO Unit Outcome
Units Used
Abbreviations Full form Abbreviations Full form
Hz hertz N newton
J joule rad radian
kg kilogram rps rotation per second

List of Symbols
Symbols Description Symbols Description
I moment of inertia µk coefficient of kinetic friction
K radius of gyration α angular acceleration
T time period θ angular displacement
S sharpness of resonance λ latitude
G Universal gravitational constant µ reduced mass
Ueff effective potential energy ε eccentricity
Keff effective kinetic energy τ torque
Fc centripetal force δxy kronecker delta
   
Fg centrifugal force A.B A dot B
    
L angular momentum A× B A cross B
 
I moment of inertia tensor ∇ del operator

g acceleration due to gravity ∇V grad V
  
k spring constant ∇ .A divergence A
  
fc centripetal acceleration ∇× A curl A

ω angular velocity ∇ 2φ laplacian φ
µs coefficient of static friction

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 List of Figures
Unit 1 Introductory Mechanics

Fig. 1.1 : Representation of a vector 3

Fig. 1.2 : Resolution of a vector in three dimensions 3
Fig. 1.3 : Graphical representation of vector addition 6
Fig. 1.4 : Vector dot product 6
Fig. 1.5 : Gradient of a scalar function 11
Fig. 1.6 : Flux lines 11
Fig. 1.7 : Cartesian co-ordinate system 13
Fig. 1.8 : Cylindrical coordinate System 14
Fig. 1.9 : Differential volume element in cylindrical coordinates 14
Fig. 1.10: Spherical polar coordinate system 15
Fig. 1.11: Differential volume in spherical coordinates 15
Fig. 1.12: Recoil of a gun 21
Fig. 1.13: Motion of two bodies connected by inextensible weightless string 22
Fig. 1.14: Vertical motion of two bodies connected by inextensible string 22
Fig. 1.15: Total mechanical energy of a freely falling body 22
Fig. 1.16: Total mechanical energy of a body falling down an inclined plane 23
Fig. 1.17: Angle of friction 24
Fig. 1.18: Dissipation of energy due to friction over an inclined plane 26
Fig. 1.19: Polar coordinate system 28

Unit 2 Conservation Principles

Fig. 2.1 : Path integral of force in conservative force field 47

Fig. 2.2 : Angular momentum conservation 55
Fig. 2.3 : Areal velocity 55
Fig. 2.4 : Two body problem 59
Fig. 2.5 : Motion of the reduced body in polar coordinate system 60
Fig. 2.6 : Variation of effective potential energy 63
Fig. 2.7 : Illustration of Kepler’s 2nd law 66
Fig. 2.8 : Satellite maneuvers 68

Unit 3 Dynamics of Particles

Fig. 3.1 : Coriolis force due to the rotation of the Earth 80

Fig. 3.2 : Effect of centrifugal force on gravity due to the rotation of the Earth 82
Fig. 3.3 : Foucault Pendulum 85

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Unit 4 Oscillations

Fig. 4.1 : Motion of a simple pendulum 97

Fig. 4.2 : SHM along with its reference circle 98
Fig. 4.3 : Harmonic oscillator 102
Fig. 4.4 : Graphical illustration of damped oscillatory motion 104
Fig. 4.5 : Illustration of critically damped and overdamped motion 105
Fig. 4.6 : Occurrence of amplitude resonance at resonant frequency 110
Fig. 4.7 : Variation of energy with frequency of the external force 111

Unit 5 Rotational Motion

Fig. 5.1 : Rotational motion 131

Fig. 5.2 : Centripetal acceleration 132
Fig. 5.3 : Concept of centrifugal reaction 134
Fig. 5.4 : Moment of force 134
Fig. 5.5 : Moment of couple 135
Fig. 5.6 : Moment of inertia 135
Fig. 5.7 : Relationship between torque and MI 136
Fig. 5.8 : Angular momentum of a rigid body 137
Fig. 5.9 : Relationship between angular momentum and MI 137
Fig. 5.10: Axis passing through CM of the rod 140
Fig. 5.11: Axis passing through one end of the rod 140
Fig. 5.12: Axis passing through the centre and perpendicular to the plane of the disc 140
Fig. 5.13: Axis passing through the centre and perpendicular to the plane of the annular ring 141
Fig. 5.14: About the axis of the cylinder 141
Fig. 5.15: Axis through the CM and parallel to one side of a uniform rectangular lamina 142
Fig. 5.16: About a diameter of a uniform solid sphere 142

Unit 6 Dynamics of a Rigid Body

Fig. 6.1 : Rigid body rotation 161

Fig. 6.2 : Motion of a rolling wheel 162
Fig. 6.3 : Body rolling down an inclined plane 163
Fig. 6.4 : Ellipsoid of inertia 165
Fig. 6.5 : MI calculation for thin uniform rod 166
Fig. 6.6 : MI calculation for a rectangular lamina 166
Fig. 6.7 : MI calculation for a circular lamina 167
Fig. 6.8 : MI calculation for a cylinder 167

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 Guidelines for Teachers
To implement Outcome Based Education (OBE) knowledge level and skill set of the students should be
enhanced. Teachers should take a major responsibility for the proper implementation of OBE. Some of the
responsibilities (not limited to) for the teachers in OBE system may be as follows:
• Within reasonable constraint, they should manoeuvre time to the best advantage of all students.
• They should assess the students only upon certain defined criterion without considering any other
potential ineligibility to discriminate them.
• They should try to grow the learning abilities of the students to a certain level before they leave
the institute.
• They should try to ensure that all the students are equipped with the quality knowledge as well as
competence after they finish their education.
• They should always encourage the students to develop their ultimate performance capabilities.
• They should facilitate and encourage group work and team work to consolidate newer approach.
• They should follow Blooms taxonomy in every part of the assessment.

Bloom’s Taxonomy
Teacher should Student should be Possible Mode of
Level
Check able to Assessment
Students ability to
Create Design or Create Mini project
create
Students ability to
Evaluate Argue or Defend Assignment
justify
Students ability to Differentiate or Project/Lab
Analyse
distinguish Distinguish Methodology
Students ability to Operate or Technical Presentation/
Apply
use information Demonstrate Demonstration
Students ability to
Understand Explain or Classify Presentation/Seminar
explain the ideas
Students ability to
Remember Define or Recall Quiz
recall (or remember)

Guidelines for Students

Students should take equal responsibility for implementing the OBE. Some of the responsibilities (not
limited to) for the students in OBE system are as follows:
• Students should be well aware of each UO before the start of a unit in each and every course.
• Students should be well aware of each CO before the start of the course.
• Students should be well aware of each PO before the start of the programme.
• Students should think critically and reasonably with proper reflection and action.
• Learning of the students should be connected and integrated with practical and real life
consequences.
• Students should be well aware of their competency at every level of OBE.

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 CONTENTS

Foreword iii
Acknowledgement v
Preface vii
Outcome Based Education ix
Course Outcomes xi
Abbreviations and Symbols xii
List of Figures xiii
Guidelines for Teachers xv
Guidelines for Students xv

Unit 1: Introductory Mechanics 1-44

Unit specifics 1
Rationale 2
Pre-requisites 2
Unit outcomes 2
1.1 Vector fundamentals 3
1.1.1 Components of a vector 3
1.1.2 Vector algebra 5
1.1.3 Vector differentiation 9
1.2 Co-ordinate systems 12
1.2.1 Cartesian coordinate system 13
1.2.2 Cylindrical coordinate System 14
1.2.3 Spherical polar coordinates system 15
1.3 Transformation properties 16
1.3.1 Transformation of vector components 16
1.3.2 Transformation of the scalar product 17
1.3.3 Transformation of the vector product 17
1.4 Fundamental forces of nature 18
1.5 Newton’s laws of motion 19
1.5.1 Momentum 19
1.5.2 Recoil of a gun 21
1.6 Motion of two connected bodies 21
1.6.1 Horizontal motion of two bodies 21
1.6.2 Vertical motion of two bodies 22
1.7 Conservation of mechanical energy 22
1.7.1 Freely falling body 22
1.7.2 Body falling down an inclined plane 23
1.8 Friction 24
1.8.1 Laws of friction 24

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 1.8.2 Angle of friction 24
1.8.3 Energy dissipation due to friction 25
1.9 Limitations of Newton’s laws 26
1.10 Inertial reference frame 26
1.10.1 Cartesian coordinate system 27
1.10.2 Polar coordinate system 27
1.10.3 Polar coordinates in a rotating frame 28
Unit summary 32
Exercises 35
Practical 39
Know more 41
References and suggested readings 43

Unit 2: Conservation Principles 45-74

Unit specifics 45
Rationale 46
Pre-requisites 46
Unit outcomes 46
2.1 Introduction 47
2.2 Conservative and non-conservative forces 47
2.2.1 Conservative forces 47
2.2.2 Non-conservative forces 50
2.3 Potential energy 50
2.4 Force and potential relationship 51
2.5 Central force 54
2.5.1 Characteristics of motion 54
2.5.2 Nature of orbit 54
2.5.3 Conservation of angular momentum 54
2.5.4 Areal velocity 55
2.6 General equation of a central orbit 55
2.7 Energy in a central force field 56
2.7.1 Conservation of energy in central motion 57
2.8 Reduction of two-body problem 58
2.9 Energy and angular momentum 60
2.10 Equation for the orbit of reduced body 61
2.11 Energy equation and energy diagrams 63
2.11.1 Circular, elliptic, parabolic and hyperbolic orbits 64
2.12 Laws of planetary motion 66
2.12.1 Kepler’s first law 66
2.12.2 Kepler’s second law 66
2.12.3 Kepler’s third law 67
2.13 Satellite maneuvers 67
Unit summary 69
Exercises 70
Know more 73

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2.11 Energy equation and energy diagrams 63
2.11.1 Circular, elliptic, parabolic and hyperbolic orbits 64
2.12 Laws of planetary motion 66
2.12.1 Kepler’s first law 66
2.12.2 Kepler’s second law 66
2.12.3 Kepler’s third law 67
2.13 Satellite maneuvers 67
Unit summary 69
Exercises 70
Know more 73
References and suggested readings 74
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Unit 3: Dynamics of Particles 75-94

Unit specifics 75
Rationale 76
Pre-requisites 76
Unit outcomes 76
3.1 Introduction 77
3.2 Non-inertial reference frame 77
3.3 Centripetal and Coriolis accelerations 77
3.4 Coriolis force due to Earth’s rotation 80
3.5 Coriolis force on a freely falling body 81
3.6 Effect of centrifugal force on gravity 82
3.7 Applications of Coriolis force 84
3.8 Foucault pendulum 84
Unit summary 88
Exercises 89
Know more 91
References and suggested readings 94

Unit 4: Oscillations 95-128

Unit specifics 95
Rationale 96
Pre-requisites 96
Unit outcomes 96
4.1 Introduction 97
4.2 Simple Harmonic Motion 97
4.2.1 Characteristics of SHM 98
4.3 Analogy of SHM with circular motion 98
4.4 Differential equation of SHM 100
4.5 Harmonic oscillator 102
4.6 Damped Vibration 102
4.6.1 Differential equation 102
4.7 Forced vibration 107
4.7.1 Differential equation 109
4.7.2 Solution of the differential equation 109
4.8 Discussion for steady states 110
4.8.1 Amplitude resonance 110
4.8.2 Velocity and energy resonance 111
4.8.3 Sharpness of resonance 112
Unit summary 114
Exercises 115
Practicals 119
Know more 125

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 4.7.1 Differential equation 109
4.7.2 Solution of the differential equation 109
4.8 Discussion for steady states 110
4.8.1 Amplitude resonance 110
4.8.2 Velocity and energy resonance 111
4.8.3 Sharpness of resonance 112
Unit summary 114
Exercises 115
Practicals 119
Know more 125
References and suggested readings 127
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Unit 5: Rotational Motion 129-158
Unit specifics 129
Rationale 130
Pre-requisites 130
Unit outcomes 130
5.1 Introduction 131
5.1.1 Angular displacement 131
5.1.2 Angular velocity 131
5.1.3 Angular acceleration 131
5.2 Centripetal acceleration 132
5.3 Centripetal force 133
5.4 Centrifugal reaction and centrifugal force 134
5.5 Moment of force 134
5.5.1 Dimension and units of torque 135
5.6 Couple and moment of a couple 135
5.7 Moment of inertia 135
5.7.1 Relation between torque and moment of inertia 136
5.8 Angular momentum 137
5.8.1 Relation between angular momentum and moment of inertia 137
5.8.2 Relation between torque and angular momentum 138
5.8.3 Conservation of angular momentum 138
5.9 Theorems of MI 138
5.9.1 Parallel axis theorem 138
5.9.2 Perpendicular axis theorem 138
5.10 Radius of gyration 139
5.11 Moment of inertia for symmetric bodies 139
5.12 Euler’s laws of motion 144
Unit summary 145
Exercises 147
Practicals 150
Know more 156
References and suggested readings 158

Unit 6: Dynamics of a Rigid Body 159-182

Unit specifics 159
Rationale 160
Pre-requisites 160
Unit outcomes 160
6.1 Introduction 161
6.2 Rotation of a rigid body 161
6.3 Rolling wheel 162
6.4 Body rolling down 163

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6.5 Ellipsoid of inertia 165
6.6 Moments and products of inertia 166
6.6.1 Thin uniform rod 166
6.6.2 Rectangular lamina 166
6.6.3 Circular lamina 167
6.6.4 Cylinder 167
6.7 Angular momentum of rigid body 168
6.8 Kinetic energy of rigid body 169
6.9 Inertia tensor 170
6.10 Euler’s equation of motion 170
Unit summary 172
Exercises 173
Practical 174
Know more 178
References and suggested readings 181

Table of Physical Constants 183-184

Table I : Units and dimensions 183
Table II : Powers of ten 183
Table III: Coefficient of static friction for dry interfaces 184

Appendices 185-188
Appendix - A : Suggestive Template for Practicals 185
Appendix - B : Indicative Evaluation Guidelines for Practicals / Projects / Activities in Group 186
Appendix - C : Assessments Aligned to Bloom’s Level 187
Appendix - D : Records for Practicals 188

Annexures 189-200
Annexure-I : Triple product of vectors 189
Annexure-II : Important formulas involving vector differential operator 190
Annexure-III: Gradient, divergence and curl in Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical polar 191
coordinate system
Annexure-IV: Vector integration - line, surface and volume integrals 193
Annexure-V : Different types of error in measurements 194
Annexure-VI: Some general and specific instructions when working in the laboratory 200

References for Further Learning 201-202

CO and PO Attainment Table 203

Index 205-206

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