Zhou Et Al. - Microplastics in Soils - A Review of Methods, Occurence, Fate, Transport, Ecological and Environmental Risks

Science of the Total Environment 748 (2020) 141368
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Science of the Total Environment
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv
Review
Microplastics in soils: A review of methods, occurrence, fate, transport,

ecological and environmental risks
Yujie Zhou a,b, Junxiao Wang a,b, Mengmeng Zou a,b, Zhenyi Jia a,b, Shenglu Zhou a,b,⁎, Yan Li c
a
School of Geography and Ocean Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
b
Key Laboratory of Coastal Zone Exploitation and Protection, Ministry of Natural Resources, Nanjing 210024, China
c
College of Forestry, Nanjing Forestry University, 159 Longpan Road, Nanjing 210037, Jiangsu, China
H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T
• We extrapolate a standardized protocol

for soil MPs based on meta-analysis.
• Data on the global distribution of soil
MP pollution, including in China, are
scarce.
• Microplastics pose potential impacts on
soil ecosystems and human food chains.
• It is necessary to further improve soil
MPs research framework and control
measures.
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The global prevalence of microplastics (MPs) poses a potential threat and unpredictable risk to the function and
Received 18 May 2020 health of environmental systems. However, the research progress of soil MPs is restricted by the inherent tech-
Received in revised form 13 July 2020 nical inconformity and difficulties in analyzing particles in complex matrices. Here, we reviewed a selection of
Accepted 28 July 2020
papers and then extrapolated a tentative standardized method for such analyses. The multiple sources of soil
Available online 7 August 2020
MPs in soil need to be quantified. Global monitoring data of soil MPs is far from sufficient. The interaction be-
Editor: Damia Barcelo tween MPs and different properties and environmental factors controls the migration and retention of MPs in
soil. The migration behavior and key mechanisms of MPs in real-world environments remain to be determined.
Keywords: The presence of MPs threatens soil microbial-plant-animal ecosystem function and health, and may enter the
Microplastics pollution human body through the food chain, although the extent of these hazards is currently debated. In particular, at-
Soil health tention should be paid to the potential transport and ecotoxicological mechanisms of contaminants derived and
Standardized method adsorptive from MPs and of harmful microorganisms (such as pathogens) attached as biofilms. Although there
Environmental impacts exist preliminary studies on soil MPs, it is urgent to consider the diversity of MPs as a suite of contaminants
Control strategy
and to systematically understand the sources, flux and effects of these artificial pollutants in time and space
from the perspective of plastic environmental cycle. More comprehensive quantification of their environmental
fate is undertaken to identify risks to global human and ecological systems. From the perspective of controlling
soil MP pollution, the responsibility assignment of government manage-producer-consumer system and the
strategy of remediation should be implemented. This review is helpful for providing an important roadmap
and inspiration for the research methods and framework of soil MPs and facilitates the development of waste
management and remediation strategies for regional soil MP contamination.
© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
⁎ Corresponding author at: School of Geography and Ocean Science, Nanjing University, 163 Xianlin Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210023, China.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Zhou), [email protected] (Y. Li).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141368
0048-9697/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
2 Y. Zhou et al. / Science of the Total Environment 748 (2020) 141368
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Literature retrieval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Meta-analysis of methodologies of microplastics in soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1. Soil collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.2. Soil processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.2.1. Density separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.2.2. Chemical digestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2.3. Sieving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2.4. Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3. Characterization of microplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3.1. Size of microplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3.2. Shape of microplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3.3. Color of microplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3.4. Microplastic polymer type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.3.5. Quantification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4. Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5. Occurrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.1. Abundance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.2. Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6. Impact of microplastics on soil ecosystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6.1. Effects on soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6.1.1. Effects on soil physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6.1.2. Effects on soil chemical properties and nutrient cycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.2. Effects on microbes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.3. Effects on plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6.4. Effects on soil animals and trophic level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7. Human exposure to soil plasticizers and microplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
7.1. Plasticizer contamination of microplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
7.2. Effect on humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
8. Control and proposal of microplastic pollution in soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
9. Conclusions and perspectives for future research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
CRediT authorship contribution statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Appendix A. Supplementary data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1. Introduction Nizzetto, 2018). MPs may also be used as carriers of hazardous sub-
stances (e.g., potentially toxic elements, antibiotics, polycyclic aromatic
Due to their strong plasticity, cost efficiency and durability, plastics, hydrocarbons and pathogens), in addition to their own toxic additives
as stable compound materials, are widely applied in multiple fields, in- (plasticizers, colorants) and non-polymerized monomers (Bradney
cluding agricultural production, packaging, industrial manufacturing, et al., 2019; Guo et al., 2012). These reasons lead to rethink MPs as a di-
clothing and medicine (Fuller and Gautam, 2016; PlasticsEurope, verse contaminant suite (Rochman et al., 2019), and this diversity has
2019). The total amount of plastics manufactured worldwide in 2019 become an environmental hot subject that threatens global biodiversity,
was approximately 3.6 × 108 tons (PlasticsEurope, 2019), resulting in environmental ecosystems and human health (Carbery et al., 2018;
a staggering amount of plastic waste. Despite recycling efforts, nearly Gong and Xie, 2020).
90% of waste was discharged directly or indirectly into soil At present, extensive and in-depth studies have been carried out on
(PlasticsEurope, 2019). Prolonged exposure to forms/processes of the sources, abundance, analytical methods, spatiotemporal distribu-
weathering such as ultraviolet radiation (UV), hydrolysis, mechanical tion, transportation patterns and ecoeffects of MPs in the ocean
wear, soil erosion, animals feed (e.g., earthworm) and microbial action (Andrady, 2011; Rezania et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2016; Yan et al.,
result in the progressive breakdown of plastic into countless smaller 2020a). Most marine MPs come from land emissions, and thus terres-
plastic particles, including microplastics (MPs) (Mai et al., 2018; Mao trial environments are a more important “sink” for MPs (Peng et al.,
et al., 2020; Rillig, 2012; Steinmetz et al., 2016). 2020; Wang et al., 2019d). The annual amounts of MPs released into
Nonuniformly mixed plastic granules with a size of <5 mm are com- farmland through the application of biosolid compost and sewage
monly defined as MPs (Cole et al., 2011; UNEP, 2014). These emerging sludge may far exceed the current total load of MPs in the global
pollutants are released directly or indirectly into the environment in dif- ocean surface layer (Carr et al., 2016; van Sebille, 2015). Thus, the amaz-
ferent ways from primary sources (e.g., industrial, personal care abra- ing production, limited land area, and widespread distribution of plas-
sive or pharmaceutical products) and secondary sources (i.e., the tics in terrestrial systems may result in a higher environmental
fragmentation of large pieces of plastic such as agricultural mulch, concentration within these ecosystems than in the marine environ-
daily waste) (Bläsing and Amelung, 2018; Guo et al., 2020). MPs are ments (Windsor et al., 2019). Since soil MP pollution was reported by
widely found in various environmental media, such as water, soil and Rillig (2012), the occurrence and potential harm of MPs in complex
the atmosphere, because of their high concentrations and wide-range soil ecosystems have attracted increasing attention (Corradini et al.,
transport (Chen et al., 2020a; Mohamed Nor and Obbard, 2014). MPs 2019b; Huerta Lwanga et al., 2017a; Yu et al., 2020). However, the in-
with small particle sizes are easily ingested by organisms and may vestigation data on MP distribution in soil are still insufficient due to
enter higher trophic levels in the food chain (web) (Hurley and the inconveniences of analytical methods in complex matrix (Moller
Y. Zhou et al. / Science of the Total Environment 748 (2020) 141368 3
et al., 2020). The number of studies on terrestrial ecosystems only ac- 3. Meta-analysis of methodologies of microplastics in soil
counts for approximately 5% of MP-related data, which obviously lags
behind that of aquatic systems. MPs from multiple sources may undergo 3.1. Soil collection
complex pathways and environmental cycles in the complex heteroge-
neous system of soil, which may produce ecological stress in various Soil samples from 24 MP studies were collected from various soil en-
fields (Benckiser, 2019; Helmberger et al., 2019; Prata et al., 2020). vironments, and 14 of these were specifically developed or improved
Therefore, carrying out more research on the sources, occurrence and methods that were verified by field sampling. Various land-use types
environmental fate of soil MPs is a prerequisite to effectively assess were sampled (e.g., farmland, vacant land, industrial land, residential
their potential impact on and risk caused to soil ecosystems. land, and woodland) (Fig. S3). Most of the mentioned sampling devices
The ingestion behavior of MPs by marine organisms and their re- (Table S1) (n = 13) were steel spades (n = 9/13, 69.2%), as well as soil
sponse to the toxicological effects of plastic-derived compounds have augers (n = 4). In most studies (n = 23/24, 95.8%), the number of actual
been widely confirmed (Redondo-Hasselerharm et al., 2018; Wang multiple sampling locations (replicates were not involved) ranged from
et al., 2020c). Similar to the aquatic environment, MPs affect the health 4 to 10 (n = 7) and from 12 to 31 (n = 12); other sampled location
and function of soil ecosystems, including negative effects on some soil numbers were 53 (n = 1), 60 (n = 2), and 102 (n = 1), with a maxi-
detritus feeders and habitants (Kim and An, 2019; Zhou et al., 2020a). mum of 384 locations sampled in 19 provinces across China (Huang
Preliminary data indicated that the presence of MPs in soil also affects et al., 2020a). Thirteen studies sampled farmland regions and adopted
soil properties, plant performance and microbial activities (De Souza various methods, as follows:
Machado et al., 2019; Fei et al., 2020), but the underlying mechanism (i) Quadrat sampling using a spade (n = 11) with quadrat sizes
needs to be clarified. Notably, plastic additives enhance the ecotoxicity ranging from 0.0625 to 2500 m2;
of MPs (Li et al., 2016a). For example, the widespread use of plastic (ii) Sampling with a narrow or steel spade in areas measuring
mulching containing phthalates (PAEs) increases the pollution risk of 16 m × 2 m, 30 m × 5 m or 50 m × 6 m (n = 3);
agricultural products (Li et al., 2016b; Shi et al., 2019). Exogenous pol- (iii) Digging, using a 4.8-cm-diameter soil auger in the top 5 cm of
lutants are absorbed by MPs formed by the crushing of large plastic res- the soil (n = 1).
idues in farmland, which pose a threat to the safety of agricultural The soil sampling depth varied among 17 studies (Table S1). The soil
products and eventually bring potential risks to human health (Huang depths ranged from 2 to 40 cm, with 13 (n = 13/17, 76.5%) sampling a
et al., 2020a; Zhang et al., 2020a). In sum, works on the effect of MPs single layer or two layers of soil in the 20 cm surface profile. It is recom-
on soil ecosystems and their potential mechanisms are limited. It is nec- mended that the layout sampling location be determined in situ for con-
essary to know recent progress to serve future research on this issue. sidering different goals (e.g., plastic utilization history and possible
Therefore, the main purpose of this review is to: (i) review current point or nonpoint source pollution emissions) to meet the research ob-
publications and then extrapolate a tentative standard analysis proto- jectives (Koelmans et al., 2019; Moller et al., 2020). In addition, air con-
col; (ii) collate the occurrence and sources of MPs in terrestrial soil eco- tamination (e.g., polymer particles and fibers) of samples in the
systems, and discuss the migration process and mechanism; (iii) laboratory was identified as a major issue in MP characterization
analyze the effect of MPs on soils and ecological function, including plas- (Torre et al., 2016). Strict quality control (QA) procedures (e.g., dust-
ticizer contamination, and on human health risks. Through the free laboratory, blank control, standard control) are also required to pre-
reviewed research, knowledge gaps of soil MP contamination and sev- vent other pollution sources (Hermsen et al., 2018; Torre et al., 2016).
eral suggestions and perspectives for future works were proposed.
This study is helpful to grasp the current research frontiers and short- 3.2. Soil processing
comings of soil MPs quickly and comprehensively.
The separation of MPs from a soil system is more complicated than
2. Literature retrieval the same process in a water environment because of the heterogeneity
of soils and characteristics of MPs (Liu et al., 2019). The inconsistency of
An extensive literature review was conducted to retrieve articles on uniform standardized procedures for separating and identifying MPs
MPs in soil systems or terrestrial ecosystems using the Scopus, Science makes it impossible to compare MP pollution between different ecosys-
direction, Springer, Wiley, ACS and CNKI databases. Online retrieval is tems (Fuller and Gautam, 2016; Qi et al., 2020a). MPs are extracted after
difficult to perform exact queries and classification of literature data- field sampling from the sample matrix for further analysis. General ex-
base, thus we used an EndNote X7 software (Thomson ResearchSoft, traction techniques for MPs in soil are similar to those for aquatic sedi-
USA) for bibliometrics analysis. First, extensive literature search was ments and include four steps: (1) density separation; (2) digestion;
carried out in online databases (i.e., using “microplastic” or “plastic de- (3) sieving; and (4) filtration (Fig. 1).
bris” or “plastic” in title+abstract+keywords), and then the RIS file in-
cluding all retrieved literatures was imported into the EndNote in batch. 3.2.1. Density separation
To remove duplicate literatures in Endnote software (options to find du- Density separation has been widely used in water and sediment en-
plicates), and then conduct a preliminary screening of relevant litera- vironments (Fok et al., 2019) and was modified for use in soils in the
tures by using “soil” or “terrestrial” or “land” in the software search reviewed studies (n = 22/24, 91.7%) (Fig. 1). The choice of saline solu-
panel. Lastly, a quick browse of the titles, keywords and abstracts in tion varies for targeted MPs in different studies. A saturated NaCl solu-
the preliminary selected literature database was conducted to deter- tion (1.19–1.24 g/mL) is commonly applied in flotation because it is
mine whether it belongs to the MPs research related to the soil system nontoxic and inexpensive. Distilled water and dichloromethane
(soil properties, microorganism, plant, animal). These literatures were (1.3 g/mL) are also used. These reagents usually extract low-density
added to each created group for the purpose of categorical statistics of particles (0.8–1.4 g/mL) (Moller et al., 2020). However, high-density so-
research direction and publication time. Ultimately, 221 publications lutions are needed for high-density plastics, such as polybutylenes tere-
(including research articles and review articles) were published before phthalate (PBT) (1.34–1.39 g/mL), polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
June 2020, among which most of the studies (n = 197/221, 89%) were (1.5 g/mL), polylactic acid (PLA) (1.32 g/mL) and polyvinyl chloride
published since 2018 (Fig. S1). Of the 156 research articles collected, (PVC) (≤ 1.58 g/mL) (Wang and Wang, 2018). Some salts of high solu-
24 papers regarding regional soil MP contamination are listed in bility such as ZnCl2 (1.6 g/mL), CaCl2 (1.4–1.6 g/mL), NaBr
Table S1 (Fig. S2). The articles on the interactions between MPs and (1.55 g/mL), and NaI (1.6–1.85 g/mL) have been employed in several
soil microbial communities, plants, and animals are summarized in studies (Table S5). One-step separation was used in 13 studies (n =
Tables S2, S3 and S4, respectively. 13/22, 59.1%), and a two-step separation technique was implemented
Fig. 1. Number distribution of research articles using different soil microplastic extraction and analysis procedures (Data from 24 reviewed studies related to regional soil MPs in Table S1).
The final step in all studies included visual identification of microplastics, among which 17 studies involved polymer composition analysis of suspected microplastics using Infrared and
Raman spectroscopy. *Other studies (n = 7) developed or improved methods for the determination of soil microplastics.
in 9 studies. To improve extraction performance, 4 out of 9 studies used 2017), affect the microscopic and spectral identification of soil MPs
saturated NaCl in the first step and NaI solution in the second step. Al- (Bläsing and Amelung, 2018). Because of the difficulty in separating
though the density of ZnCl2 and NaI solutions is sufficient, the recovery some of these components from the soil matrix, it is necessary to elim-
and recycling of these solutions are necessary due to their corrosive and inate the interference of organic matter (OM) (Hurley et al., 2018).
toxic or high-cost nature. A CaCl2 solution seems to be suitable for the Strong acid, alkali solution and oxidant digestion techniques were
extraction of soil MPs. However, Ca2+ may bridge the negative charge used in most of the reviewed studies (n = 18/24, 75%) (Table S5). The
of organic molecules, thus facilitating the separation of soil organic ma- removal efficiency of organics by HNO3 was higher than that of other re-
terial (Li et al., 2020a). Castor oil (Mani et al., 2019) and olive oil-based agents (H2SO4, H2O2, NaOH, KClO). However, HNO3 treatment results in
extraction techniques (Scopetani et al., 2020) were used in the decomposition or denaturation of several plastic materials, such as
recent studies, which are considered to be cheap, simple and safe alter- acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polyamide (PA), and PET. The
natives, compared to salt solutions. most frequently used oxidant in soil MP research (n = 12), 30% H2O2,
Soil-associated aggregates absorb and engulf MPs (Zhang and Zhang, effectively removed soil and organic attachments on MPs. This com-
2020), thereby reducing the MP separation efficiency. Therefore, stir- pound can also be conducive to the filtration and identification of MPs
ring, ultrasonic oscillation, and continuous air flow are used to break ag- (Scheurer and Bigalke, 2018; Tagg et al., 2015). Five studies used 30%
gregates in the separation process (Table S5). For example, some H2O2 and FeSO4 catalysts (i.e., Fenton's reagent). Fenton's reagent sig-
improved devices were implemented, such as a modified pressure nificantly removed organics and had little damaging effect on the prop-
fluid extraction device (PEE) (Fuller and Gautam, 2016) and a continu- erties of MPs. However, the feasibility of the protocol mainly depended
ous air flow flotation separation device, based on Nuelle et al. (2014) on the control of the pH (optimum at 3.0) and the reaction temperature
(Zhou et al., 2019a; Zhou et al., 2018; Zhou et al., 2016). Liu et al. (<40 °C). This protocol may be detrimental in carbonate soils due to the
(2019) developed a NaBr solution recycling device aimed at the recov- formation of Fe(OH)3 precipitates when the pH range exceeds 5–6. A
ery or reuse of toxic heavy liquids and expensive solutions. The im- specific chemical mixture was employed for digestion in two studies,
proved method (PEE) of Fuller and Gautam (2016) can effectively namely, a mixture of 30% H2O2 and H2SO4 (v/v, 1:1) (Li et al., 2019b)
extract <30 μm MPs, but the method sensitivity is a limitation due to or 30% KOH:NaClO (Zhou et al., 2019b). The effectiveness of ultrasonic
the small amount of extracted MP samples. For the purpose of crushing cleaning was observed by Zhang and Liu (2018) on the disintegration
aggregates and dispersing MPs (Zhou et al., 2019b), 6 studies were con- of attachments on MPs. Digestion temperature was considered in 20
ducted with ultrasonic treatment after adding a flotation solution. Other studies, varying from 20 °C (Zhou et al., 2016) to 100 °C (Fuller and
factors, such as dispersants (0.5 mol/L sodium hexametaphosphate) Gautam, 2016), and more than half of the studies used a digestion tem-
(Zhou et al., 2019a) and the setting energy and time of the ultrasound, perature range of 50–70 °C (n = 10). Fourteen studies also assigned di-
affected the extraction efficiency. gestion times ranging from 2 h to one week. Another potential digestion
method is the combined application of cellulase, protease, and amylase
3.2.2. Chemical digestion (Cole et al., 2014; Löder et al., 2017). Nevertheless, the effect of enzy-
Certain components (e.g., particulate organic matter) in complex matic hydrolysis on the removal of soil organic matter (SOM) remains
heterogeneous soil systems have similar densities to organic fibers, highly uncertain, especially considering the complex composition and
thereby interfering with the visual analysis of MPs. Biofilms formed by different physicochemical properties of the soil matrix.
the adhesion of the microbial community on MPs in soil, consisting of In sum, the general application of these methods in soil needs to con-
microorganisms and various organic sediments (Galloway et al., sider the following: (1) certain plastic polymers react with strong
oxidants; (2) enzymolysis is limited by highly abundant and/or However, visual classification is considered problematic because the
large volume samples because of the high cost and difficulty of reliability of inspection largely hinges on the operation of examiners,
digesting stable OM; and (3) the effects of wet‑oxygen oxidation microscope resolution, and residues on filters (without the removal of
on MPs and the potential of inadvertent digestion of inherent pol- organics or inorganics). Eriksen et al. (2013) reported an error rate of
lutants (e.g., PAEs) remain unknown. Further works include modi- 20–70%. In most cases, suspected MPs need to be selected for further
fying, validating and standardizing separation methods for ease of verification by analytical instruments (Lv et al., 2019), as described in
collecting comparable data. the Section 3.3.4.
3.2.3. Sieving 3.3.1. Size of microplastics

Soil MPs are initially sorted through the sieving progress and are There is no general consensus on MP size; thus, the reported size
subdivided into various size classes. As a preliminary separation step, range in the reviewed literature varied widely. It is appropriate to define
the sample is wetted or dried for postsieving to reduce the volume of plastic particles smaller than 5 mm as MPs (Andrady, 2011). Four stud-
follow-up treatment. The selection of mesh size determines the quanti- ies followed this definition (Table S1). The minimum size is determined
tative size range of MPs. Sieving was carried out in 16 out of 24 studies, by mesh size, sieve opening or membrane pore size used in sampling
and the mesh sizes used were mostly (n = 12/16, 75%) between 1 mm and laboratory procedures. The detected minimum size of MPs was dif-
(Fuller and Gautam, 2016) and 5 mm (Zhou et al., 2019b; Huang et al., ferent, ranging from 0.01 to 1 mm. The size distribution characteristics
2020a, 2020b). Five sieving procedures were presented in the reviewed were studied by dividing MPs into different size ranges, namely, large
articles: (3–5 mm), medium (1–3 mm), and small (<1 mm) microplastics. The
(i) Sieving with a 5-mm mesh sieve (n = 6); visual classification and definition of MPs as plastic particles smaller than 5 mm is a common
counting of large plastic (>5-mm) residues remaining on the sieve; consensus, while the upper limit of the size of nanoplastics (NPs) is con-
(ii) Sieving through a 1- or 2-mm mesh size (n = 4); troversial (e.g., <1 μm by Andrady (2015), <100 nm by European
(iii) Sieving through a 25-, 35- or 45-μm mesh size (n = 3); Union, <1000 nm by Hartmann et al. (2019)). The size distribution of
(iv) Sieving with a stacked double sieve (1-mm and 5-mm) to collect MPs was mentioned in 15 reviewed studies, and MPs smaller than
granules that passed through the upper sieve (commonly 5-mm mesh- 0.5 mm had the highest relative abundance (Zhou et al., 2019a; Li
size) but were retained on the lower sieve (n = 2); et al., 2020b).
(v) Sieving using a combination of three sieves (1.19 mm, 250 μm,
75 μm or 1 mm, 0.25 mm, 0.05 mm) with diminishing mesh size for 3.3.2. Shape of microplastics
quantifying MPs in various size categories (n = 2). The shape of MPs in the soil was described in 19 reviewed studies
In procedures (i) and (iv), <5 mm particles were reserved for den- (Table S1). Foams, fibers, spheres/beads, fragments/debris, and films
sity separation or chemical digestion, while the remaining materials are common MP shapes. Fiber (n = 9) was the most dominant shape
were discarded. Although 1- or 2-mm mesh sizes were used in some in the reviewed studies, especially in farm soil with the application of
studies to sieve soil MPs (Fuller and Gautam, 2016; Zhang and Liu, municipal biosolids and sewage sludge (Corradini et al., 2019b; Li
2018), a 5-mm mesh size seems the most appropriate to fit the defini- et al., 2019b; Liu et al., 2018). van den Berg et al. (2020) reported that
tion of MPs (Bläsing and Amelung, 2018). fragments were the dominant shape (>80%) in soil with sludge applica-
tion. Several studies also reported MP fibers with an average abundance
3.2.4. Filtration of >90% in the study area (Corradini et al., 2019a, 2019b; Zhang and Liu,
Filtration is a solid-liquid separation technique that separates MPs 2018). Fragments (n = 6) were the second most common shape, mainly
from water samples. The MPs retained on the filter surface are usually concentrated in mulch or greenhouse soils (Zhou et al., 2019a; Zhou
examined and classified using a microscope. Filter types were reported et al., 2019b). Foam usually occurs on riverside or coastal soils in
in 10 out of 24 soil MP studies. The most widely used filters were glass- China (Zhou et al., 2018). Spherical, the least commonly detected
cellulose (n = 6), cellulose-nitrate (n = 3) and nylon-net (n = 1) filters. shape, indicated that most of the detected MPs may originate from sec-
In addition, the pore sizes of the filters ranged from 0.2 μm (Scheurer ondary sources (broken large pieces of plastic) in China.
and Bigalke, 2018) to 20 μm (Lv et al., 2019) (Table S6). Shape classification has been used to identify the possible sources of
MPs. MP film and fragments are considered to originate from plastic
3.3. Characterization of microplastics packaging and film mulch (i.e., field and greenhouse mulch) (Huang
et al., 2020a; Zhou et al., 2019b), while fiber-shaped MPS are possibly
MPs in the environment vary in size, shape and color. The character- released from man-made clothing (Gago et al., 2018; Zambrano et al.,
ization of MPs is usually based on the morphology and polymer identi- 2020) and the use of fishing ropes/nets (Fahrenfeld et al., 2019). The fre-
fication of the separated microparticles after the extraction and quently detected foam may be due to the widespread use of plastic ta-
digestion steps. Optical, stereoscopic and anatomical microscopy with bleware in China (Zhou et al., 2019a). In addition to visual assessment,
specialized image software are important tools that are widely used high-resolution scanning electron microscopy (SEM) can also charac-
for visual sorting of potential MPs (i.e., <1 mm) in soil (Chen et al., terize surface topography, providing information on the degradation
2020c; Zhou et al., 2019a). Morphological features (e.g., shape, color, process of MPs in soil. SEM has been effectively applied to the study of
and surface texture) are the primary evidence for determining whether soil MPs (Huang et al., 2020a; Zhou et al., 2018; Zhou et al., 2019b).
suspicious particles are MPs (Wang and Wang, 2018). Most of the
reviewed studies carried out visual identification of MPs except for 3.3.3. Color of microplastics
two studies on >35 μm MPs (Du et al., 2020a; Du et al., 2020b). To min- A wide range of colors was reported for MPs, including transparent,
imize identification errors, several standardized methods for manual translucent, white, black, and colored (i.e., blue, green, red, and yellow)
counting of MPs are recommended (Mohamed Nor and Obbard, 2014; in 6 of the 24 reviewed studies (Table S1). White (n = 5) was the most
Shim et al., 2017). The proposed guidelines include the following: common color in the soil. Different colors are helpful for rapid and easy
(i) Do not break when stretching or squeezing granules; identification of MPs, but transparent or milky granules are often
(ii) The color of the particles is uniform; overlooked, probably resulting in an underestimation of MP amounts.
(iii) Suspicious particles should be invisible organic tissue and cell Therefore, recording all surface colors is recommended, rather than cat-
structure; egorizing less common colors as “other colors”. The MP colors provide
(iv) Fibers should be unbranched and of symmetrical thickness; clues to their sources, e.g., clear MPs are thought to derive from dispos-
(v) Particles should be nonluminescent. able containers and packaging plastics (Browne et al., 2011). Plastic
consumer products are the source of colored MPs (Bläsing and soils without extraction. The results showed that vis-NIR is suitable for
Amelung, 2018), and blue MPs are associated with aquatic breeding quantitative PET, LDPE and PVC detection in soils with a precision of
and fishing (such as damaged fishing gear) (Fahrenfeld et al., 2019). 10 g/kg and analytical limit ≈15 g/kg. Based on the vis-NIR spectrum
and CNN, the soil MP pollution degree can be rapidly graded (low:
3.3.4. Microplastic polymer type <1%; medium: 1–3%; high: >3%) (Ng et al., 2020). However, even
Visual classification has a high misidentification rate, thus easily with its quick and simple advantages, vis-NIR technology is only suit-
leading to the under- or overestimation of MP abundance in ecological able for contaminated hot spots due to its low accuracy and high analyt-
environments, especially of smaller particles and fibers (e.g., <100 μm) ical limits. Moreover, vis-NIR is unable to recognize the shape and
(Li et al., 2020a; Song et al., 2015). Therefore, sorting should further chemical characteristics of MPs. An improved hyperspectral imaging
characterize the polymer compositions. Instrument analysis aids the system (HSI) combined with a gold-coated polycarbonate filter has a
confirmation of suspected MP polymers and verifies microscope higher detection limit (approximately 100 μm), but is limited by differ-
sorting accuracy. Microscopic Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy ences in spectral characteristics between standard samples and envi-
(μFTIR) has been applied in soil MP analysis, including the identifica- ronmentally aged MPs (Zhu et al., 2020). Therefore, it is necessary to
tion of smaller particles (10 μm) (Huang et al., 2020a). In particular, establish a comparison library of spectral data of plastics under various
μFTIR is widely recognized as a potential analytical technique with ex- oxidation and weathering conditions. In sum, the choice of various tech-
cellent identification of microplastic components. However, the identi- nologies for different research objectives is a vital prerequisite for ana-
fication of <1 μm particles by IR spectroscopy remains a challenge. lyzing MPs. The appropriate application of multiple technologies
Raman spectroscopy coupled microscopes can identify MPs < 1 μm, contributes to the systematic characterization of MPs. Continuous ef-
but the feasibility of the technique depends largely on the removal efforts are needed to provide more reliable and valid micro(nano) detec-
ficiency of interfering organisms (Bläsing and Amelung, 2018). In most tion tools, particularly for rapid identification of MPs in heterogeneous
of the studies reviewed, the identification of MP components was per- OM-rich soil.
formed by FTIR (n = 15) (Fig. 1, Table S5). The FTIR analysis was per-
formed in transmittance or reflectance/attenuated total reflection 3.3.5. Quantification
mode with a resolution between 0.4 and 8 cm−1 and a wavelength be- Nineteen of the reviewed studies (n = 24) provided quantification
tween 350 and 4000 cm−1. The samples were scanned 16 to 40 times results for soil MPs, namely, items/kg or items/m2 based on abundance
to obtain spectra with matching degrees of 20% to 70%, with 70% being units (Table S1). The weighing operation was easier, but the potential
the most commonly used. Two other studies used Raman spectroscopy loss of samples may be significant during the transfer of samples from
to reveal the polymer components of samples (Chen et al., 2020c; Zhou filters to weighing papers. Therefore, mass concentration (mg/kg) is ap-
et al., 2019b). As the techniques are very time-consuming, a subset of propriate for soils with high-abundance MPs (Li et al., 2020a). There is
all samples is usually chosen for identification (Mohamed Nor and no detailed weighing procedure in studies for measuring the mass of de-
Obbard, 2014; Zhou et al., 2019b), and the selected subsamples should tected MPs. There is also research that uses empirical linear models
contain all shapes and colors. The polymers reported in 18 reviewed (R2 = 0.99, p < 0.001) based on heated MPs between the weight and
studies on MPs, such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) and volume to roughly predict the mass concentration of MPs in various
PET, are often used in packaging and textiles (Zhang et al., 2016) and fields (Zhang et al., 2018).
were the three types of synthetic polymers with the highest abun-
dance in the samples (Table S1). Other less common polymers in- 4. Sources
cluded PA, PVC, polystyrene (PS), rayon and acrylonitrile/methyl
methacrylate (AA). As shown in Fig. 2, multiple sources of MPs enter the soil. Agricul-
The heating method (i.e., hot needle test) combined with micros- tural mulch films and compost may be the main sources (Huang et al.,
copy and imaging software made it possible to visually identify the 2020a). Mulching and greenhouses are widely used in agricultural pro-
shape, size and amounts of MPs (van den Berg et al., 2020; Zhang duction because of their effective improvement of crop quality and yield
et al., 2018). More importantly, this method is not influenced by SOM (Gao et al., 2019a; Huang et al., 2020a; Zhang et al., 2020a). Plastic
and thus enabled smaller particles (<100 μm) to be identified. At pres- mulch film (Kasirajan and Ngouajio, 2012), especially extremely thin
ent, this technique is appropriate for PE and PP. Two other studies used a films (8–50 μm) (Liu et al., 2013), is difficult to effectively recover
time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) to deter- from the soil, inevitably leading to the massive accumulation of plastic
mine micro(nano)plastics (<35 μm) (Du et al., 2020a; Du et al., residues in farmland. These residues, aided by farming, UV radiation
2020b) but are still in the qualitative stage. Thermogravimetric and microbiodegradation, slowly break down into a mixture of large-,
techniques (Table S5) such as pyrolysis-gas chromatography–mass micro- and nanoplastics (Salvador Cesa et al., 2017; Li et al., 2020a,
spectrometry (Pyr-GC–MS), thermal extraction desorption-gas 2020b), eventually causing serious soil pollution problems.
chromatography–mass spectrometry (TED-GC–MS) and thermogravi- Biosolids are recycled to provide OM and a closed nutrient loop in
metric analysis-mass spectrometry (TGA-MS) have been shown to be highly intensive agriculture (Sullivan, 2015). However, biosolids con-
effective in MP identification and quantification. Dierkes et al. (2019) tain heavy metals (HMs) and POPs (van den Berg et al., 2020; Gaylor
developed a quantitative method for environmental microplastics com- et al., 2013), including a large number of MPs (van den Berg et al.,
bined with pressurized liquid extraction and Pyr-GC, which increased 2020). In the water treatment process (domestic, hospital and industrial
the detection limit (0.007 mg/g). Müller et al., 2020 presented a discharge), 70–99% of recovered sewage sludge contained MPs (Carr
straightforward approach for analyzing PET-MPs based on alkaline ex- et al., 2016), of which the concentration reached 103–105 items/kg
traction of PET from the environmental matrix and subsequent determi- (Corradini et al., 2019b; van den Berg et al., 2020). Repeated application
nation of the monomers, terephthalic acid, using liquid chromatography of sewage sludge to farmland results in the massive accumulation of
with UV detection (LC-UV). However, none is capable of characterizing MPs in the soil (Crossman et al., 2020; Corradini et al., 2019b; Nizzetto
MPs (e.g., shape, size, color) (David et al., 2018; Käppler et al., 2018; et al., 2016b). Therefore, although the application of sludge-based fertil-
Wang et al., 2020b). In recent years, new techniques for the rapid deter- izers contributes to nutrient and OM recycling on land, the potential
mination of MPs in soil samples have been developed by combining consequences for sustainability and food security from the mass trans-
macroscopic near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR) with chemometrics and fer of MPs and associated harmful substances from WWTPs to farmland
visible near-infrared spectroscopy (vis-NIR) with hyperspectral imag- should also be considered (Nizzetto et al., 2016c; Zhang et al., 2020f).
ing. For example, using vis-NIR spectroscopy, Corradini et al. (2019a) Municipal solid waste landfills also involve important point sources
explored the feasibility of rapidly assessing the MP concentration in of MP pollution affecting soil and groundwater (Cole et al., 2011; Guo
Fig. 2. Source and transport of microplastics in soil. Microplastics in soil come from a variety of sources, including primary source (e.g., industrial or domestic abrasive, clothing fiber) and
secondary source (e.g., plastic mulch, household waste), which are discharged into the soil as point pollution (sewage sludge utilization, compost) and non-point pollution (atmospheric
deposition, runoff). Vertical arrows indicate the vertical transport of microplastics in soil. WWTPs means wastewater treatment plants. *Microplastic particles can integrate into soil ag-
gregations and incorporate into soil clumps to varying degrees.
et al., 2020). He et al. (2019) reported that MPs in landfill leachate were Personal care products, such as facial cleanser and toothpaste, contained
rare, with an average concentration of 13 items/L, but they also repre- a large number of primary MPs (Mai et al., 2018). Factitious playground
sent a small source of global soil MP pollution (Jones et al., 2006). turf is also an indirect source of MPs, with an average emission of 2630
Other sources, such as road littering, illegal dumping, surface detach- tons annually (Guo et al., 2020). Given the multiple sources and amaz-
ment of plastic coating, blasting of plastics during industrial processes ing quantities of MPs in the soil system, possible pathways of MP pollu-
(e.g., thermal cutting), illegal dumping and tyre wear (e.g., cars, planes) tion in the global environments should be quantified to fully understand
may directly lead to increased MP levels in terrestrial soils (Karbalaei the environmental fate of MPs and to better estimate the current and fu-
et al., 2018; Kole et al., 2017; Mai et al., 2018). Belzagui et al. (2019) re- ture contribution of artificial plastic waste to terrestrial and marine MPs.
cently reported textile coats and artificial fur containing microfibers
with a concentration of up to 175–560 items/g. Different degrees of mi- 5. Occurrence
crofiber deposition occurred in different indoor environments and the
release and spread of microfiber were usually related to the quantity 5.1. Abundance
of textiles and the turbulence of air conditioning airflow (Zhang et al.,
2020g). In addition, textile characteristics including fabric structure, It is estimated that approximately 80% of global marine plastic orig-
type of yarn, twist (De Falco et al., 2020) and edge cutting mode (Cai inates from terrestrial environments (Li et al., 2016c). The global con-
et al., 2020) were important factors affecting microfiber release from sumption of agricultural plastic is also considerable at 8×106 tons/
textile sources. Thus, changes in textile design could lead to more effec- year, second only to packaging (1.5×108 tons/year) (Scarascia-
tive interventions that could help reduce emissions to the environment. Mugnozza et al., 2011). China leads the world in plastic production,
accounting for approximately 30% of global usage (PlasticsEurope, agricultural mulch makes soil MP pollution inevitable. In particular,
2019). Qi et al. (2020a) predicted that production would reach high pollution regions often have typical sources or have used plastic
2.28×106 tons by 2025 in China. Most previous research on soil MPs mulch for a long time. For example, a farmland region in southwestern
has been conducted in China (Fig. 3) (Table S1). Zhou et al. (2016) China (Dianchi Lake, Yunnan) had a high concentration of MPs (an av-
established a new method and first reported the abundance of MPs at erage of 18760 N/kg), which was associated with the frequent applica-
3–242 items/500 g in tidal flat soil on the east coast of China. The con- tion of sludge and sewage irrigation (Li et al., 2019b; Zhang and Liu,
centration of soil MPs in the regional coastline (120 sampling points) 2018). A high MP content (80.3–1075.6 items/kg) detected in cotton
ranged from 1.3 to 14712.5 iems/kg (Zhou et al., 2018), which was fields in northwestern China (Xinjiang) indicated a potential hot spot
mainly related to regional human impacts (i.e., aquatic breeding, harbor with the highest amount of film covering in China (Huang et al.,
establishment and tourism). MP abundances in the 0–3 cm and 3–6 cm 2020a). However, the presence of PP MPs (95 items/kg) in the campus
soil layers in suburban vegetable farmland (n = 20) and Shanghai (east- lawn soil of Tianjin (northern China) indicates that MP contamination
ern China) were 78.00±12.91 and 62.50±12.97 N/kg, respectively (Liu is not limited to agricultural land, and MP contamination of different
et al., 2018). Another study showed that the concentrations of MPs in land-use type soils should be investigated (Han et al., 2019). In addition
farmland, brown soil, a rice field and floodplain soil in Shanghai were to China, land in other countries and regions is also commonly contam-
136.6±41.7, 155±95.2, 190±31.2, and 256.7±62.2 items/kg, respec- inated with MPs (Table S1). Nevertheless, the concentrations of MPs
tively (Liu et al., 2019). The MP concentrations of paddy and aquacul- have rarely been reported for every continent worldwide (except
ture soil in a rice-fish system, Shanghai, were 16.1±3.5 and 4.5±1.2 Africa), clearly showing the widespread pollution and the lack of
items/kg, respectively (Lv et al., 2019). The MP abundance in farmland large-scale data on soil MPs. A quantitative relationship model between
soil in Nanjing and Wuxi ranged from 420 to 1290 items/kg (Li et al., terrestrial MP concentrations and regional natural factors and human
2019b), and that in mulched and nonmulched land in Hangzhou Bay, social and economic indicators should be established to provide a theo-
southeastern China, was 571 and 263 items/kg, respectively (Zhou retical basis for managing plastic waste by the government, environ-
et al., 2019a). The MP abundance in suburban farmland soil in Wuhan mental agencies and other decision makers.
(central China) reached 320–6.9 × 105 particles/kg (Chen et al., 2020c;
Zhou et al., 2019b). Obviously, soil MPs in the economically developed
middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River are likely to be signifi- 5.2. Migration
cantly affected by multiple sources (e.g., industrial and domestic sewage
sludge emissions). The distribution and migration of MPs in soil have been poorly stud-
In the Loess Plateau in northwestern China, Zhang et al. (2018) re- ied. Several studies found that the MP concentration differed at different
ported the widespread presence of MPs in farmland, orchard and green- soil depths (Table S1), indicating that the MPs moved downward
house soil (40–100 N/kg, 120–320 N/kg, 80–100 N/kg). The agricultural through unknown mechanisms (Zubris and Richards, 2005). The migra-
priority region (Shaanxi, northwestern China) contained MPs in 100% of tion behavior of MPs in soil is complex (Guo et al., 2020; O'Connor et al.,
soils, with concentrations ranging from 1430 to 3410 items/kg (Ding 2019), and their vertical and horizontal distributions may be affected by
et al., 2020a). The main detected LDMP in farmland in northeastern many factors (Fig. 2).
China had an average abundance of 107 N/kg (Zhang et al., 2020d). Bioturbation enables the migration of MPs in soil (Gabet et al., 2003),
These regions are agricultural provinces located in northwestern and namely, MPs are transferred and transported by soil fauna (e.g., larvae,
northeastern China (Fig. 3), and thus, the frequent application of earthworms, vertebrates) and poultry, either by attachment to the
Fig. 3. Spatial distribution of microplastics in soil samples of China (n = 51) (see Table S1 for detailed data). Data from reviewed studies that reported a microplastic abundance in items/kg.
The number of publications on regional soil MP abundance are dominated by China (accounting for 70.8% (n = 17/24) of the total relevant publications), thus we take China as an example
to show the spatial distribution of soil MP pollution.
outside of animals or by ingestion and excretion (Fig. 2). Mites studies showed that soil organic carbon (SOC), clay, Fe2O3, pH, and
(i.e., Hypoaspis aculeifer) and collembola (i.e., Folsomia candida and CEC play important roles in the adsorption and migration of polystyrene
Proisotoma minuta) were recently reported to promote the migration MPs (PSMPs) (Luo et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2020). More research is recom-
and distribution of MPs in soil by scraping or chewing on them (Zhu mended to reveal the contribution of inherent properties (such as exter-
et al., 2018). Digging mammals (e.g., ground squirrels and moles) ex- nal texture and granule size) and external factors (such as porosity,
hibit similar behavior (Maaß et al., 2017; Rillig, 2012). Behavior associ- saturation and ion strength) to the migration of MPs in soils.
ated with earthworms, including external attachment, ingestion and Soil MPs may migrate through dynamic driving forces such as
excretion, promotes the lateral and vertical distribution of MPs in the dustfall, wind, water or soil erosion. MPs, especially microfibers, on
soil (Huerta Lwanga et al., 2016; Huerta Lwanga et al., 2017a; Hurley the surface of the soil can be suspended in the atmosphere by upper-
and Nizzetto, 2018; Rillig et al., 2017c; Yu et al., 2019). In addition, larval air wind for a period of time before deposition through rain or dust
feeding behavior was reported to cause MPs carried by adult mosqui- (Cai et al., 2017; Huang et al., 2020b; Rezaei et al., 2019). It is speculated
toes to spread out into the environment (Al-Jaibachi et al., 2019). Earth- that MP particles may be constituents of PM 2.5 in the atmosphere (Mai
worm waste (vermicast) contains concentrated MPs that can be eaten et al., 2018). MPs also enter coastal waters through surface runoff
by soil microarthropods (Gutiérrez-López et al., 2011). Therefore, we (Wang et al., 2020b). These migration risks are believed to be relatively
speculate that when there exists a predator-prey relationship among high, especially in cultivated soils with extensive irrigation canals,
soil microarthropods, the complex food web in the soil ecosystem com- ditches and overland runoff. At present, there is low pollution (12
posed of diverse species relationships will definitely promote the migra- items/L) in groundwaters (Panno et al., 2019), but this does suggest
tion of MPs (Bradford, 2016; Zhu et al., 2018). Similarly, the transport of the transfer of MPs.
MPs is affected by root disturbances (such as root movement, expan- The properties of MPs themselves are also important factors affect-
sion, and absorption) and rhizosphere hyphae (Gabet et al., 2003; ing their migration in soils. Previous work indicated that the size (espe-
Wick et al., 2007). However, this is only a corollary, and future perspec- cially <1 mm), hydrophobicity and surface properties of MPs influence
tives should reveal the influential mechanism of plant roots on MP migration (Johnson, 2020; Nizzetto et al., 2016a; O'Connor et al., 2019).
migration. Changes in adsorption capacity caused by the aging process affected the
Tillage activities, such as tilling and ridging, make it easy for MPs to migration of MPs (Lang et al., 2020). Current research shows that the
be carried into deep soil (Zhang and Liu, 2018; Zhang et al., 2020d). In two most common MP shapes (spherical and granular) easily migrate
addition, the harvest of tubers (e.g., potatoes and yams) may facilitate into deeper soils (Kurlanda-Witek et al., 2015; Rillig et al., 2017a),
the vertical migration of MPs. A recent study demonstrated that the while other shapes (such as fibers and film) interact differently with
wetting-drying cycle can accelerate the downward migration of MPs soil agglomeration (Rillig et al., 2017b; Tourinho et al., 2019) and may
(O'Connor et al., 2019). Apparently, these driving factors facilitate the hinder MP migration in soil. For example, microfibers can more effi-
movement of microplastic granules. Nevertheless, the extrinsic forces ciently entangle soil granules to form clods (Zhang et al., 2019a).
have little effect on the downward motion of MPs. For example, tradi- O'Connor et al. (2019) reported that low-density MPs have difficulty
tional farming practices affect only the topsoil (Rillig et al., 2017a). penetrating downward. In addition, transport may be affected by
Defined as the loss of mineral and organic solutes due to percolation changes in ecological communities caused by the surface properties
in soil, leaching has a strong role in facilitating the vertical movement of and degradation processes of plastics (Galloway et al., 2017; Rillig
MPs. Soil is a porous medium with μm-sized pores (Wang et al., 2019c), et al., 2017a; Rillig et al., 2017b). At the same time, MPs that satisfy
thus allowing the transport of soluble materials and granules (Grayling the condition of being smaller than a soil pore will be leached; con-
et al., 2018). Therefore, soil texture determines the pore size, which di- versely, they will be fixed in the topsoil. MPs are predicted to end up
rectly affects the migration of MPs (Lamy et al., 2013). The retention of in shallow groundwater under leaching (Bläsing and Amelung, 2018).
MPs in quartz sand media can be significantly improved by increasing Hence, relatively large MP particles may be retained in soil as a sink.
the ionic strength (Hou et al., 2020). This may be due to the high Nizzetto et al. (2016a) used the INCA model to predict that approxi-
strength of ions pressing against dual thickness, resulting in deceasing mately 65% of terrestrial MPs will end up in the Thames River basin
energy barriers and deepening depths in elementary and subprime and pollute coastal waters. Therefore, soil is also a source of MPs in
polar regions (Li et al., 2018). The ion strength of soil pore water may the surrounding environment.
be similarly affected, although there is no experimental evidence to
prove this. In addition, several studies show that surface roughness, 6. Impact of microplastics on soil ecosystems
biofiltration, organics, saturation and hydrodynamic conditions of the
medium affect the migration and fixation of MPs in quartz sand (Hou 6.1. Effects on soil
et al., 2020; Kurlanda-Witek et al., 2015). Studies of colloidal migration
in quartz sand indicate that strain and physico-chemical sedimentation 6.1.1. Effects on soil physical properties
control the critical interactions of colloidal migration and fixation (Lamy Since MPs interact with a variety of soil characteristics (Fig. 4),
et al., 2013; Li et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2019e). The results revealed that changes in soil properties are the main measure to understand the
membrane strain, solid-liquid interface adhesion, air-water interface risks posed by MPs to terrestrial ecosystems (Liu et al., 2017; Rillig,
capture and pore repulsion are the main mechanisms. Keller et al. 2012; Zhang and Zhang, 2020). MPs can combine with the soil to form
(2020) synthesized a mixture of passive inorganic tracer and MP fiber, various aggregates: loose aggregates are formed with debris plastic,
and used inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) to and more compact aggregates are formed with MP fibers (Rillig et al.,
rapidly and quantitatively analyzed the MP transport behavior in simu- 2017a; Wong et al., 2020). De Souza MacHado et al. (2018) reported
lated soil columns (glass beads). The mobility and transport of MPs into the effects of four common MPs (PP fibers, PA microbeads, PET fibers
the soil may depend on their size and aggregation state (e.g., organic and PE fragments) (up to 2% w/w) on bulk density (BD), water-
solids). Transport may also be related to shape or polymers, and to holding capacity (WHC) and water-stability aggregates (WSAs) in
this end, heterogeneous aggregates and/or adhesion to organic matter sandy soil, and the effects on these indicators varied among different
should be further investigated. Another considering factor is the pres- MPs. For example, in soils contaminated with PET fibers, the BD and
ence of highly variable conditions in the soil, such as soil type, temper- WSAs decreased significantly with increasing PET concentration,
ature, and water status, which affect the fate and behavior of MP whereas other MPs did not cause similar effects. However, Zhang et al.
particles. The above research provides information to explore the mi- (2019a) stated that PET microfibers (≤0.3% w/w) had no impact on BD
gration mechanism of MPs in soil. However, soil as a heterogeneous me- and saturated water conductivity but had an adverse impact on soil
dium is far more complex than quartz sand. Recently, two simulation WHC. These different results may be due to the difference in the
Fig. 4. Effects of microplastics (MPs) on soil health and function, and interactions with soil microorganisms, plants, and animals.
exposure dose of MPs and the physio-chemical properties of the soil itself, largely determine their effect on the soil. Most studies of the role of
such as soil minerals, humus, pore size distribution (Kim et al., 2020; MPs in soil are based on weeks or months of laboratory simulation
Sollins and Gregg, 2017). Zhang et al. (2019a) also found that PET data; however, these data reflect only a preliminary response. There-
microfibers can occupy <30 μm of pore space and can also mix with soil fore, it is important to establish field experiments (adequate replication
particles to form clods with >30 μm of macropores. The soil physical and appropriate controls) to assess the long-term impact of MPs. Field-
properties related to MPs can induce the response of a variety of physio- scale experiments will also help in the understanding of the transforma-
logical indicators such as photosynthetic efficiency and root growth, tion of large plastic fragments into micro(nano)plastics under changing
which may indicate potential effects during the plant growth stage (De external environments (soil pH, texture, HA, CEC, aggregates, porosity),
Souza Machado et al., 2019; Gao et al., 2019b). MPs can change the as well as in the verification of the problems in the use of reusable and
water percolating capacity (WPC) and WHC of soils, which affect evapo- biodegradable mulch.
ration (Boots et al., 2019; De Souza MacHado et al., 2018). The studies Soil BD is an important parameter that provides information on the
mentioned above show that MPs change the soil-water cycle, increase soil C pool (Rillig, 2018); thus, the existence of MPs may cause misjudg-
soil water shortages, and affect the migration of pollutants along cracks ment of the soil C pool. Because plastics are high-C polymers (PET, for ex-
into deep soil (Hüffer et al., 2019; Wan et al., 2019; Zhang and Zhang, ample, is nearly 90% C), plastic residues inadvertently increase the size of
2020). The increase in fulvic and humic acids as a result of MPs indicates the stable organic C pool in the soil (Qi et al., 2020b; Rillig, 2018). Notably,
that MPs have the potential to improve soil fertility because of the im- this part of plastic-C may interact differently with soil microorganisms
provement of WSAs, WHC, and nutrient availability related to the due to their functional difference in natural SOM. Moreover, plastic-C is
humus content (Wang et al., 2020b). Nevertheless, the beneficial and very low compared to the loss rate of organic carbon in most intensive
harmful effects of MPs on soil properties need to be studied further. farming systems; thus, it should not be viewed from a positive perspec-
tive. In addition, the underlying mechanism of increased micronutrient
bioavailability remains unknown (Hodson et al., 2017).
6.1.2. Effects on soil chemical properties and nutrient cycling In agricultural production, plastic mulch improves specific soil qual-
The effects of MPs on soil nutrient cycling and transfer have been re- ity indicators (Ma et al., 2018). Obviously, plastic residues cause poten-
ported (Chen et al., 2020b; Liu et al., 2017; Rillig, 2018; Rillig et al., tial damage to soil properties, resulting in unsustainable farmland use
2019a). MPs have significant effects on the activities of soil enzymes (Steinmetz et al., 2016). The role of MPs in soil quality assessment sys-
with high catalytic capacity, such as urease and diacetic acid luciferin tems remains to be determined. However, few studies have quantified
hydrolase (FDAse) (Fei et al., 2020). These enzymes are closely related critical thresholds (or critical points) for MP contamination at which
to a variety of soil biochemical processes and play an important role in these negative effects could be observed. This limits the quantification
regulating soil nutrient cycling (Hu et al., 2020; Tian et al., 2020). Liu of the MP's soil environmental capacity and pollution potential. Deter-
et al. (2017) reported that a high level of PP-MPs (approximately 30% mining soil MP threshold is helpful to further evaluate the spatial
w/w) greatly enhanced the content of nutrients (e.g., C, N and P) in dis- scale of pollution and the load rate of MPs and to predict the loading ca-
solved organic matter (DOM), which may be because MPs promote soil pacity of agricultural ecosystems.
enzyme activity and the accumulation of soluble nutrients. Qi et al.
(2020b) found that the effects of various MP (LDPE and biodegradable)
treatments on the soil pH value (increase), conductivity (decrease) and 6.2. Effects on microbes
carbon nitrogen ratio (increase) were significantly different. A soil col-
umn experiment showed that a high concentration (360 kg/hm2) of At present, the mechanism of the effect of MPs in soil on soil micro-
MPs will accelerate the migration of water and nitrate (Li et al., organisms is not clear, and the existing research mainly evaluated the
2020b). Therefore, the concentration, exposure time and type of MPs potential impact of MPs on soil microorganisms based on the change
in soil enzyme activity (Table S2). FDAse assessment revealed that soil 6.3. Effects on plants
microbial activity (SMbA) was different among different types of MPs
(Fei et al., 2020; Ren et al., 2020). For example, PA, PE and PET increased The existence of MPs leads to changes in soil physical and chemical
the metabolic activity of microorganisms, while PS and PET did the op- parameters (described in Section 6.1) (Fig. 4), which may directly affect
posite. Fei et al. (2020) found that PE and PVC reduced the richness and the performance of plants by changing the root system and vegetative
diversity of bacterial communities, while two other studies had little ev- period (Qi et al., 2020b; Rillig et al., 2019a). The growth of plants de-
idence to support this (Chen et al., 2020b; Judy et al., 2019). Ren et al. pends largely on rhizosphere microorganisms, including Azotobacter
(2020) reported that MPs had a positive effect on the microbial commu- and pathogenic and mycorrhizal fungi (Wang et al., 2020b; Zubek
nity in fertilized soil. Obviously, research on the effect of MPs on the soil et al., 2019). Therefore, changes in soil properties caused by MPs will
microbial community is still in its infancy. change the structure of microbial communities and relevant microbial
Soil habitat change caused by MPs is considered a possible cause of activities (described in Section 6.2), thereby indirectly affecting plant
SMbA change (Naveed et al., 2016; Qi et al., 2020b). For example, the performance (Fig. 4).
changes in soil aggregate structure and pores caused by microfibers Recent studies have reported a range of toxicological responses to
(Veresoglou et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2019a) may affect the microhabi- MPs of physiological and growth indicators of higher plants (wheat,
tat and change the evolution direction of local microorganisms (Boots leeks, broad beans, celery, corn, cucumber) (Table S3). For example,
et al., 2019; Rillig and Bonkowski, 2018). Dynamics in porosity and 10% PLA significantly reduced maize biomass, while PE had no obvious
moisture induced by MPs may affect the oxygen concentration in the plant toxicity. However, the interaction between PE and Cd had a signif-
soil and thus alter the relative abundance of oxybiotic and anerobic mi- icant effect on root biomass (Wang et al., 2020a). Pignattelli et al. (2020)
crobes (Rubol et al., 2013). Since DOM plays an important role in the found that PVC was the most toxic to cress compared to PP and PE. Over-
metabolism and energy supply of microbial C (DeForest et al., 2004), all, the plant response varies with the type and dose of MPs and the in-
changes in C caused by MPs (delineated in DOM-related sections) pos- teraction with contaminants. Notably, compared with PE, starch-based
sibly affect soil functions and microbial communities with high func- MPs (biodegradable plastic film) have stronger negative effects (Qi
tional redundancy and diversity or even create new ecological niches et al., 2018). This may be due to biodegradable plastics consisting of
(Chai et al., 2020). De Souza Machado et al. (2019) and Wang et al. 44.6% PET and 18.3% PBT, which may be likely to be transferred in the
(2020c) found that soil fungi (such as the relative abundance of AMF) microbial community or to induce fixation of starch-N in soils. Biode-
were also altered by MPs to varying degrees. Microplastics attached to gradable plastic residue has a significant effect on rhizosphere bacterial
microorganisms (microplastisphere) constitute a potential distinct hab- communities and mixed discharge of volatiles (Qi et al., 2020b). In sum,
itat and reservoir for pathogens (Imran et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2019b). the actual impact on soil and plant types varies depending on the nature
The presence of plastic-containing household items with potential for of the MPs (De Souza Machado et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2020a). There is
colonization by pathogens (Pseudomonas, Escherichia) and human path- a gap in the potential impact of MPs on terrestrial plants (absorption,
ogens (Bacillus cereus, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia) in biofilms coated transfer, accumulation and stress response), and continuous efforts
on MP surfaces in aquatic environments suggests that MPs may play a should focus on more plastic granular types, plant species and environ-
role in the spread and deposition of microbial diseases (Parthasarathy mental conditions for the purpose of systematically assessing the possi-
et al., 2019). Recent investigation confirmed that microplastics in ma- ble impact on terrestrial ecosystems. In addition to studying the effects
rine environment behaves as a potential vector for spread of bacterial on individual plant performance, a recent study from Lozano and Rillig
fish pathogen Aeromonas salmonicida (Viršek et al., 2017). The presence (2020) reported the potential adverse effects of MP fibers on plant com-
of MPs also affects dissipation of antibiotics and bacterial/phage resis- munity productivity and structure. As microfibers affect plant species
tance genes (ARGs) (Lu et al., 2020). Larger and highly weathered dominance, the examination of cascade effects on ecosystem functions
MPs, or MPs in soil after long-term vegetable cultivation, absorb more should be a high priority for future research.
hydrophobic antibiotics and HMs, which may lead to high ARG abun- Agricultural crops can absorb a series of nanoparticles (Jassby et al.,
dance associated with antibiotic resistance in MPs (Lu et al., 2020; Yan 2019), and preliminary studies have shown that lettuce and wheat
et al., 2020b). Ma et al. (2020) further confirmed MPs combined with roots can concentrate and absorb PSMPs (0.2 μm) and transfer them
tetracycline in soils facilitate the formation of ARGs in the Enchytraeus to aboveground parts (Li et al., 2019a; Liao et al., 2019). Little has been
crypticus microbiome. In general, a series of effects caused by MPs on reported on the impacts on plants and in vivo transport, and further
changes in soil properties exert selective pressure on microbes work is needed to explore the response mechanisms of various crops,
(Fig. 4), leading to changes in community structure, diversity, temporal particularly edible root crops. Recently, Guo et al. (2020) summarized
turnover and even evolution (Rillig et al., 2019b; Wang et al., 2020b; some possible mechanisms by which MPs affect the growth of plants,
Wang et al., 2020d). These results confirmed that environmental providing guidance for future research on this topic.
microplastics are hot spots (microenvironmental regions) for pathogen
level gene transfer and ARGs transmission between different pathogens. 6.4. Effects on soil animals and trophic level
In future research, it will be important to determine whether MPs neg-
atively affect key microbial species that underlie key functions in the soil Because of the negative reports on marine organisms, increasing at-
(such as nitrifying bacteria and arbuscular mycorrhizae) or whether tention has been paid to the negative effect of MPs on soil organisms
they induce the spread of pathogenic microorganisms (such as crop (Table S4). It is known that mesofauna (such as earthworms, mites,
and fauna pathogens). For these phenomena, it is necessary to further and collembola) are beneficial to the maintenance of soil quality; never-
reveal the driving mechanism of microbial physiology, community theless, intensive agriculture often causes a reduction in these organ-
level and genomic changes caused by plastic pollution. MPs absorb con- isms (Bedano et al., 2011). Therefore, if these important mesofauna
taminants and combine with leachable plasticizers or additives (Zhang are further destroyed by plastic, they pose unpredictable threats to
et al., 2020b) to form a mix of hazardous contaminants, which can affect major functions in agroecosystems. Most studies on the ecotoxicological
microbes that adhere to the MPs. Considering the consequences of mi- impacts of MPs on soil animals were carried out in the laboratory
crobial evolution induced by soil MPs, we can establish a “real” baseline (Table S4). Several animals have been studied, among which earth-
of soil ecology on the effects of this diverse contaminant suite, as well as worms are the main experimental species. However, the actual effects
understand the future responses of soil microbial populations and com- of different studies can vary widely. For example, earthworms
munities. In addition, the co-occurrence of MPs and organic pollutants (Lumbricus terrestris) exposed to dry soil with a concentration of
or metals on soil microorganisms are rarely mentioned and should be 0.2~1.2% (w/w) of low-density PE MPs (<400 μm) exhibited inhibited
the focus of future research. growth and subsequently died (Huerta Lwanga et al., 2016). The results
presented by Cao et al. (2017) showed that MPs strongly inhibited the This may be due to the weak molecular interaction between PE and sor-
development of earthworms and had a lethal impact at concentrations bates (Hüffer and Hofmann, 2016), resulting in a dilution effect when PE
of 1~2% (w/w). However, the concentrations of MPs in the above studies MPs were added to soils (Hüffer et al., 2019). PSMPs affected arsenic
were extremely high. These results are possibly unfit for the real ambi- volatilization by directly influencing the population of Proteobacteria,
ent levels. Although relatively low concentrations of MPs have no im- Firmicutes and Bacteroides (Dong et al., 2020). However, Yu et al.
pact on the growth or death of earthworms, responses of the (2020) showed that PE MPs can transform soil HMs (Cu, Cr, Ni) to a sta-
histopathological and immune systems have been demonstrated ble state, which may be due to their own physical adsorption and
(Hodson et al., 2017). For example, Rodriguez-Seijo et al. (2017) coprecipitation or change in the physical and chemical properties of
found that PE-MPs (625 mg/kg, on average) cause damage to earth- soil, thus reducing the bioavailability of HMs. These contrasting findings
worm (E. andrei) tissues and the immune system. Wang et al. (2019a) suggest that the adsorption/desorption mechanism of MPs in organic
reported that PS- and PE-MPs (20%, w/w) had a significant effect on and inorganic pollutants and the ecological effects may be different,
the enzyme activity of earthworms (E. fetida) but no significant effect both in vivo and in the external environment, requiring further re-
at low exposure doses (≤10%, w/w). search. Using the biochar paradigm as a reference, the bioavailability
In addition to earthworms, previous works have confirmed the neg- potential, behavior and mechanism of MPs promoting plastic-derived
ative impacts of MPs on several soil invertebrates (e.g., springtails, nem- pollutants in different soil types and conditions should be studied to re-
atodes, collembola, and snails). Exposure to MPs alters the feeding veal and assess the overall ecological risks to soil microbial-plant-
behavior of soil animals (Cole et al., 2013; Ju et al., 2019), which affects animal ecosystems. In addition, existing dose–response relationships
the intake of carbon and nitrogen biomass, affecting metabolic con- for effect pathways are not only restricted but also often limited across
sumption and resulting in development decline and even death (da taxa or to unrealistic concentrations and artificial plastic characteristics
Costa et al., 2016; Setälä et al., 2016). In addition, MPs may cause me- (neglected the complexity of secondary particles) (Windsor et al., 2019;
chanical impairment of the esophagus (Shang et al., 2020), intestinal Waldman and Rillig, 2020). From a risk assessment perspective, none of
obstruction (Ju et al., 2019), a decline in the reproductive capacity this is useful. These results caused public misunderstanding and overre-
(Selonen et al., 2020), a decreased immune response (Chen et al., action. Due to the boundary effect in laboratory simulation experiments,
2020d), metabolic disorders and other biochemical reactions (Lahive a comprehensive consideration of ecotoxicological responses, both in
et al., 2019; Selonen et al., 2020). These important studies have shown situ and in the laboratory, and more types of wild soil animals is neces-
that exposure to even low concentrations of MPs (e.g., 1 mg/kg, 0.1%) sary to evaluate the overall impact of MP pollution on soil ecosystems.
has adverse effects on the growth of soil animals, and there is a strong Integrated comparisons are needed to determine the extent to which
correlation between particle size and toxicity. A recent toxicological ex- the minimum dose and time have negative impacts and to broadly as-
periment showed that the total surface area, material composition and sess soil function.
specific density of PS microbeads determined their toxicity to nema-
todes (Mueller et al., 2020). In addition to affecting survival and repro- 7. Human exposure to soil plasticizers and microplastics
duction, tire tread particles (TPs) exposure (3%, 21d) also caused an
enrichment of microbial genera associated with opportunistic patho- 7.1. Plasticizer contamination of microplastics
genesis in the worm guts (Ding et al., 2020b). Therefore, further re-
search should refine the soil animal toxicity effect caused by different Phthalate (PAE) is an endocrine disruptor commonly referred to as
properties of MPs. an “environmental hormone” that can seriously damage soil health
MPs can accumulate harmful chemicals, such as POPs, HMs and an- due to its series of toxic reactions (reproduction toxicity, carcinogenic-
tibiotics, on their surfaces (Caruso, 2019; Laganà et al., 2019; Wang ity, teratogenicity), especially under long-term exposure in the environ-
et al., 2020e), which may exacerbate soil contamination and amplify ment (Shi et al., 2019; Xie et al., 2010). Studies have shown that PAEs
the damage caused by MPs to soil organisms (Guo et al., 2020; released into the soil from plastic film residues decrease SMbA by
Siegfried et al., 2017). Some research has been done on the subject, inhibiting soil respiration and enzymatic activity (Chen et al., 2013; Li
but with mixed results. PBDEs released from foam PU-MPs (<75 μm) et al., 2016b). In addition, PAEs may alter the environmental fate of pes-
could be transferred by the ingestion activity of earthworms (Eisenia ticides (e.g., glyphosate) in soil (Yang et al., 2018). Therefore, they pos-
fetida) (Gaylor et al., 2013). HDPE bag debris (<400 μm) enhanced sibly pose a latent hazard to the ecological function of soil (Huang et al.,
zinc bioavailability to earthworms as a carrier, but there was no evi- 2020a).
dence of the accumulation of Zn in the earthworm body (Hodson The USEPA lists PAEs (6 common types, i.e., BBP, DEHP, DMP, DEP,
et al., 2017). Rodríguez-Seijo et al. (2019), who reported similar results, DBP, DOP) as priority environmental pollutants (USEPA, 2013). As re-
were unable to determine whether LDPE was a carrier of pesticides in ported by Shi et al. (2019), PAEs from agricultural film mulch were re-
soil organisms. MPs have been identified to increase the bioaccumula- leased into soil at concentrations of 1.8 to 3.5 mg/kg, and grain
tion of veterinary antibiotics (oxytetracycline (OTC) and florfenicol samples in the corresponding plot were found to have high accumula-
(FLO)) in the blood clam, and even significantly inhibit the GST activity tion of DBP and DEHP (4–12 mg/kg). Therefore, PAEs negatively affect
and expression of detoxification genes (Zhou et al., 2020b). But it is not soil properties and functions but also potentially enter the food chain,
clear whether there is a similar phenomenon in soil. Interestingly, sev- thus causing unpredicted risks to ecosystems and human health. To re-
eral recent studies showed that MPs reduce the bioavailability of pollut- duce existing PAE pollution in the environment (He et al., 2014), we
ants. For example, the results reported by Wang et al. (2019b) and must decrease or even forbid the addition of PAEs with obvious environ-
Wang et al. (2019a) indicated that added MPs in soil (5% and 10%) re- mental risks in industrial processes.
duced the accumulation of As(V), PAHs and PCBs in earthworms. This At present, it remains unclear whether PAEs in the soil-crop system
may be due to the higher uptake rates of soil by earthworms than by originate from agricultural mulch or other sources (Lü et al., 2018; Zhou
MPs (approximately 10–1000 times), and the residence time of MPs et al., 2019a). For example, 3.23–15.79 ng/m3 of DEHP may exist in the
in the intestinal canal is too short for desorption (Wang et al., 2019b) atmosphere, and 0.11 μg/L of DEHP may exist in the aquatic environ-
and redistribution of preabsorbed pollutants in plastic particles, which ment (Lee et al., 2019). Therefore, the quantitative source of PAEs in ag-
leads to the reduction of biological accumulation of contaminants ricultural systems should be identified. Although microbial degradation
(Koelmans et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2019a). is a feasible strategy to remove PAEs, worryingly, it is incapable of
In in vitro studies, PE MPs reduced the adsorption capacity of soils completely amending soils or aquatic environments in a short period
and thus improved the mobility of POPs (e.g., atrazine) and HMs of time (Kong et al., 2019) because of the recalcitrance of PAEs (Yang
(e.g., Cd) (Hüffer et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2020a; Zhang et al., 2020h). et al., 2019). A pot study showed that PAE can be decreased through
the addition of organic material (microbe-biochar composite) (Feng biomagnification, thus creating potential health risks to humans. Soil
et al., 2020). Nevertheless, this needs to be tested in field trials to facil- MPs may accumulate in the human body through the drinking of
itate the design of effective mitigation strategies. groundwater or through the food chain (Shruti et al., 2020; Watts
et al., 2014), but there is no direct evidence that MPs are harmful to
humans. Therefore, in order to establish the risk assessment system of
7.2. Effect on humans MPs entering the human food chain through the soil food web, it is nec-
essary to study the specific harm of microplastics to human.
The ecosystem risks associated with soil MP contamination and ex- Smaller NPs pose an even greater threat to environmental and eco-
posure deserve attention (Prata et al., 2020). MPs enter the human logical security than MPs. However, the definition of nanocrystals is
body through various exposure pathways (Fig. 5), including inhalation still controversial (Hartmann et al., 2019). The actual occurrence of
of PM2.5, ingestion through the diet or of salt polluted with MPs, direct NPs in many other environments remains a matter of speculation (da
drinking water and use of plastic tea bags, or skin contact (Hernandez Costa et al., 2016). In current research, most of the NPs used for effect as-
et al., 2019; Shruti et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020c). It is estimated that sessment are commercially obtained or manufactured (Fig. S2). Particu-
the median daily intake of PET-MPs by children as a result of indoor larly, the organisms manipulating micro- and nano-sized fractions often
dust inhalation ranged from 4000 to 150000 ng/kgbw/day (bw, body work below the detection level of available monitoring techniques
weight) (Zhang et al., 2020b). Plastic tea bags release billions of (Burton, 2017). Therefore, it is also necessary to explore and establish
micro- and nanoplastics after being brewed in 95 °C hot water analytical detection methods and evaluation criteria for NPs in order
(Hernandez et al., 2019), posing a direct threat to human health. to better understand the spread of NPs and their interaction with
Trophic-level transfer of MPs and related contaminants has been virus-soil microbial-plant in environments and their impact on humans
confirmed in aquatic ecosystems (Carbery et al., 2018). However, (Benckiser, 2019).
there is currently little information on the trophic transference of MPs
in the terrestrial food chain. Exposure to MPs may pose health risks to
land mammals (commercial poultry), including the cause of particulate 8. Control and proposal of microplastic pollution in soil
toxicity, accompanied by oxidative stress and inflammation, which can
lead to neoplasia (Huerta Lwanga et al., 2017b; Prata et al., 2020). MPs With the increasing demand for plastics and difficult degradation of
may also be involved in intestinal microflora disorders and metabolic large amounts of MPs in the short term, terrestrial MPs will continue to
problems, damaging immune function and neurotoxins (Guo et al., increase for many years (Hahladakis et al., 2018a; Hahladakis et al.,
2020). Recently, Wang et al. (2020f) reported the synergistic toxicity 2018b), posing persistent and potential risks to ecosystems (Da Costa
of microplastics and bisphenol A on colonic cancer Caco-2 cells. The et al., 2019; Zhou et al., 2020a). Film mulch is a key source of MPs in ag-
structure and function of Caco-2 cells are similar to those of differenti- ricultural soils. However, its use has significantly increased crop yields
ated intestinal epithelial cells. This study demonstrated that MPs in- (e.g., by 24.3% in China), providing great help to agricultural production
creased cytotoxicity by inducing cellular oxidative stress and worldwide (Gao et al., 2019a). Film mulch increases water use efficiency
mitochondrial depolarization. These impacts may be directly or by 27.6% in China (Gao et al., 2019a). Given the scarcity of water sup-
indirectly transferred to humans through bioaccumulation and plies in developing countries and as climate change becomes more
Fig. 5. The human exposure to microplastic through different routes. *Drinking water, medicine, plastic teabag, table salt et. **Cosmetics, clothing microfiber, medicine, plastic currency
(Hongkong, New Zealand et.) ***Medicine. The dotted line indicates the possible toxicological effects of microplastics through dermal, inhalation and ingestion.
uncertain, the use of plastic sheeting is unlikely to stop (Qi et al., 2020a). (photodegradation, oxidation, thermal, enzymatic degradation), biore-
Therefore, rational use and mandatory recycling of conventional PE film mediation and rational fertilization, is expected to achieve better results
is a better way to alleviate agricultural MP contamination. (Shah et al., 2008; Zhang et al., 2020e). Clearly, more theoretical re-
Research on ecological and health risks related to marine MP pollu- search is needed to support the widespread use of microbial and
tion has been extensively conducted, and corresponding marine envi- phytoremediation techniques.
ronmental supervision and management countermeasures have been
developed (Cole et al., 2011; Miller et al., 2017; Xanthos and Walker, 9. Conclusions and perspectives for future research
2017). Nevertheless, the management policy of soil MP pollution is
not as advanced. It is recommended that government departments The current ecological risks from plastic pollution are expected to
help reduce soil MP pollution and improve and promote sustainable continue into the future due to expected increases in plastic production,
plastic waste management (Horodytska et al., 2018) by the following: significant durability of plastic particles, degradation of existing plastic
(i) Clarify the responsibilities of state agencies and enterprises in the pollution and increase in MPs and NPs worldwide. First, we reviewed
production, use, recycling and disposal of plastic wastes and the corre- a selection of papers and then extrapolated a tentative protocol for
sponding penalties. such analyses (Fig. 7, SI). Then, from the perspectives of source, occur-
(ii) Design environmental taxes on the principle of polluter pays and rence, fate and environmental risk, the related research on soil MPs
beneficiary compensation. was summarized and discussed, and some suggestions were put for-
(iii) Raise awareness of MPs through education and advocacy. ward (as corresponding section above). More efforts are needed to be
(iv) Consult the public, from individuals to public interest environ- systematically studied from the perspectives of research framework
mental protection organizations; improve public participation; and es- (Fig. 6). In addition, here, we also provide some field perspectives that
tablish relevant feedback mechanisms and public interest litigation have not been carried out or are rarely studied for reference in subse-
mechanisms. quent studies.
(v) Strictly restrict the flow of inferior plastics (higher pollution The research of MPs in the environment is still in its infancy. At pres-
load) into society, reduce or even prohibit the use of plastics in food ent, plastic debris are relatively well defined as a group of mixed sub-
production-processing systems. stances composed of synthetic or heavily modified natural polymers,
(vi) Using the trajectory of climate change, fossil fuel consumption and they are solid and insoluble at 20 °C (Hartmann et al., 2019). Persis-
and species management as a reference (Jambeck et al., 2015), devel- tent water-soluble polymers like polyacrylamides (PAM) and
oped and emerging countries must cooperate to find equitable solutions polycarboxylates would not be considered microplastics and therefore
to plastics pollution. will not gain as much attention as they should (Arp and Knutsen,
(vii) Make prevention a priority at the beginning of the lifecycle of 2020). Because of annual production volumes well into the millions of
plastic products themselves, followed by containment and lastly tonnes, especially considering that PAM releases its monomer acrylam-
cleanup (similar to controlling or cleaning up oil spills). ide (a powerful neurotoxin) under anaerobic conditions, its harmful en-
Management and remediation solutions should be imminently im- vironmental effects should not be overlooked.
plemented to alleviate the risk of MP pollution because of the large Obviously, we know that microplastics come from a multitude of
number of MPs currently discharged and dispersed in the environment. sources, including products used for a variety of applications
For example, improved removal processes in sewage treatment will (e.g., tires, textiles, packaging), comprise different sizes, shapes, colors,
help reduce the amounts of MPs that sewage irrigation inputs into the and types of material (molecular composition and structure), and in-
soil ecosystem (Talvitie et al., 2017; Xu et al., 2019). The agricultural clude mixtures of diverse chemicals. They migrate through nature via
use of biological sludge with a high MP load should be gradually re- diverse pathways and affect biota and ecosystems in different ways.
duced or even prohibited (Mohajerani and Karabatak, 2020). As an en- Therefore, like pesticides with diverse molecules, structures and appli-
vironmentally friendly plastic, bioplastic can theoretically be degraded cations (e.g., fungicides and herbicides), microplastics should be
by microbes (Shen et al., 2020). This seems to be another important reconsidered as a diverse suite of contaminants rather than a contami-
way to decrease plastic waste and MP contamination. MPs can be used nant (Rochman et al., 2019). This diversity needs to be recognized in
as carbon sources to provide energy for microbial degradation of poly- our research design, monitoring protocols, analytical methods, toxicity
mer plastics (Caruso, 2015; Chai et al., 2020). However, it should be assessments, and our communications with policymakers and the pub-
noted that biodegradable MPs need appropriate strains and specific lic. For example, different methods will perform better for capturing or
conditions (Table S7), otherwise the application of biodegradable plas- analyzing certain sizes or densities of MPs. Diversity should also be con-
tics will result in high environmental risks (Yang et al., 2020). These mi- sidered when studies are designed to test hypotheses about the sources,
croorganisms are low in abundance and with specific ecological niches fate, and effects on organisms and ecosystems. Finally, these differences
and generally have a low persistence in soil. The rerelease of adsorbed are important to consider when making decisions relevant to
degradation-resistant contaminants and toxic plastic secondary metab-
olites during bioremediation may pose a potential hazard to soil-plant-
animal ecosystems (Celin et al., 2020; Verma and Kuila, 2019). Hence,
the step-by-step use of a variety of microorganisms should be consid-
ered to avoid polluting environments again. Microorganisms decom-
pose complex polymers into oligomers or their monomers that are
discharged as simple waste compounds, and ultimately, the excreted
waste can be used (Shah et al., 2008). Nevertheless, the combination
of MPs with humus, natural products, and microbial biomass in complex
heterogeneous soils makes it difficult to achieve 100% degradation. Re-
cently, great progress has been made in the research of plastic hydrolase
based on gene editing technology, which has the advantages of high ef-
ficiency, low cost, high temperature resistance and reuse of
decomposed monomers (Tournier et al., 2020). However, this enzyme Fig. 6. The pyramid framework for future research based on the knowledge system of soil
microplastics. (Starting from the bottom layer method, the phenomenon, process, pattern/
does not recycle any of the other major types of plastic except PET. In mechanism of soil microplastics are gradually explored, and finally the management
this case, the combination of a variety of solutions to remediate MP pol- strategy of soil microplastics pollution is implemented. Establishing management
lution, such as physical removal, chemical digestion, degradation strategies also in turn serves to address soil microplastic pollution.)
Fig. 7. Suggested methods for soil microplastic research (see SI in supplementary materials for details of the procedure). All samples should undergo filtration to retain targeted
microplastics for visual and instrumental identifications. Sieved soil samples should be subjected to density separation. *Organic-rich samples should be processed by the digestion to
remove organic impurities and to facilitate subsequent identification.
mitigation. Rethinking microplastics as a contaminant suite, like other human (CIEL, 2019). The introduction of this concept may have impor-
contaminant suites, to include the diversity described in the present re- tant implications for policy and management of this issue. It is therefore
port will inform methods for sampling, quantifying, and reporting. Un- suggested to consider the plastic pollution problem as a concept of an
derstanding the diversity of MPs can be helpful for developing environmental or biogeochemical cycle (Bank and Hansson, 2019),
targeted managements and mitigation strategies for MPs pollution that is, identify the continuous and complex movement of plastic mate-
and curbing emissions to global marine, freshwater and terrestrial rials (a diverse contaminant suite of large, medium, micro- and nano-
ecosystems. plastic) between different abiotic and biotic ecosystem compartments
Environmental studies of sources, fate and transport of pollutants (including humans), based on atmospheric sciences and biogeochemis-
(e.g., carbon, nitrogen, mercury, lead) in the context of biogeochemistry, try, trophic transfer, and human health and exposure. Moreover, this cy-
toxicology and human health follow environmental or biogeochemical cling approach will also aid in identifying and understanding the
cycles. These cycles extend the understanding of the major principles relationships between plastic manufacturing and pollution to other se-
governing their fate and transport within and across ecosystem com- rious environmental problems such as climate change, species loss,
partments and environmental reservoirs. As a product of the coral disease (Lamb et al., 2018), pathogens and parasites (Vethaak
Anthropocene era, the entire lifecycle of plastics, including from produc- and Leslie, 2016), and antibiotic resistance (Parthasarathy et al., 2019).
tion to landfill, recycling and processing, is often driven by various com- It has been reported that, if left unchecked, carbon emissions from the
plex and unknown natural and anthropogenic factors in the entire lifecycle of fossil-based plastics, including the formation of
environment (Bank and Hansson, 2019). Current research on plastic microplastics, are projected to contribute 15% of global greenhouse
pollution is limited by the conceptual plastic fate and transport models gases by 2050 (Hale et al., 2020). In addition, Schellenberger et al.
from land to ocean (Horton and Dixon, 2018). Thus far, this holistic and (2019) showed that the release of fluoride from MP fibers in the wash-
integrated approach has not been widely used and adapted, although ing process of functional textiles should not be ignored. Thus, just as the
existing some models to follow their fate and transport through the var- carbon cycle has been instrumental in identifying the factors related to
ious ecosystem processes it undergoes, as well as potential exposures to climate change, the development of a new paradigm (i.e., the
perspective of viewing plastic pollution as an environmental or biogeo- Cai, Y., Yang, T., Mitrano, D.M., Heuberger, M., Hufenus, R., Nowack, B., 2020. Systematic
study of microplastic fiber release from 12 different polyester textiles during wash-
chemical cycle) will facilitate comprehensive and in-depth research on ing. Environmental Science & Technology 54 (8), 4847–4855.
MP pollution, and hopefully, lay the foundation for sustainable solutions Cao, D., Wang, X., Luo, X., Liu, G., Zheng, H., 2017. Effects of polystyrene microplastics on
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Chen, H., Zhuang, R., Yao, J., Wang, F., Qian, Y., 2013. A comparative study on the impact of
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The authors declare that they have no known competing financial 217–223.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ- Chen, G., Feng, Q., Wang, J., 2020a. Mini-review of microplastics in the atmosphere and
ence the work reported in this paper. their risks to humans. Sci. Total Environ. 703, 135504.
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Acknowledgments Chemosphere 243.
Chen, Y., Leng, Y., Liu, X., Wang, J., 2020c. Microplastic pollution in vegetable farmlands of
suburb Wuhan, central China. Environ. Pollut. 257.
This work was supported by the Open Fund of the Key Laboratory of
Chen, Y., Liu, X., Leng, Y., Wang, J., 2020d. Defense responses in earthworms (Eisenia
Coastal Zone Exploitation and Protection, Ministry of Natural Resources fetida) exposed to low-density polyethylene microplastics in soils. Ecotoxicol. Envi-
(2019CZEPK01), National Natural Science Foundation of China ron. Saf. 187.
(41771243) and the National Key Research and Development Program CIEL, 2019. Chapter 6: Plastic in the Environment -Plastic & Health: The Hidden Costs of a
Plastic Planet. Center for International Environmental Law Technical Report.
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Science of the Total Environment 748 (2020) 141368

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Science of the Total Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

Microplastics in soils: A review of methods, occurrence, fate, transport,

• We extrapolate a standardized protocol

3.2.3. Sieving 3.3.1. Size of microplastics

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