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CHAPTER 02
(Sets, Functions, Groups and logics)
Following are the key points that should be kept in mind
while preparing this chapter for Entry Test.

 Understand the real meanings of a 'SET'. For example :

{1,2,3} is a set but {1,1,2,3,3,1} is not a set by definition.
 Types and Operations on sets.
 Interpretation of Venn diagram especially Results
mentioned at page#39 of Text book.
 Explanation and usage of logic Symbols and related terms
used frequently in Aristotelian logic.
 Understand the relation between Logic and Set Theory.
 Function, Types of Functions and Inverse of a function.
 Operations on Residue Classes Modulo Sets.
 Understand Complete Group Theory with all the
variations .For example : If a semi-group with respect to
some binary operation also consists Identity of that
operation , It is named as Monoid .
 Real Numbers do not represent a group under
Multiplication because Multiplicative Inverse of Zero
Doesn't Exist in Real numbers. Moreover if zero is
excluded from 'R' it becomes an Abelian Group.
Some Important Points:

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If n(A)=n then:
1) Total Subsets= 2n
2) Total Proper Subsets=2n-1
3) Total Non-empty Proper Subset=2n-2
4) Every set is a subset and superset of itself.
5) The empty set is subset of every set
6) “Cardinality” means number of elements present in a
set.
7) “Tabular form” for representation of a set is also
known as “Roster Form”.
8) “Set Builder form” for representation of a set is also
known as “Rule Method”.
Let n(A)=m and n(B)=n
9) No. of Functions= nm
10) No. of Relations/Correspondence= 2m×n
11) No. of Bijective Function=nPn =n! whereas n=m
12) No. of One-to-One Function= nPm ; n≥m
13) If A has n elements and B has m elements then A×B
has m×n elements.
14) No. of relation in the distinct set is given by 2
15) Any Conditional and its contrapositive are equivalent.
16) The converse and inverse are equivalent.
17) All sets of residue classes under addition are groups.
18) All sets of residue classes excluding 0 under
multiplication are groups.

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19) The converse of p→ ͢ q is q→p.

20) The inverse of p→q is ~p→~q.
21) The contra positive of p→q is ~q→~p.
22) The power set of any empty set is not empty.
23) If a set A has m elements, then its power set P(A)
contains exactly 2m.
Important Results:

Relation b/w A and B Result Suggested

A∩B= ᶲ n(A∩B)=0
(A and B are Disjoint) n(AUB)=n(A)+n(B)
n(A-B)=n(A)
n(B-A)=n(B)
A∩B≠ᶲ n(A∩B)≠0
(A and B are overlapping) n(AUB)=n(A)+n(B)-n(A∩B)
n(A-B)=n(A)-n(A∩B)
n(B-A)=n(B)-n(A∩B)
A⊆B n(A∩B)=n(A)
n(AUB)=n(B)
n(A-B)=0
n(B-A)=n(B)- n(A∩B)
B⊆A n(A∩B)=n(B)
n(AUB)=n(A)
n(A-B)= n(A)-n(A∩B)
n(B-A)=0
Note:
i) Dom(R-1)= Range

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ii) Ran(R-1)=Domain
iii) (R-1)-1=R
Function:
-Conditions:
Let X and Y be two non-empty sets such that
1) f is relation from A to B (i.e f ⊆A×B)
2)Dom f=A
3) First Element of order pairs don’t repeat.
Then f is called a function from A to B.
The function f is also written as f:AB.
Example: X={1,2,3} , Y={2,4,7}
By arrow diagram as shown below:

This relation is a function as each element of X is related

to exactly element of y.
Example#2:
r={(1,3,(2,5), (3,4),{3,5}
This relation is not a function as “3”element of set is
related to two elements of 2nd set.

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Types of Function:
Into Function: A function is called into function if each
element of the 1st set is mapped to just one element of
the 2nd set.
OR If “f” is a function from set A to set B i.e
f:AB such that Range f is subset of B.
i.e Range f≠B , then the function is called an into
function from A to B.
Example: f= {(1,2),(3,4) ,(5,6)

f is a function But Range f≠B

Therefore f is an into function from A to B.
Surjective (Onto) Function:

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A function is called onto function if each element of 2nd

set is the image of some element of 1st set.
Or If “f” is a function from set Ato B i.e f: AB
Such that Range f=B , then f is called an onto function
from set A to B.
Example: f= {(1,a),(2,a),(3,b)}

As Range f=B
So that f is called as Onto or surjective function.
1-1 and into (Injective) Function:
A function is called (1-1) and into function if the
different elements have different images.
Example:

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Onto ,one-to-one (Bijective) Function:

e.g

F(x)= {(a,z),(b,x),(c,y)}

-Linear and Quadratic Functions:

The function f={|x,y| , y=mx+c is called a linear function
and its graph is a straight line.
The function f={|x,y| , y=ax2+bx+c } is called a quadratic
function and its graph is a parabola.
-Inverse of a function:
Inverse of r= f={|x,y| , y=mx+c} is f={|x,y| , x=my+c}
Note: The inverse of a function may or may not be a
function but inverse of a bijective function is always a
function.
Unary Operation: Any operation which performs on a
single number yields another number of the same or
different system is called Unary Operation.
For Example:
1) Negation of a given number.

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2) Squaring a number etc.

Binary Operation: A binary operation denoted by * (read
as star) on a non-empty set G is function which
associated with each ordered pair (a,b) of element of G, a
unique element denoted as a*b of G.
For Example: Ordinary addition and multiplication are
binary operations on N.
Groupoid: A non-empty set on which a binary operatiobn
* can be defined is called a groupoid.
Semi-Group:
A non-empty set is semi group if:
1) It is closed with respect to an operation *.
2) The Operation * is assosiative.
Monoid: A semi group having an identity is called a
monoid.
Definition of group: A monoid having inverse of each of
its element under * is called a group under * i.e.
A non-empty set G is group under * if
1) G is closed under *.
2) The operation * is associative.
3) G has an identity element w.r.t *.
4) Every element of G has an inverse in G w.r.t * If G

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satisfy the additional condition.

5) For all a,b belongs to G , a*b=b*a
Then G is called an Abelian or commutative group under
*.
-Logic Important Points:
1) Conjunction of p and q is represented by p^q if p and
q are true , then p^q is true otherwise p^q is false.
2) Disjunction of p and q is represented by pvq if p and q
are both false then pvq is false otherwise pvq is true.
3) Implication or Conditional of p and q is represented by
pq iff q is false then pq is false otherwise pq is
true.
4) Biconditional or equivalence of p and q is represented
by p q if both p and q are either true or false then
equivalence is true otherwise it is false.
5) A statement which is true for all the possible values of
the possible values of the variable involved in it is called
a tautology.
6) A statement which is always false is called absurdity or
contradiction.
7) Any statement which can be true or false depending
upon the truth values is called contingency.

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Note: (i) n(∅) = 0 (ii) n(A’)= n(U)- n(A)

(iii)n(A’UB’)=n(A∩B)’ (iv) n(A’∩B’)= n(AUB)’

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