Fundamentals of Nutrition and Food Science - in Depth Report

B.A. (Prog.
) Semester-I NHE
DISCIPLINE SPECIFIC CORE COURSE

Fundamentals of Nutrition and Food Science
UNIT : 1-3
SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING

UNIVERSITY OF DELHI
For Limited Circulation Only

Graduate Course
UNIT 1 : BASIC CONCEPTS IN FOOD AND NUTRITION

Lesson 1 : Concept of Food, Nutrition and Health
Lesson 2 : Introduction to Food, Food Groups and Balanced Diet
UNIT 2 : NUTRIENTS
Lesson 3 : Macronutrients
Lesson 4 : Micronutrients-I
Lesson 5 : Micronutrients-II
UNIT-3 : CULINARY SCIENCE

Lesson 6 : Introduction to Cooking
Lesson 7 : Methods of Cooking
Lesson 8 : Role of Food Groups in Cookery
Lesson 9 : Effect of Cooking on Food Components
Lesson 10 : Ways of Conserving and Enhancing Nutrients
Written by:
Ms. Anjali
Assistant Professor
Department of Food and Nutrition,
Lady Irwin College,
University of Delhi
Delhi-110001

SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING
University of Delhi
5, Cavalry Lane, Delhi-110007
UNIT 1
BASIC CONCEPTS IN FOOD AND NUTRITION
Lesson 1 : Concept of Food, Nutrition and Health
Lesson 2 : Introduction to Food, Food Groups and Balanced Diet
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2
LESSON 1
CONCEPT OF FOOD, NUTRITION AND HEALTH
INTRODUCTION
Food and nutrition are considered as the foundation for health and development. The
relation between foods, its nutrients and health are complex and have a significant effect
on individuals and society. The nutrients present in the food are essential for body’s
growth, protection from disease and maintenance. Therefore the complete understanding
of the food and its effect on the long term health is crucial.
OBJECTIVES
 To interpret the basic relationship between food, nutrition and health.

 To familiarize about the types of malnutrition.
 To understand the concept of health, its dimensions and determinants.
Food can be defined as anything edible that can be solid, semisolid or liquid which when
swallowed, digested and assimilated in the body, proves useful to it. These substances not
only keep the person alive but also provide energy used for growth and development,
regulate the body processes and protect the body
from diseases. Ingestion
Digestion
Nutrition is the science of looking at how the body
uses nutrients and at how and why people eat. It deals Absorption
with digestion, absorption and metabolism of food. It
Transportation
can be defined as
Utilisation
‘The science of foods, the nutrients and
other substances therein; their action, interaction Excretion
and balance in relation to health and disease’
(Robinson 1966) Figure 1.1: Steps in the
process of nutrition
The process of nutrition involves different steps (Figure
1.1).
Nutrients are defined as substances in food that the body needs to function properly.
They provide energy for activity, growth, and all functions of the body such as breathing,
digesting food and keeping warm; and materials for the growth and repair of the body,
and for keeping the immune system healthy.
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‘Nutrients are the nourishing substances in food that are essential for the
growth, development and maintenance of body functions. When the intake does
not regularly meet the nutrient needs dictated by the cell activity, the metabolic
processes slow down or even stop.’- (Wardlaw and Insel)
The main classes of nutrients that the body needs are carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre and water.
Our body needs all the nutrients in the right quantities and if these nutrients are not taken
adequately in the diet, it leads to ill health. When the essential nutrients are consumed in
adequate amount and proportion as per body needs it is called optimum nutrition or
adequate nutrition.
Malnutrition refers to deficiencies, excesses or imbalance in a person’s intake of energy
and nutrients. Malnutrition includes both Undernutrition and Overnutrition(Figure
1.2).
1. Undernutrition refers to the deficiency of one or more nutrients. It can be Protein

Energy deficiency.eg. Kwashiorkor or marasmus or can be any micronutrient
deficiency eg Vitamin or minerals deficiency
2. Overnutrition results from the imbalance of energy consumed (excess) and
energy expended (less). For example, overweight or obesity results from the
overconsumption of energy than body energy expenditure.
Protein, Energy
Deficiency
Undernutrition
Micronutrient related
Malnutrition
Overnutrition Overweight or obesity
Figure 1.2: Types of malnutrition
Food is the necessity for the survival of life and the amount and type of food one eat can
have far-reaching consequences on health. In simpler words, one can say that you are
what you eat. The food choice doesn’t solely depend on physiological needs but rather
also governed by several other factors like biological (taste and hunger), economic (cost
and income), physical (education and time) social (culture and family) and psychological
(mood and stress) along with attitude, beliefs and knowledge about food.
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LET’S CHECK THE PROGRESS
1. Briefly explain the term nutrition?
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2. Briefly explain malnutrition and its types.
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CONCEPT OF HEALTH
‘Every human being is the author of his own health or disease’

- Buddha
The concepts of health vary both individual and community wise. Conventionally health
is considered a mere ‘absence of disease.’ Although there is a common saying that health
is wealth but often it is taken for granted and not valued until lost. It is our good health
that stays with us for long rather than any relationships or any other things like wealth,
power, fame etc.
Health can be defined as physical, mental, and social wellbeing, and as a resource for
living a full life. It refers not only to the absence of disease but the ability to recover and
bounce back from illness and other problems.
Health is very subjective and carries a different meaning for each individual. Therefore,
there are several definitions of health that have been offered from time to time. Some are
as follows:
a. “The condition of being sound in body, in mind and spirit, especially freedom
from physical disease or pain.” (Webster)
b. “The condition of the body and the degree to which it is free from illness, or the
state of being well:” (Cambridge English Dictionary)
c. “A person’s health is the condition of their body and the extent to which it is free
from illness or is able to resist illness.” (Collins Dictionary)
WHO definition
The absence of disease alone does not indicate good health. A healthy person should have
a sound body and mind. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), health is:
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“A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the
absence of disease and infirmity.”
In 1986, the WHO further elucidated that health is:
"A resource for everyday life, not the objective of living. Health is a positive
concept emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities."
This means that health is a resource to support an individual's function in wider society.
A healthful lifestyle provides the means to lead a full life.
Health is multidimensional, WHO definition envisages three specific dimensions:
physical, mental and social, though there are several dimensions (Figure 1.3) which are
interrelated and provide a full picture of health.
Physical
Bodily
aspect
Vocational Mental
Life Cognitive
successes aspect
Dimensions
of health
Spiritual Social
Sense of
Social aspect
overall
purpose in
life.
Emotional
Persons mood
or general
emotional
state.
Figure 1.3: Different dimensions of health
i. Physical Dimension
It refers to the bodily aspect of health and indicates the ‘perfect functioning’ of the
body. It is the state in which every body organ function to the full capacity in perfect
coordination with the entire body. It ranges from the state of diseases to the state of
optimum physical condition.
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The other health dimensions are also affected if there is a deterioration in physical
condition. e.g. a person with a common cold is often isolated to prevent others from
infection. He/she may not be able to focus and may feel depressed.
ii. Mental Dimension
It focuses on the cognitive facet of health. It is the individual’s ability to use their
reasoning power to solve problems or to recall information. Often this dimension is
connected to emotional health. However, there is a difference. Mental health relates to
brain functioning, while a person’s mood depends on one’s emotional health. Some of
the issues associated with this dimension are Alzheimer’s and dementia.
According to WHO,
“Mental health is defined as a state of well-being in which every individual
realises his/her potential, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work
productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to her/his
community.”
Mental dimension is inter-related to other dimensions of health as well.
Poor mental health  Poor physical well-being
Good mental health  Greater self-esteem  Confidence in social situations 
Improved spiritual health.
iii. Social Dimension

The social dimension of health includes the social relationship. It refers to the ability
to create and maintain meaningful social relationships within socially acceptable
standards and behaving properly with them.
Family is the basic social unit of relationship, and these relationships impact a
person’s life the most. Other key relationships are close friends, social networks,
teachers and Professional networks etc. A socially integrated person is said to suffer
less from physical and mental problems and thus, may be healthier. The community’s
social health is governed by its development, tolerance, consideration and generosity
towards others. It also depends upon the education level, productivity, and societal
security of its members.
The interrelatedness of social dimension with other dimensions of health can be seen
below:
Bad social life  Feeling isolated and unwanted Demotivation  Depression.
iv. Emotional Dimension

The emotional state or mood of a person tells about his/here motional health. It is
the ability to empathize and express one’s own feelings like anger, happiness,
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sadness, inappropriate manner. It also involves coping the stress effectively and
appropriately. It relates to self-esteem as well as the ability to control emotions to
maintain a realistic perspective on situations. It is how one reacts when something
happens unexpectedly (highs and lows) in life.
Emotional health affects the other dimensions of health as a person with good self-
esteem is more confident in social settings, makes friends quickly and often perform
better in physical activity.
v. Spiritual Dimension
The word spiritual refers to “one’s innermost self”. It is also called “Psychic
dimension”. Spiritual health relates to the sense of overall purpose in life. It is the
commitment to one’s value system and strongly determined by the belief and faith
system. Modern-day hectic schedule and stresses make this dimension very vital as
peace with oneself are important to achieve world peace. A person having an
integrated self is said to be healthier than those who don’t see a purpose to live.
Emotional and mental health are highly affected by this dimension. Having a goal
may help people to have positive outlook/ perspective in life and over coming
hardship. Following yoga, pranayama and meditation are some of the ways of
improving spiritual health.
vi. Vocational Dimension
This is a considerably a new dimension of health. It is subjective in nature and
depends on one’s opinions about their life goals and achievements. Each person wants
to take their own path to achieve vocational goals. Professional development in terms
of getting a job or occupation of one’s interest is one of the aspects of this dimension.
Hence, one can define health as “a state of complete physical, mental, social,
emotional spiritual and vocational well-being, and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity.”
SPECTRUM OF HEALTH
Optimum health
The spectrum of health states that health is a
Seemingly
dynamic phenomenon which undergoes Healthy
continuous changes on a regular basis. It is not Freedom from
static. It ranges from the state of optimum health sickness
to the lowest point on the health-disease spectrum
is death and the highest point corresponds to Chronic diseases
optimum health (Figure 1.4). Health fluctuates Sick
within a range of optimal wellbeing to various Death
levels of dysfunction, including death. The
Figure 1.4: Spectrum of health
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transiition from optimum
o heealth to ill health is often
o graduaal and wherre one statee ends
anothher state beggins. A persson may funnction at maaximum levvels of healtth today and may
be miinimum tom morrow. It im mplies that health
h is a state
s not to be
b attained once.
DETE
ERMINAN
NTS OF HE
EALTH
Health does not exist in isollation. It deepends on many

m compoonents whicch merge together
to afffect the persson’s healthh. These com
mponents arre known as the determ minants of health.
h
Thesee factors ussually start at the indivvidual level and movee through thhe wider so ociety.
Thesee factors may
m be bioloogical, behaavioural, so ocio-culturaal, economicc, and ecollogical
and arre interrelatting and maay impact onne’s state off health.
Accorrding to WH HO, the detterminants of health caan be divideed into threee core cateegories
whichh include Peerson’s charracteristics and behaviours, Sociall and econoomic environment
and Physical
P envvironment (FFigure 1.5).
Person'ss characteriistics and behaviours

b
• Biologiical- Gendeer, Genetics,, Age
• Behavioural- Alcoohol use, Dieet, Physicall activity, Toobacco use
Social an
nd economiic environm ment
• Social- Social classs, social networks etc
• Econommic- Educattion, Emplooyment etc
Physicall environmeent
• Water quality
q
• Air quaality
• Climatee and geogrraphy- Tempperature, Raainfall
• Built en
nvironmentt- Transport, Housing quality,
q Roadds etc
• Food saafety
• Land annd soil quallity
F
Figure 1.5: Determina
D ants of healtth
1. P
Person's haracteristics and behaviours: It consists of both:
ch
o B
Biological d
determinan
nts of health
h-
--Age, sex and genetic factors-
f Theese inborn factors
f playy a decisive role in pred
dicting
lifespan andd probabilityy of develooping certaiin illnesses.. It is comppletely beyo
ond an
inndividual’s control.
Genetic facctors -Heredity plays a vital role in determinning one’s lifespan, an

G nd the
s
susceptibilit
ty to certainn ailments. eg. Geneticc disorders e.g. diseasees like sick
kle cell
a
anaemia, haemophilia, etc.
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Age- Older adults are biologically prone to be in poorer health than adolescents due to
the physical and cognitive effects of ageing.
Gender- Although men and women are equal in several ways but the probability of
occurrence of few diseases vary gender-wise due to the anatomy and hormones. eg.
Heart diseases are more common in men while most of the women suffer from
osteoporosis.
o Behavioural determinants of health
--Lifestyle factors -These factors include diet, physical exercise, smoking, and
alcohol use, etc. Individuals may have more control over these factors by making
the choice to adopt a healthy lifestyle practice that enhances health. These factors
are also called as modifiable factors.
2. Social and economic environment

Human health is also influenced by the social-economic conditions of the person
or the community. These factors are multiple, interactive and very often go
beyond the extent of an individual’s control.
o Social determinants of health

--Social and community support- Greater support from families, friends and
communities are linked with better health. The caring and respect occur in such
social relationships help people to cope with challenges and act as a buffer against
health problems.
--Culture- One’s family and community’s customs, traditions and beliefs also
affect health.
o Economic determinants of health
--Income- Money is also said to influence health as health status improves at

every rise in the income level and social hierarchy. Higher-income and status
generally results in more control and discretion. Income determines living
conditions such as safe housing and ability to buy sufficient good food.
The Gross National Product (GNP) per capita is the commonly used measure
economic performance. The economic status affects purchasing power, the
standard of living, quality of life (QoL), family size and the pattern of disease in
the community. Paradoxically, wealth may also be a contributing factor to several
Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) as high rates of coronary heart disease,
diabetes and obesity are often seen in the upper socio-economic groups.
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--Education- Health status improves with the level of education. Education is
closely tied to socio-economic status. It increases opportunities for job and
income security, improves people’s ability to access and understand information
to help them keep healthy. Illiteracy is often linked with poor health, more stress
levels and lower self-confidence.
--Employment and working conditions-the health and work shares a dynamic

relationship. The social organisation of work, management styles and social
relationships in the workplace all affect health. The people who are employed are
healthier and happier as it helps them build confidence, improves self-esteem,
keeps busy, socialise, and provides monetary support. Joblessness has several
negative effects on health like psychological and social damage. People who are
out of the work suffers from both physical and mental problems and thus, have a
shorter life expectancy.
--Health services- The health services aim to improve the health of community or
population via. prevention, diagnosis and treatment of disease. These services
cover a range of personal and community services like provision of Primary
Health Care, provision of sanitation and hygiene which includes safe drinking
water. It consists of medical professionals and auxiliary health care workers. A
person’s income is also a key factor in seeking health care services.
3. Physical environment
Environmental factors play an important role. Sometimes the environment alone

is enough to impact health or may cause illness in a person who is genetically
susceptible. Hippocrates, a Greek physician revolutionised medicine and first
related disease to the environment. He argued that diseases do not occur due to
god’s punishment rather illness happens due to environmental factors e.g.,
temperature, water, food, air, etc.
In the 19th century, Max von Pettenkofer, also known as the father of hygiene,
gave a dogma that environmental factors are responsible for the occurrence of
diseases and thus, revived the concepts of disease-environment association.
The environmental factors that are said to impact the overall good health include:
o Water quality
o Air quality
o Climate and geography- Temperature, Rainfall
o Built environment- Transportation, Housing quality, Roads etc
o Food safety
o Land and soil quality
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1. Define health.
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2. Briefly explain the relationship between different dimensions of health.
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3. Explain how socio-economic determinant impact health?
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SUMMARY
The effective management of food intake and nutrition are both keys to good health.
Eating the right foods can help your body cope more successfully with an ongoing illness.
Understanding good nutrition and paying attention to what to eat can help to maintain or
improve health. Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and
not just the absence of disease and illness. Human happiness and well-being depend on
the better health of an individual. The physical, mental and social, spiritual, emotional,
and vocational dimension are some of the dimensions of health. Biological, behavioural,
socio-economic and environmental factors are the determinants of health. In short,
numerous factors contribute to the health and well-being of populations.
KEYWORDS
Kwashiorkor- a form of malnutrition that occurs when there is not enough protein in the
diet.
Marasmus- a form of severe malnutrition characterized by energy deficiency.
Infirmity- physical or mental weakness.
Dimension- an aspect or feature of a situation.
Alzheimer's disease- a progressive disorder that causes brain cells to degenerate and die,
due to which there are a continuous decline in thinking, behavioural and social skills that
disrupts a person's ability to function independently
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GNP- Gross national product (GNP) measures the nation’s total economic activity and
shows the average income of a country's citizens
Morbidity- the condition of being diseased.
Mortality- the state of being mortal/dead.
Sickle cell anaemia- an inherited form of anaemia in which there aren't enough healthy
red blood cells (RBCs) to carry adequate oxygen throughout your body.
Haemophilia- Genetic disorder that impairs the body's ability to make blood clots, a
process needed to stop bleeding.
Primary health care (PHC)- refers to "essential health care". It is an approach to health
and wellbeing centred on the needs and circumstances of individuals, families and
communities.
Working conditions – conditions relating to a worker’s job environment, such as hours of
work, safety, paid holidays and vacations, rest periods possibilities of advancement, etc.
REFERENCES
Robinson, W.D., ‘Nutrition in medical education’, Proceedings, Western Hemisphere

Nutrition Congress 1965, American Medical Association, Chicago, 1966.
Wardlaw, G. M., & Insel, P. M. (2011). Perspectives in nutrition. 11th Ed. McGraw-Hill
Education.
Websites:
https://www.who.int/hia/evidence/doh/en/
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LESSON 2
INTRODUCTION TO FOOD, FOOD GROUPS AND BALANCED DIET
INTRODUCTION
Human life needs few things for survival food being one of them as life cannot exist
without food. It is what matters to people most of the time more than anything else in this
world. There is a direct impact of foods that we chose to eat on our ability to enjoy life.
The most obvious positive effect of food is the pleasurable feeling one gets from eating a
good-tasting meal.
Over centuries, food has acted as a vehicle for the expression of affection, and
companionship. It provides our bodies with nutrients to build new body cells and tissues
and prevent and fight the infections. Apart from satisfying hunger, food performs many
other vital functions in the body.
OBJECTIVES
 To know various functions of food.
 To familiarise the concept of food groups.
 To understand the importance of a balanced diet in achieving good health.
Food is any solid, semi-solid or liquid substance which is consumed to provide

nutritional support for an organism and keep it healthy. Food can be obtained from plant
or animal source. It contains certain nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins etc. In simpler
words, food is what humans and animals eat to survive. One of the properties of the food
is that one should be able to ingest, digest and absorb it in ode to utilise it for body
functions. Food should be chewable, palatable and should be able to enter the
gastrointestinal (GI) tract.
Ingestion stats with the intake of food. It refers to the entry of food in the alimentary
canal through the mouth. After this, food undertakes the process of breakdown of
complex substances into simple ones by the process of digestion.
Some of these complex forms of nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins and fats
undergo breakdown. For e.g.
Carbohydrates  monosaccharides (glucose, galactose and
fructose)
Proteins  amino acids (alanine, glycine)
Fats  fatty acids (oleic acid, stearic acid)
After the process of digestion, the process of absorption takes places in which the simple
form of nutrients (end products of digestion) are absorbed by the inner membrane of the
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small intestine called villi. Then it enters into the bloodstream. This movement of
nutrients from the intestinal wall to the bloodstream is called as absorption of food.
Figure 2.1 depicts the digestive processes.
Figure 2.1: The Digestive processes
Food supplies nutrients to the body, and help us to maintain the nutritional status and
health. For example, we can say banana, a food as our body can ingest, digested, and
finally absorb it. These nutrients released from the food help the body in carrying out the
day-to-day activities and thus maintain health.
The nutrients provided by the food are carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins,
minerals, dietary fibre and water perform several tasks in the body for maintaining our
health. Apart from providing nutrients to the body, food has other functions also.
FUNCTIONS OF FOOD
To make diet planning simple, the food groups have been divided according to their
functions. Foods are classified according to the functions (Figure 2.2), namely:
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1) Physiological functions
2) Psychological functions
3) Social functions
Functions of food
Physiological Psychological Social
Energy giving Body building Protection and regulation

(Carbohydrate, Fats) (Proteins) (Vitamins and minerals)
o Whole grain cereals o Pulses o Green leafy

o Vegetable oils & o Nuts and oilseeds vegetables
butter o Milk and milk o Other vegetables
o Nuts & oils seeds products o Fruits
o Sugar o Meat, fish, poultry o Eggs
o Milk and milk
products
o Flesh foods
Figure 2.2: Functions of food
1) Physiological functions of food

The physiological functions of food can be further sub-divided as follows:
1 Energy giving
2 Body-building
3 Protection and Regulation
a) Energy giving
The human body is never at rest. There is a number of voluntary processes like
professional and recreational activities and involuntary processes like respiration, blood
circulation that occurs in the body. These processes are important for the body and thus
needs fuel. Some amount of energy is also essential to main body temperature.
Carbohydrate and fat-rich foods are the main sources that provide energy to the body.
Although proteins also provide energy but their most important function is to build and
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repair body tissues. Therefore, we will not include them in this group. Carbohydrate is
starch, sugars and cellulose. Fat sources are vanaspati, butter, ghee, nuts and oilseeds.
Energy-rich foods constitute a major faction of Indian traditional diet. The amount of
energy released by the nutrients are as follows:
o 1 gram of carbohydrate yields 4 kilocalories,
o 1 gram of fat yields 9 kilocalories
o 1 gram of protein yields 4 kilocalories.
b) Body-building
Our body undergoes regular wear and tear on a regular basis. There are around 300
billion new cells like nerve cells, brain cells etc. which are generated every day by the
body. All these cells, tissues, and different organs of human body like muscles, bone and
organs are built upon and maintained by the proteins. Thus, building the body is an
important function of the food. The body building foods provides proteins to the human
body.
Foods like milk and milk products, pulses, cereals, meat, fish, poultry, nuts, etc. are some
of the sources that provides protein to the human body. There are multiple ways by
which these foods can be incorporated in the daily diet. For e.g. in parathas, stuffed
chapati, raita/curd with sprouts etc.
Since Indian diet is prominently vegetarian in nature and we largely depends upon cereal
– pulse for our energy and protein needs. This increases the importance of cereals and
pulses in our diets. To ensure good quality protein in vegetarian diet one can also opt for
cereal pulse combination e.g. khichdi, roti, dal and subji; sambar–idli. The cereal and
pulse diet complement each other as cereals lacks in lysine which is abundant in the
pulses.
The building of new tissues is very important particularly for growing children and
pregnant women. There is also a continuous breakdown of old tissues and building up of
new tissues going on in our body at all ages irrespective of the apparent growth, thus
maintaining a need for bodybuilding nutrients.
c) Regulatory and protective function
Food also perform regulatory and protective function. It regulates several involuntary and
voluntary activities like homeostasis, muscle contraction, blood clotting, heat bating, and
removal of waste products. To perform these processes certain nutrients like minerals and
vitamins are responsible. Although the nutrients amount required for these function is
very small but it is vital that it should be present in the sufficient amount in the diets on
the daily basis. For example, Vitamins K is responsible for the clotting of blood. B group
vitamins also play. Apart from regulation of body processes, food also prevents us from
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various infections, and diseases. For example Vitamin A helps in building immunity and
enhances the body resistance to fight against invading pathogens.
The important food sources which helps in performing these functions includes green
leafy vegetables (GLVs), milk, fresh fruits and vegetables, fish etc.
2) Psychological functions of food
Another function that food performs is the psychological function. Different foods help to
satisfy different kinds of emotional needs like stress, happiness etc. among humans. eg.
Foods like chocolates are often associated with relieving stress, mother feeding her child
with breast milk develops a sense of security among her new-born child. Preparing food
for family members creates love and affection. Food is used to express feelings of special
attention, friendship, recognition or punishment.
The person begins to associate the food habits and foods commonly consumed by him, as
it gives him a sense of security and satiety. The foods daily eaten by us, gives us more
mental satisfaction, even a nutritionally balanced meal may not be satisfying to the
individual if it is unfamiliar or distasteful to him/her.
In a friendly gathering, one may try unfamiliar foods and thus enlarge our food
experiences. During the course of time and repeated experience, strange foods become
familiar and new tastes are formed. These new tastes that are developed should again be
satisfying to the mind. For example, a person accustomed to traditional Indian cuisine
takes time to adjust to Chinese or western dishes but feels mentally satisfied at the sight
of familiar foods.
3) Social functions of food
Human is a social animal and food helps him being social. Meal times are not merely the
occasion for the intake of food but they also have some other social function for the
people (Seymour 1983). The social functions that food performs are:
 Social groupings
 Social relationships
 Socialization
 Symbolism
 Role performance
Food is said to be the central ingredient of all the celebrations, meetings, and special
occasions like marriage, birthday parties etc. and thus, act as a vehicle to get together and
social gatherings and exchange of ideas. Indian society is a food-centric society and our
culture is so obsessed with eating that we incorporate eating at every occasion. Every
stage of life is usually marked by the feasts associated with it. For e.g. childbirth
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ceremony, mundans, birthdays, marriages etc. The food menu should bring the people
together, rather than creating difference among them e.g. vegetarian vs non-vegetarian
food eaters. Meals served at the social functions bring people close and builds social
relationships with friends, family, neighbour etc. and thus creates social acceptance
among people. Sharing food/ meals with any person indicates that one is accepting
friendship.
Due to prevailing patriarchy in Indian scenario, males are given more food both quality
and quantity-wise. Sweets are also distributed and exchanged to mark certain auspicious
occasion like festivals. Food represents our social life and help express our happiness.
Food is also linked with social prestige and status. Some foods are considered as foods
for rich people as the number of dishes served per meals depicts one’s social status.
Food also carries a specific significance in the religious context. In the religious places
like temples, gurudwar as food is served to all sections of the society irrespective of the
class and creed. This brings people close, produces social cohesion and thus bridges the
communal or social divide among the people. Specific foods like or Prasad is served to
the devotees at these places as a deity benediction.
Earlier people with the same social status used to eat together. A person with inferior
status was not allowed to share a meal with higher status people. Different religious
communities have different eating pattern because of religious texts and practices. Some
foods are strongly recommend while some are rejected. Food thus becomes an integral
part of the social and religious life of people. For e.g. Jains are vegetarians and avoid
eating any underground vegetables like garlic, ginger etc.
Thus, it can be concluded that food functions ranges from satisfying the hunger to
building mutual understanding and above all helps to maintain the nutritional status and
health.
FOOD GROUPS
Consumption of diet having all the nutrients in the appropriate quantity is essential. In
order to acquire the goodness of all the food groups in a diet, one must choose food items
from each food group depending upon the functions they perform like energy giving
foods etc.
The ICMR has grouped the foodstuffs according to the similarity in the nutrients content
as it is not possible to consume all the food items in the diet at one time. Moreover, since
the food items varied in their nutrient quantity (more or less), the grouping of food was
required. Therefore, to overcome this problem, food items providing the similar nutrients
have been grouped together, termed as a ‘Food Group’.
Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has classified the different food items into
five food groups, based on their nutritional content and for the ease of meal planning.
19
1. Cereals, grains and products
2. Pulses and legumes
3. Milk and meat products
4. Fruits and vegetables
5. Fats and sugars
1. Cereals, grains and products

The foodstuffs included in this group are rice, maize, maida, bajra, jowar, bread, etc.
These food items are rich incarbohydrates and energy. Being the cheapest sources of
energy this food group is an important part of the diet of all groups.
Along with energy and carbohydrates, this food group also have some quantities of
proteins. As cereal is staple food in our daily diet, plenty amount of proteins are derived
from them. However, cereals are poor in lysine and rich in methionine, pulses are poor in
methionine and rich in lysine, when cereals are mixed with pulses in the same meal then
the quality of protein improves through mutual supplementation.
The cereals are also abundant in B complex vitamins, provided one consumes whole
grain cereals. These B complex vitamins are absent in refined cereals such as maida etc.
as the outer layer of the cereal is removed in refined cereals. Whole-grain cereals are also
rich in minerals like iron calcium etc. For e.g. bajra is rich in iron, ragi is rich in calcium.
Cereals lacks vitamin C, but its content can be enhanced by the processes of germination
and fermentation.
2. Pulses and legumes
This food group include various pulses and legumes, like green gram, black gram beans,
etc. Nuts and oilseeds like groundnuts, sesame is included in this group. This food group
provides good portion of protein in the vegetarian diet as pulses and legumes are the good
source of proteins. The proteins provided by this food group is the second class proteins.
Pulses and legumes are generally consumed with cereals to ensure the quality of protein
in the diet as pulses and legumes lacks methionine which is abundant in the cereals. This
method of improving protein quality though pulse-cereal combination is called mutual
supplementation. Some of the examples of mutual supplementation found in Indian
kitchens are dal-roti, dal-chawal etc.
This food group also provides good amount of B group vitamins and minerals especially
thiamine. It does not contain Vitamin C, though, its content can be improved by the
20
process of germination and fermentation. Germination is also said to enhance the ion
content of the pulses.
Another good source of proteins are nuts and oil seeds which is also a good source of
energy as it is rich in fats. Oilseeds like sesame seeds are also abundant in calcium. The
oil cake left after the extraction of oils is rather a very good source of proteins which is
commonly used as an animal feed.
3. Milk and meat products

This food group is further subdivided into two groups:
i. Milk and milk products.

ii. Eggs, meat, fish, poultry etc.
The food items in these food groups provide us with the first-class proteins. First-class
proteins are the proteins which contain all the Essential Amino Acids (EAA). Essential
amino acids are the amino acids which cannot be synthesized in the body on its own and
thus one needs to take it in diet. There are nine amino acids namely: Histidine,
Methionine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Phenylalanine, Tryptophan, Threonine, and
Valine.
i) Milk and its products
Milk and its products like curd, cheese are the good source of good quality proteins. It
also provides us with calcium and phosphorous, vitamin A and riboflavin. It is considered
as a very important food for growing children, as it provides them with good quality
proteins and they are also able to digest it. For small infants’ upto 6 months, mother’s
breast milk is the only food given to them.
ii) Eggs, meat, fish and chicken

These are excellent sources of first-class protein, which can be totally utilized in our body
for building the body. They also contain B-group vitamins in good amounts. Among, this
liver is a very good source of vitamin A and vitamin B12. Eggs contain nearly all the
nutrients but are particularly good source of protein, fats, vitamin A, iron, calcium and
phosphorus.
4. Fruits and Vegetables
This food groups add taste, flavour, and varied colours to the diet. It can be sub-divided
into two groups. This food items in this food group provide vitamins and minerals which
gives protection from infections.
a. Vegetables
i. Green leafy vegetables
ii. Other vegetables
21
b. Fruits
Green leafy vegetables like mustard leaves (sarso), radish leaves, amaranth leaves
(cholai), fenugreek leaves (methi), and spinach etc. are included in this food group. These
leafy vegetables are a good source of vitamins and minerals like carotene (precursor of
vitamin A), folic acid and iron.
For e.g., 100 mg amaranth leaves contain 8553±1813 β- carotene.
The green leafy vegetables also provide a good amount of calcium, if consumed in the
diet.
Other vegetables include orange and yellow coloured vegetables which provide us mainly
with carotenes and antioxidants. This group provides vitamins and minerals. Nutrients are
not destroyed as fruits are mostly consumed in the raw state. It also has lots of fibre
content which prevent constipation. Vitamin C is found in citrus fresh fruits.
Fruits also provide a good amount of vitamins and minerals along with dietary fibre to
our meals. The fibrous tissues, which are not digested, help to move the food through the
digestive tract and regulate the excretion of body wastes.
5. Fats and Sugars
Fats and oils like vegetable oils, vanaspati and ghee are dense sources of energy. One
gram of fat provides 9 Kcal. It is mostly used as the cooking medium and hence form a
necessary part of the diet of all section of the society. It helps to increase the palatability
of our food.
Sugar, jaggery and honey supplies energy in the form of carbohydrates. Apart, from
providing carbohydrates, jaggery is also a good source of iron.
There are still number of food items that are still not covered in these food groups and are
used in our diets on regular basis for e.g. spices and condiments. The spices makes the
food palatable tasty, colourful and appealing do not contribute much to the nutritive value
of the diet.
The five food groups with their nutrients contribution is given in Table 2.1.
22
Table 2.1: Five Food Groups and their major nutrients.
Food Group Food items Main Nutrients
I. Cereal, grains and Energy, Protein, Invisible

products Rice, Wheat, Ragi, Fat, Thiamine (Vitamin
Bajra, Maize, Jowar, B1), Riboflavin (Vitamin
Barley, Rice Flakes, B2), Folic Acid (Vitamin B9),
Wheat Flour Iron, Fibre.
II. Pulses and legumes

Bengal Gram, Red Energy, Protein, Invisible
Gram, Lentil, Black Fats, Thiamine (Vitamin
Gram Green Gram, B1), Riboflavin (Vitamin
Rajma, Soybean, And B2), Folic Acid (Vitamin B9),
Beans. Calcium, Iron, Fibre.
III. Milk and meat

products Milk, Cheese Curd, Protein, Fat, Riboflavin
Chicken, Liver, Fish, (Vitamin B2), Calcium.
Egg, Meat
IV. Fruits and vegetables Fruits: Mango, Papaya, Vitamin A, Vitamin C,

Orange, Sweet, Guava, Riboflavin (Vitamin B2),
Lime, Melon etc. Iron, Fibre.
Vitamin A, Riboflavin
Vegetables: (Green (Vitamin B2), Folic Acid
Leafy): (Vitamin B9), Calcium,
Amaranth, Coriander, Dietary Fibre, Iron.
Spinach, Mint, and
Fenugreek Leaves Etc. Vitamin A, Folic Acid
(Vitamin B2), Calcium,
Dietary Fibre.
Other Vegetables:
Carrots, Ladyfinger,
Beans, Brinjal, Onions
Etc.
V. Fats and Sugar Fats: Butter, Ghee, Energy, Fats, Essential Fatty
Cooking Oil Etc. Acids (EFA)
Sugars: Honey, Sugar, Energy
Jaggery
23
BALANCED DIET
No food is complete in itself. In order to have all the nutrients in adequate proportion, we
must include different type of foods in our diet. A diet balanced for one may not be
balanced for the other person because nutritional requirements vary from person to
person. For e.g. an adult balanced diet cannot be given to a child as they both have
different nutritional requirements. The nutritional requirements are affected by different
factors like age, gender, climate, occupation, the composition of the body etc.
In order to provide the nutrients, good nutrition or adequate food consumption according
to the dietary needs of the human body is necessary. A well-balanced diet combined with
the regular physical activity is the foundation of good health. Poor nutrition can lead to
reduced immunity, increased susceptibility to disease, impaired physical and mental
development, and reduced productivity. Since a healthy diet consists of different kinds of
foods, therefore the food-based approach has been largely followed.
A healthy diet consumed throughout the life-course helps in preventing malnutrition in all
its forms as well as a wide range of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and conditions.
But rapid urbanization/globalization increased consumption of processed foods and
changing lifestyles has led to a shift in dietary patterns. Eating a nutritious and balanced
diet is one of the best ways to protect and promote good health.
Food items from all the five food groups given by ICMR are included to make a diet
balanced to fulfil the nutritional needs of a person. A balanced diet is one which provides
all the nutrients in required amounts and proper proportions in a person’s diet without
increasing its calorie intake from the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA).
In addition, a balanced diet should provide other non-nutrients such as dietary fibre,
antioxidants and phytochemicals which bestow positive health benefits. Antioxidants
such as vitamins C and E, beta-carotene, riboflavin and selenium protect the human body
from free radical damage. Other phytochemicals such as polyphenols, flavones, etc., also
afford protection against oxidant damage. Spices like turmeric, ginger, garlic, cumin and
cloves are rich in antioxidants.
A balanced diet is the one which contains different types of food in adequate
quantity and right proportion so as to meet the nutritional requirements of our
body. It can easily be achieved through a blend of the five basic food groups. The
quantities of foods needed to meet the nutrient requirements vary with age, gender,
physiological status and physical activity. Around 50-60% of total calories should come
from carbohydrates in a balanced diet, preferably from complex carbohydrates, about 10-
15% from proteins and 20-30% from both visible and invisible fat. Apart from
providing adequate nutrients for growth and maintenance, there is an extra
provision for nutrients as a margin of safety in the balanced diet. The margin of
24
safetyy is used in stress condditions like during fastiing, fevers etc. where oone is not able
a to
consuume the nutrrients in thee required ammount.
Balannced Diet foor Adults(man and wom
man) - Seden
ntary/Modeerate/Heavyy Activity iss given
in Tabble 2.2.
Taable 2.2: Baalanced dieet for adultts-sedentaryy/ moderatte/ heavy acctivity (No.. of
portioons) (ICMRR, 2011)
FO
OOD GROU UPS Type of work
w
g/pportion Sedentarry M
Moderate Heeavy
M
Man Wom man Man n Woman n Man Woman
Cereaal, grains & 30 1
12.5 9 15 11 20 16
produucts
Pulsees & legumees 30 2.5 2 3 2.5 4 3
Milk & milk 1 ml
100 3 3 3 3 3 3
produucts
Rootss& tuber 100 2 2 2 2 2 2
Green n vegetablees 100 1 1 1 1 1 1
Otherr vegetablees 100 2 2 2 2 2 2
Fruitts 100 1 1 1 1 1 1
Sugarr 5 4 4 6 6 11 9
Fats 5 5 4 6 5 8 6
To calcuulate the day's reqquirement of abovve-mentioned foood groups for an individual,
i multipply grams per porrtion with no of portions.
An exxample of an
a adult maan day’s dieet belonging
g to the midddle-incomee group (M
MIG) is
givenn below.
Figure 2.33: Sample meal

m plan for
f an adultt man (sedeentary) (IC
CMR, 2011)
25
1. Explain the following briefly:

a) RDA
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b) Food group
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c) Social functions of food
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2. ‘A balanced diet for a person may not be balanced one for the other’. Justify.
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3. Explain the concept of mutual supplementation.
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SUMMARY
All the nutrients in the diet are provided by right amount and proportion of the all the
food groups. The quantity of the food group vary based on one’s gender, age, occupation
and the physiological condition. Along with supplying nutrients to the body food also
contains different flavouring compounds However food serves several other functions
such as physiological, psychological and social. There are several ways of categorising
foods into food groups like on the basis of type of food or the nutrients supplied by foods.
A balanced diet includes foods from all the food groups.
26
KEYWORDS
Digestion- a process by which complex substance in the food is broken down into
simpler substances
Ingestion- intake of food
Satiety- the feeling of fullness
Symbolism- expressing the invisible/intangible (social status) by means of visible
representation (food)
REFERENCES
ICMR. Nutrient requirements and recommended dietary allowances for Indians. A report
of the expert group of Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), National Institute of
Nutrition, Hyderabad. 2010.
Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). Dietary Guidelines for Indians- A Manual.
National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, 2011.
Seymour, D 1983, ‘The social functions of the meal’, International Journal of Hospitality
Management.
27
28
UNIT 2
NUTRIENTS
Lesson 3 : Macronutrients
Lesson 4 : Micronutrients-I
Lesson 5 : Micronutrients-II
29
30
LESSON 3
MACRONUTRIENTS
INTRODUCTION
"Macro means big." These nutrients are needed in larger quantities (in gram range). They
normally include water, carbohydrates, fat and protein. Macronutrients (except water) are
also called energy-providing nutrients. Energy is measured in calories and is essential for
the body to grow, repair and develop new tissues, conduct nerve impulses and regulate
life process. Good nutrition is a basic component of health. It is of prime importance in
the attainment of normal growth and development and in the maintenance of health
throughout life. Since last century several advances have been made in the field of
Nutrition. Between the two world wars, research was mainly centred on vitamins. After
the Second World War, research on protein gained momentum. During 1970’s a great
deal of interest had been focused on the role of dietary fats in the pathogenesis of
atherosclerosis and its complications, particularly coronary artery disease. In the last
decades of past century, the role of trace elements and dietary fibre in the human health
and disease has attracted considerable attention. Since all foods are not of the same
quality from the nutritional point of view, individual’s ability to meet his nutritional
needs and maintain good health depends on the type and quantity of foodstuffs he is able
to include in his diet.
OBJECTIVES
 Describe the functions of energy, protein, carbohydrate and fats in our body.
 Identify the dietary sources of these nutrients.
 Understand the clinical manifestations of their deficiencies/excesses.
ENERGY
Energy is defined as a capacity for doing work. It is the heat produced in the body which
is utilised for performing the involuntary and voluntary activities, to maintain body
temperature and to synthesise new body constituents.
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR): The minimal rate of energy expenditure compatible with
life. It is measured in the supine position under standard conditions of rest, fasting,
immobility, and mental relaxation. Depending on its use, the rate is usually expressed per
minute, per hour or per 24 hours.
31
Energy Requirement (ER) is defined as the amount of food energy needed to balance
energy expenditure in order to maintain body size, body composition and a level of
necessary and desirable physical activity, and also to allow optimal growth and
development of children, deposition of tissues during pregnancy, and secretion of milk
during lactation, consistent with long-ten1 good health.
Total Energy Expenditure (TEE): The energy spent, on average, in a 24-hour period by
an individual or a group of individuals. By definition, it reflects the average amount of
energy spent in a typical day, but it is not the exact amount of energy spent each and
every day (Figure 3.1).
Unit of energy: The energy value of food is expressed in terms of Kilocalories (Kcal). A
Kilocalorie is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one
kilogram of water by 1ºC.
In the metric system, the international unit, which is Kilojoules, is used instead of
kilocalories. 1 kilojoule is energy expended when one kilogram of mass is moved by 1
meter using a force of a newton.
1 calorie = 4.184 joule

1 Kcal = 4.184 K joule
1000 Kcal = 4.184 M joule
1 K joule = 0.239 Kcal
1 M joule = 239 Kcal
Components of energy requirements
1. Basal metabolism- This comprises a series of functions that are essential for life,
such as cell function and replacement; the synthesis, secretion and metabolism of
enzymes and hormones to transport proteins and other substances and molecules; the
maintenance of body temperature; uninterrupted work of cardiac and respiratory
muscles; and brain function. The amount of energy used for basal metabolism in a
period of time is called the basal metabolic rate (BMR), and is measured under
standard conditions that include being awake in the supine position after ten to 12
hours of fasting and eight hours of physical rest, and being in a state of mental
relaxation in an ambient environmental temperature that does not elicit heat-
generating or heat-dissipating processes. Depending on age and lifestyle, BMR
represents 45 to 70 percent of daily total energy expenditure, and it is determined
mainly by the individual’s age, gender, and body size and body composition.
2. Metabolic response to food- Eating requires energy for the ingestion and digestion
of food, and for the absorption, transport, interconversion, oxidation and deposition of
32
nutrients. These metabolic processes increase heat production and oxygen
consumption, and are known by terms such as Dietary-Induced Thermogenes (DIT),
Specific Dynamic Action (SDA) of food and thermic effect of feeding. The metabolic
response to food increases total energy expenditure by about 10 percent of the BMR
over a 24-hour period in individuals eating a mixed diet.
3. Physical activity- This is the most variable and, after BMR, the second largest
component of daily energy expenditure. Humans perform obligatory and discretionary
physical activities. Obligatory activities can seldom be avoided within a given setting,
and they are imposed on the individual by economic, cultural or societal demands.
The term "obligatory" is more comprehensive than the term "occupational" that was
used in the 1985 report (WHO, 1985) because, in addition to occupational work,
obligatory activities include daily activities such as going to school, tending to the
home and family and other demands made on children and adults by their economic,
social and cultural environment.
Discretionary activities, although not socially or economically essential, are important for
health, well-being and a good quality of life in general. They include the regular practice
of physical activity for fitness and health; the performance of optional household tasks
that may contribute to family comfort and well-being; and the engagement in individually
and socially desirable activities for personal enjoyment, social interaction and community
development.
Physical Activity Level (PAL)- TEE for 24 hours expressed as a multiple of BMR, and
calculated as TEE/BMR for 24 hours. In adult men and non-pregnant, non-lactating
women, BMR times PAL is equal to TEE or the daily energy requirement.
Physical Activity Ratio (PAR)- The energy cost of an activity per unit of time (usually a
minute or an hour) expressed as a multiple of BMR. It is calculated as energy spent in an
activity/BMR, for the selected time unit.
Dietary- Total
Basal
Physical Induced Energy
Metabolic
Activity Thermogenesi Expenditure
Rate
s (TEE)
Figure3.1: Components of total energy expenditure (TEE)
Factors affecting components of energy expenditure

Among factors which influences energy needs are age, sex, body size, climate, secretion
of endocrine glands, status of health, altered physiological activity.
33
i. Age- During the growth period, the BMR is high, therefore during infancy the
energy need per kg of body weight are highest than at any phase in life. Energy
requirement also decline progressively after early adulthood due to steady decline
in the BMR thereafter. The basal metabolism during rapid growth is at a high
level. The younger the individuals, the higher the basal metabolism, since much
energy is stored for growth. The period at which the basal metabolism reaches its
highest level is between the ages of 1-2 years. A gradual decline occurs between
the age of 2-5 years, with a more rapid decline until adult age is reached.
ii. Sex- The BMR is higher in adolescent boys and adult males as compared to
adolescent girls and adult females. It is not due to direct influence of sex
differences, but is due to the differences in body composition. Males have a
greater amount of muscles and glandular tissues, which is metabolically more
active whereas, females have greater adipose tissues, which is metabolically less
active. Hence energy requirement of males is higher than of females.
iii. Body size- It will have an important effect on energy needs because a larger body
has a greater amount of muscles and glandular tissue to maintain, thus requiring
higher energy allowances. Heat is continuously lost through the skin by radiation.
Since the heat loss is proportional to the skin surface, the basal heat production is
directly proportional to the surface area. A tall thin individual has a greater
surface area than an individual of the same weight who is short and fat and the
former will therefore, have a higher basal metabolic rate.
iv. Climate- It is known that the BMR is lower in tropics than in temperate zones.
Hence the energy cost of work is slightly higher when the temperature falls below
14ºC. However it is felt that there is no need to make any adjustment for
temperature in India.
v. Secretion of endocrine glands- The thyroid gland in particular exerts a marked
influence on the energy requirement. If it is over active (hyperthyroidism), the
BMR will increase. If the activity of the gland decreases (hypothyroidism), the
BMR will be reduced. Thereby increasing or decreasing energy requirements
accordingly.
vi. Status of health- During the periods of fever as well as malnutrition, the BMR of
an individual is affected. Illness involving an elevation of body temperature
markedly increases the basal heat production thus increasing the BMR, hence
increased energy requirement.
vii. Altered physiological states- During pregnancy, extra energy is needed for the
growth of the foetus, placenta and various maternal tissues, such as in the uterus,
breasts and fat stores, as well as for changes in maternal metabolism and the
increase in maternal effort at rest and during physical activity during Lactation.
The energy cost of lactation has two components: 1) the energy content of the
milk secreted; and 2) the energy required to produce that milk. Well-nourished
34
lactating women can derive part of this additional requirement from body fat
stores accumulated during pregnancy. In pregnancy, this additional energy is
needed to support the growth of foetus and maternal tissue. During lactation
energy is required for synthesis of milk.
viii. Effect of food- A certain amount of work is expended in the digestion of food, its
absorption, transfer to the tissues and utilisation. The increased heat production as
a result of the ingestion of food is known as the specific dynamic action of the
food. Protein when eaten alone has been shown to increase the metabolic rate by
30%. On the basis of the mixed diets, which are usually consumed, the specific
dynamic action of food is approximately 10% of the energy requirement.
ix. Extent of physical activity- Any kind of physical activity increases the energy
expenditure above the basal energy need. Energy for the performance of all types
of physical activities ranks next to basal metabolism in amount of energy
expended. Sleep causes a reduction of about 10% in the BMR depending on the
number of hours spent in sleeping and its manner i.e. restless/ peaceful.
The energy need is determined by the nature and duration of physical activity.
Sedentary work, which includes office work, bookkeeping, typing, teaching, etc.,
calls for lesser energy than moderate work (more active and strenuous
occupations) such as nursing, home making or gardening. A still greater amount
of energy is required by those individuals who are involved in heavy work (hard
manual labourer) such as ditch digging, shifting freight etc. Energy needs vary
with age, occupation and physiological state.
Recommended Dietary Allowances:
The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR, 2010)has recommended the following
standards in respect of energy requirements in India (Table 3.1)
Table 3.1: Recommended Energy Requirement/day

Group Category/Age Net Energy (kcal/d)
Men Sedentary work 2320
Moderate work 2730
Heavy work 3490
Women Sedentary work 1900
Moderate work 2230
Heavy work 2850
Pregnant +350
Lactating 0-6 m +600
6-12 m +520
Infants 0-6 months 92 kcal/kg/d
6-12 months 80 kcal/kg/d
Children 1-3 years 1060
35
Group Category/Age Nett Energy (k
kcal/d)
4-6 years
y 13550
7-9 years
y 16990
Boys 10-122 years 21990
Girls 10-122 years 20110
Boys 13-155 years 27550
Boys 16-177 years 30220
Sourcee: Nutrient Requirements
R s and Recom
mmended Dieetary Allowaances for Indiians(ICMR, 2010).
LET’’S CHECK THE PROG GRESS

1. Briefly exxplain the following:
fo
a. SDDA
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b. BMR
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2. Enlist thee factors inffluencing the total energ gy requirem ment of an inndividual.
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3. ‘The enerrgy need is determinedd by the natu

ure of physiical activity’. Explain.
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CARBOHYDRA
ATES
Carboohydrates are
a the moost abundannt biomoleccules
compposed of carbbon, hydroggen, and oxyygen. It bellongs
to cllass of orrganic com mpounds foound in liiving C6H12O6
organnisms on eaarth. Each year,
y more than
t 100 biillion
metricc tons of CO2 and H2O are converted into
cellullose and other plant p prodducts due to
36 Figurre 3.2: Stru

ucture of gllucose
photosynthesis. Hence, carbohydrates are abundant in most plant foods, especially fruits
and grains. Regardless of the size of the carbohydrate, once it has been ingested, it is
metabolized in the mouth, stomach, and intestines to the smallest structural unit (Figure
3.2),which is usually glucose. The general formula is CnH2nOn.
Classification of carbohydrates
The building blocks of all carbohydrates are sugars and they can be classified according
to how many sugar units are combined in one molecule. Glucose, fructose and galactose
are prominent examples among the single unit sugars, also known as monosaccharides.
Double units are called disaccharides, with sucrose (table sugar) and lactose (milk sugar)
being the most widely known.
Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of chemical and physiological classification
(Figure 3.3). On the basis of chemical classification they can be classified as
monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. On the basis of physiological
classification it can be classified as simple and complex.
The term ‘Saccharide’ means sugar or sweetness is related to the characteristics taste of
many of the simple carbohydrates. Monosaccharides are simple sugars which serve as the
building blocks of complex sugars and polysaccharides. Carbohydrates were first named
according to the sources from which they were obtained e.g. grape sugar, cane sugar, malt
sugar, milk sugar, etc. Then they were named from a prefix related to the sources
followed by the suffix ‘ose’ e.g. Fructose (fruit sugar), Lactose (milk sugar) these names
are still used.
Classification of carbohydrates
Chemical classification Physiological classification

(Basis of the number of forming units) (Basis of the degree of polymerization)
Monosaccharides Simple-
Oligosaccharides monosaccharides,disaccharides,
Polysaccharides oligosaccharides
Complex-
polysaccharides
Figure 3.3: Classification of carbohydrates
37
The table below shows the different examples of dietary carbohydrates.
Table 3.2:Examples of dietary carbohydrates
CLASS EXAMPLES
Monosaccharides Glucose, fructose, galactose
Disaccharides Sucrose, lactose, maltose
Polyols Isomalt, maltitol, sorbitol, xylitol, erythritol
Oligosaccharides Fructo-oligosaccharides, malto-oligosaccharides
Starch polysaccharides Amylose, amylopectin, maltodextrins
Non-starch polysaccharides Cellulose, pectins, hemicelluloses, gums, inulin
(dietary fibre)
Functions
The functions of carbohydrates are:
i. Source of energy- The main function of carbohydrate is to provide fuel for the body
carbohydrates burn in the body at the rate of 4 kcal/g. Glucose is the main source of
energy. So all types of carbohydrates are converted to glucose in body and then used
for immediate tissue energy need. A small amount is stored as glycogen in the liver
and muscles, and some is stored as fat in the adipose tissue.
ii. Protein sparing Action- The body uses carbohydrates preferentially as a source of
energy when it is adequately supplied in the diet, thus sparing protein for tissue
building.
iii. Provide taste to the food- As most of the carbohydrates are sweet in nature, they
improve the palatability of the diets.
iv. For complete oxidation of fats- A certain amount of carbohydrate is necessary in the
diet so that the oxidation of fats can proceed normally. If carbohydrates are severely
restricted in the diet, fats are metabolized resulting in ketosis.
v. Lactose- been less soluble than other sugars, it remains in the intestine long enough to
encourage the growth of desirable bacteria, which help in synthesis of B-complex
vitamins. it also helps in better absorption and utilisation of calcium.
vi. Contribution of dietary fibre- Cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin gives no nutrients
to the body, but these fibres are very useful in providing bulk to the diet. These
indigestible substances facilitate the elimination of intestinal wastes by stimulating
the peristaltic movements of gastrointestinal tract. They also have the property of
absorbing water thus giving bulk to the intestinal contents. Lack of adequate dietary
fibre in diets containing refined foods, leads to constipation and colon cancer, also
some of the dietary fibres like gum and mucilage in our diet have been shown to
lower blood cholesterol in hypercholesteraemic subjects and blood sugar in diabetes.
Vegetables, especially the leafy ones, fruits and unrefined cereals are rich in fibre and
a generous inclusion of these provides a diet rich in fibre.
38
vii. Conversion to fat- Excess glucose can be stored as fat in adipose tissue for later use.
This stored form of glucose is called glycogen and is primarily found in the liver and
muscle.
Sources
There are three main sources of carbohydrates; these are starch, sugar and cellulose.
a. Starches are present in cereals(e.g. rice, wheat, maize, sago and all bakery
products), pulses, potatoes, sweet potatoes and dry fruits.
b. Sugars are present in cane sugar, jiggery, honey, jam, jellies, dry fruits, sweets
and fresh fruits, e.g. banana, sapota, grapes, mango.
c. Cellulose is the fibrous substance present in whole grains, whole pulses, whole
fruits etc.
Recommended Dietary Allowances
Carbohydrates are a vital component of a healthy and balanced diet as they usually supply
the largest proportion of energy to the body. They can help to control body weight,
especially when combined with exercise, are vital for proper gut function and are an
important fuel for the brain and active muscles. Neither starch nor sugar has been found
to have any special role in the development of serious diseases such as Type 2 diabetes,
and the role of sugar in the development of tooth decay is less important in today's
fluoride and oral hygiene aware populations. The WHO/FAO report on carbohydrates in
human nutrition and the scientific opinion on dietary reference values for carbohydrates
and dietary fibre from EFSA hold key information for health professionals and research
scientists.
ICMR has not given any specific recommendations for carbohydrates. However, in a
balanced diet 50-60% of the total calories should come from carbohydrates. Only 10 per
cent should come from sugar and the rest should come from the complex carbohydrates.
For example in a 2000 kcal diet, 250- 300g of carbohydrate is recommended.
Deficiency
The energy needs are not met if the diets are deficient in carbohydrates. The work
efficiency is lowered. Also person become underweight. Growth will be slow in the case
of children. Symptoms of ketosis may also develop. Lack of dietary fibre in the diet leads
to constipation and colon cancer.
If carbohydrates are consumed in excess they get accumulated as fat in the body leading
to obesity and predisposes an individual with diabetes and heart ailments.
39
DIETARY FIBRE
Dietary fibre also known as roughageis defined as that indigestible parts of plants. It is
the portion of food derived from plant, which is resistant to hydrolysis/ digestion in the
human system. It consists of both insoluble and soluble fibre. Table 3.3 gives details
about types of fibre and its sources.
Table 3.3: Fibre: its sources and functions

Fibre Source Functions
Insoluble Cellulose Whole wheat flour, o Prevents constipation
fibre bran, root o Lowers the risk of diverticular
vegetables, disease
legumes
Hemi cellulose Bran, whole grains
Lignin Root vegetables
Soluble Pectins Apple, guava, o Lowers fat absorption helps in
fibre carrots, weight management
strawberries o Lowers cholesterol
Gums Oatmeal, barley, o Stabilizes blood glucose levels
legumes o Reduces risk of cardiovascular
disease
o Maintain healthy gut bacteria

There have been no studies on evaluating the dietary fibre requirements in Indians.
However, WHO committee on chronic degenerative disease recommended a daily intake
of 30g dietary fibre. Hence, based on energy intake a level of about 40g/2000 kcal in a
diet is considered safe.
Excess fibre intake can lead to the reduced absorption of nutrients as it can bind minerals
such ascalcium, magnesium, iron and zinc. It may also cause abdominal discomfort and
diarrhoea or even intestinal blockage if enough fluid is not consumed.
CONCEPT OF GLYCEMIC INDEX AND GLYCEMIC LOAD
Watter Willet of Harvard University pioneered the concept of glycemic load. It is defined
as the product of dietary glycemic index and total dietary carbohydrate.
The glycemic load (GL) is an equation that takes into account the planned portion size of
a food as well as the glycemic index of that food. It combines both the quantity and
quality of carbohydrates. It is also the best way to compare blood glucose values of
different types and amounts of foods.
40
Glycemic Load = GI/100 multiplied by the net grams of planned carbohydrate
(Net carbohydrate is the total grams of carbohydrate minus the dietary fiber).
For example, a single apple has a GI of 38 and contains 13 grams of carbohydrates.
GL= 38 x 13/100 = 5
The glycemic index (GI) is a tool to measure how individual foods are expected to
impact blood sugar levels. The glycemic index (GI) is a ranking of foods based on their
measured blood glucose response compared with a reference food, either white bread or
glucose. The GI is calculated by measuring the incremental area under the blood glucose.
The number is a comparison between individual foods and a sugar called glucose.
Glucose is given a value of 100. If the test food is assigned a value below 100, that food
is expected to impact your blood sugar less than glucose. If the test food is assigned a
value over 100, that food is expected impact your blood sugar more than glucose.
In theory, a large amount of a low GI food may increase your blood sugar as much as a
small amount of a high GI food.
The glycaemic index of some common foods (using glucose as standard)
Low GI Foods with a low Intermediate GI High GI

(≤ 40) GI (41 – 55) (56 – 70) (> 70)
Raw apple Noodles and pasta Brown rice Bread
Lentils Apple juice Rolled oats (white/wholemeal)
Soy beans Raw orange juice Soft drinks Boiled potato
Kidney beans Dates Pineapple Cornflakes
Cow’s milk Raw banana Sucrose (table French Fries
Carrots (boiled) Yoghurt (fruit) sugar) Mashed potatoes
Barley Sweet corn Honey White rice (low
Fructose Chocolate amylose or "sticky
rice")
Rice crackers
1. Briefly explain the following :

a. Carbohydrates as a source of energy
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41
b. Protein sparing action of carbohydrates
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2. What are the various sources of carbohydrates?

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PROTEINS
The word protein means to ‘take the first place’. In 1938 a Dutch chemist Mulder,
described that all living plants and animalscontain certain substance without which life
was not possible and this was identified as proteins. In constitution of body they stand
next to the water. Indeed proteins are of the greatest importance in human nutrition.
They are complex organic compounds containing the carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
and usually sulphur Some proteins also contain phosphorus, iron, iodine, copper and
other inorganic elements. The proteins differ from carbohydrates and fats as they contain
nitrogen. Proteins are made up of much smaller units known as amino acids.
FUNCTION
Proteins are very essential for life processes, as there is hardly any important
physiological function in which proteins to not participate. The important functions of
proteins are:
1. Source of energy
2. Growth and maintenance of tissue
3. Formation of essential body compounds
4. Transport of nutrients
5. Regulation of water balance
6. Maintenance of appropriate pH
7. Defense and detoxification
1) Body building- It is the most important function of protein. These are the major
structural components of body tissues. In fact every living cell contains protein. The first
need for proteins therefore is to supply the materials for growth and development and the
continuous replacement of the cell protein.
42
2) Body regulatory- Many proteins have highly specialised functions in the regulation of
body processes. All chemical reactions in the body are carried out by enzymes, which are
protein in nature. Proteins are also a constituent of haemoglobin, which is necessary to
carry oxygen from lungs to tissues and bring back carbon dioxide. Governing the body
reaction are hormones, which are also proteins. Plasma protein has a fundamental role in
the maintenance of water balance. Blood proteins also help in maintaining acid base
balance of the body.
3) Body protection- There is a protein called gamma globulin, which has a capacity to
fight against invading organism. The body’s resistance to disease is maintained in part by
antibodies which are protein in nature.
4) Energy yielding- The energy needs of the body take priority over other needs. If diet
does not furnished sufficient energy from carbohydrates and fats, the proteins of the diet
as well as tissue protein will be used up for giving energy. One gram of protein gives 4
calories.
5) Maintenance of body temperature- During the metabolism of proteins extra heat is
liberated, which is used for maintaining the body temperature.
FOOD SOURCES
There are two main dietary sources of proteins

1. Animal sources- Milk and milk products (excluding butter and ghee), eggs, meat,
fish and poultry.
2. Plant sources- Pulses e.g. soyabean, bengal gram, red gram dal, green gram, black
gram dal; Cereals e.g. wheat, maize, rice, barley, jowar, bajra; and nuts e.g. peanuts,
almond, cashew nuts. Fruits and vegetables are poor sources of protein.
PROTEIN QUALITY
It is not only the quantity of protein which is important, but also the quality. This depends
mainly on the type and amount of amino acids present in the particular protein.
There are twenty-two amino acids which are needed by the human body, out of which
eight are called ‘essential’. It is because body cannot synthesise them, therefore they must
be obtained from the diet. Rest of the amino acids are termed as 'non-essential’ as they
can be synthesised in our body. Essential amino acids are isoleucine, leucine, lysine,
methionine phenyl alanine, threonine, tryptophan and valine. In addition to these, infants
require histidine for growth.
Based on the quality of proteins, they can be classified into three classes.
a. Complete protein (first class)
43
b. Partially complete protein (second class)
c. Incomplete proteins (third class)
o Complete proteins- These contain all the essential amino acids in sufficient quantities
so that a normal rate of growth can be maintained by the body. Mainly proteins from
animal source belong to this class i.e. milk, meat, eggs, fish and poultry. Wheat germ
and dried yeast have a biologic value approaching that of animal sources.
o Partially complete proteins- They can maintain life but they lack sufficient amount of
some of the amino acids necessary for growth. Proteins from plant source like pulses,
wheat and nuts belong to this class.
o Incomplete proteins- They can neither promote growth nor maintain life because they
lack many of the amino acids or even if they contain, it is in very small amounts.
Gelatin and zein which is found in corn are the examples which belongs to this class.
Supplementary value of proteins is the capacity of one protein to make good the
deficiency of another protein. This is also known as the ‘mutual supplementation effect’.
The chief source of protein in diets for most of the world’s people is from plants. Just
because plant foods, when fed alone, do not provide necessary quota of essential amino
acids is no reason to condemn them as protein sources. However four possibilities exist
for improving the protein quality.
o To feed some amount of animal or complete protein with second and third class
protein e.g. to include little amount of animal protein at each meal.
o To use a combination of various vegetable proteins so that they would make up the
deficiency of each other e.g. mixture of cereals and pulses.
o To add the lacking essential amino acids synthetically.
o By germination and fermentation e.g. sprouting of pulses, cereals etc.

The protein requirements vary from individual to individual. Apart from age and
physiological conditions, factors like emotional disturbances, infection and stress can
affect a person's protein requirement. For proper utilisation of protein, energy intakes
should be adequate. Maximum amount of protein per kg of body weight is required
during infancy i.e. till one year of age. The requirement per kg of body weight slowly
decreases as one reaches the adulthood and then it is stable i.e. 1 gram per kg of desirable
body weight.
During pregnancy and lactation the protein allowances for woman are increased over the
basic level. The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR, 2010) has recommended the
following standards in respect of protein requirement in India (Table 3.4)
44
Table 3.4:Recommended Protein Requirement / day
Group Particulars Proteins (g/d)

Men Sedentary work
Moderate work 60
Heavy work
Women Sedentary work
Moderate work 55
Heavy work
Pregnant 78
Lactating 0-6 m 74
6-12 m 68
Infants 0-6 months 1.16 kcal/kg/d
6-12 months 1.69 kcal/kg/d
Children 1-3 years 16.7
4-6 years 20.1
7-9 years 29.5
Boys 10-12 years 39.9
Girls 10-12 years 40.4
Source: Nutrient Requirements and Recommended Dietary Allowances for Indians (ICMR,
2010).
Deficiency
A reduced protein intake or constant consumption of poor quality proteins oven an
extended period of time leads to depletion of tissue reserves and lowering of blood
protein levels. The protein deficiency occurs mostly during infancy, early childhood,
pregnancy and lactation.
In children protein deficiency leads to occurrence of marasmus and kwashiorkor
(Figure3.2 and 3.3). They show retarded growth, oedema and diarrhoea. In adults usually
protein deficiency causes loss of weight, weakness and lowered resistance to diseases.
45
Figure 3.2: Clinical photograph of a Figure 3.3:Clinical photograph of a
child suffering from marasmus child suffering from kwashiorkor
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1. What are the various functions of protein in our body?

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2. Briefly explain the following:
a) Protein quality
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b) Supplementary value of proteins
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3. Discuss the RDA of protein of lactating mothers and infants.
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LIPIDS OR FATS
Fat is an important component of our diet and serve a number of functions. These are also
organic compound of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. These differ from carbohydrates in
46
that they have much smaller proportion of oxygen and much greater proportion of carbon
and hydrogen. Lipids are broadly classified into two groups: simple lipids and compound
lipids. Simple lipids include fatty acids and waxes. All other lipids are included under
compound lipids e.g. carotenoids and phosphoglycerides.
The term fat is generally applied to all triglycerides regardless of whether they are solid
or liquid at room temperature. Triglycerides from animal sources contain a higher
percentage of saturated fatty acids and are normally solids at room temperature and
known as fats. The plant triglycerides are rich in unsaturated fatty acids and are generally
liquids at room temperature and called oils.
Fats in the diet can be of two kinds, the visible and invisible fat. The visible fats are those
which are derived from animal fats like butter, ghee and those derived from vegetable
sources like mustard oil, groundnut oil, sunflower oil etc. Apart from the added/visible
fat, some amount of fat is present in other foods like cereals, pulses, oilseeds, milk, eggs
and meats. The invisible fat is believed to contribute significantly to the total fat and
essential fatty acid content of the diet depending upon the foodstuffs present in the diet.
Essential Fatty Acids
Certain fatty acids should be provided essentially in the diets, as they are not synthesized
in the body. These are polyunsaturated fatty acids, namely linoleic, linolenic and
arachidonic acids and are grouped as ‘essential’ fatty acids. They are required for
metabolism and for maintenance of normal health of the skin.
Therefore, proper type of fats which are rich in essential fatty acids e.g. peanut,
cottonseed, corn and sunflower oils, must be present in the diet. Animal fats are poor
sources of essential fatty acids. However, it is only the linoleic acid which we really need
as the other two can be synthesized in the body from the same i.e. linoleic acid.
Functions
The functions of fats are:

1. Energy yielding- Fats are concentrated source of energy. One gram of fat
gives 9 calories. Compared to carbohydrate it not only gives more amount
of energy but at a faster rate.
2. Fats also perform the protein sparing action in the same way as
carbohydrate does.
3. Storehouse of energy for the body’s needs- In fact not only amount of fats
as such are stored in adipose tissue, but any amount of glucose, amino
47
acids, not promptly utilised are also stored in the body, thereby energy is
continuously available from the stores in adipose tissues.
4. Insulation and padding- The subcutaneous layer of fat is an effective
insulator and reduces loss of body heat in cold weather, thus regulating the
body temperature. The vital organs such as the kidneys are protected
against physical injury by a padding of fat around the organs.
5. Fat help in absorption and transportation of fat-soluble vitamins in the
body.
6. Provides essential fatty acids: Fat is also the source of certain essential
fatty acids (the ones that cannot be synthesised in the body) which are
essential for metabolism and for maintaining a normal skin.
7. Fat act as a lubricant for various body organs specially the organs of the
gastrointestinal tract.
8. Gives satiety value: Fat decreases the secretion of hydrochloric acid
(HCL) in the stomach. Thus, the food stays in the gastrointestinal (GI)
tract for a longer time and feeling of hunger is delayed.
9. Fat also increases the palatability of the diet by adding flavour to many
cooked food preparations.
Food sources
Dietary fats are derived from two main sources

(1) Animal sources- It includes butter, ghee, curd, whole milk and its products, meat,
fish, poultry, and eggs.
(2) Plant sources- They include all vegetable oils e.g. groundnut, gingelly, mustard,
cottonseed, sunflower, and coconut oil. It also includes hydrogenated fats, margarine,
nuts and oilseeds like cashew nuts, peanuts, almonds and mustard seeds.
The fat requirement mainly depends upon the energy needs of the individual. From
physiological point of view there can be wide variation in fat intake and still good health
can be maintained. On an average about 15 to 20% of the total energy should be supplied
from fats. The dietary fats should be a good source of essential fatty acids and hence at
least 50% of the dietary fat should be from vegetable oils rich in essential fatty acids.
Deficiency
Just like carbohydrates deficiency, the energy needs will not be met if the diet is deficient
in fat content. Hence leading to underweight, weakness and lowered work efficiency. In
48
addition to this the deficiency of the essential fatty acids may affect several metabolic
reactions. A deficiency of these fatty acids is believed to lead to a skin condition known
as ‘phyrnoderma’ (toad skin) in which the skin becomes rough and thick horny papules of
the size of a pinhead erupt in certain areas of the body, notably, thighs, buttock and trunk.
In addition to this, the deficiency of fat-soluble vitamins and essential fatty acids will also
result. This will cause the ailments related to skin, eyes, bones etc.
Excess
If excessive fat is consumed it will result in obesity, gastrointestinal disturbances and

predisposes to many other diseases like diabetes and cardiovascular ailments. In recent
years there has been a revival of interest in the nutritional aspect of excessive intake of
the fat in the diet in increasing the chances of cardiovascular diseases. Excessive lipids in
blood, gradually causes it to deposit under the lining of blood vessels, resulting in
atherosclerosis wherein the blood vessels are narrowed and hardened leading to heart
diseases.
1. ‘Fat is an important component of our diet and serves a number of functions.’

Justify this statement.
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a. Essential fatty acids
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b. Consequences of excessive fat intake
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SUMMARY
Health of an individual depends on the type and quantity of foodstuffs included in the
diet. Nutrients are the constituents in food that must be supplied to the body in suitable
amounts. These include proteins, fats, carbohydrates, minerals, water and vitamins. We
need energy to perform various involuntary and voluntary activities, to maintain body
temperature and to synthesise new body constituents. Energy needs vary with age,
49
occupation and physiological state. Carbohydrates and fats are the main source of energy
in our diet, whereas protein is primarily concerned with tissue building. It is not only the
quantity of protein which is important, but also the quality. This depends mainly on the
type and amount of amino acids present in the particular protein. Protein deficiency is
associated with loss of weight, weakness and lowered resistance to diseases.
Carbohydrates are the cheapest source of energy whereas fats are concentrated source of
energy.
KEY WORDS
Cardiovascular diseases- These are a group of disorders of the heart and blood vessels. It
generally refers to conditions that involve narrowed or blocked blood vessels that can
lead to a heart attack, chest pain (angina) or stroke.
Fermentation- Fermentation is the process in which a substance breaks down into a
simpler substance. Microorganisms like yeast and bacteria usually play a role in
the fermentation process as in beer, wine, bread, yogurt and other foods.
Germination- Germination is the process by which an organism grows from a seed or
similar structure.
Involuntary activities- An involuntary action is one which occurs without the conscious
choice of an organism like a blink, a sneeze, a yawn and those other actions which one
cannot control.
Voluntary activities- Voluntary actions are those actions on which you have control.
These actions can be controlled by you wilfully e.g. snapping of fingers, walking,
punching etc.
REFERENCES
of the expert group of the Indian Council of Medical Research, National Institute of
I.T. Johnson. Functional Foods. Wood head Publishing Series in Food Science,
Technology and Nutrition2011(Second edition), Pages 202-233
B. Srilakshmi. Nutrition Science. New Age International (P) Ltd Publishers 2016 (Fifth
Edition)
Websites:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons
https://www.google.co.in/imghp?hl=en
http://www.emro.who.int/health-topics/macronutrients
50
LESSON 4
MICRONUTRIENTS-I
INTRODUCTION
These nutrients include minerals and vitamins. Unlike macronutrients, these are required
in very minute amounts. Together, they are extremely important for the normal
functioning of the body. Their main function is to enable the many chemical reactions to
occur in the body. Micronutrients do not function for the provision of energy
The term ‘vitamine’ derives from the word ‘vital amine’ which means essential
nitrogenous compounds. The term was coined by Polish scientist Funk, who gave the
name ‘vitamine’ to anti beri-beri substance. Later on ‘e’ was dropped and thus the term
‘vitamin’ was coined. However with the discovery of more vitamins, it was soon realise
that all the vitamins are not nitrogenous compounds; but all vitamins are essential for
health.
OBJECTIVES
 Describe the role of various vitamins in our body.
 Enumerate foods rich in specific vitamin.
 Discuss the adverse consequences of their deficiency.
VITAMIN
Vitamins are complex chemical substances, required by the body in very small amounts.
They do not yield energy, but act as catalyst in various body processes. Since vitamins
cannot be manufactured in the body (at least insufficient amount) they have to be
supplied through the diet. Vitamins are broadly classified into two groups:
(1) Fat soluble vitamins e.g. Vitamin A, D, E and K
(2) Water soluble vitamins e.g. B group vitamins and Vitamin C.
VITAMIN A
Vitamin A was discovered in the early 19th Century by Dr. McCollum and Davis. Dr
McCollum carried out experiments on rats and found that when butter and egg yolk were
added to the diet of groups of rat, they were healthier, stronger as compared to the other
group which were fed on lard and vegetables only. He came to the conclusion that butter
and egg yolk contains some vital elements that were absent in lard and vegetables. In
1913, he isolated vitamin A from butter and egg yolk.
Chemistry
Vitamin A occurs in several forms; as retinal (aldehyde form), as retinol (alcohol form)
and as retinoic acid (acid form). These several forms may be referred to as Vitamin A. In
51
its pure form, vitamin A is a pale yellow crystalline compound and occurs naturally in
animals. It is soluble in fat solvents but insoluble in water, and is relatively stable to heat,
acids and alkalis. It is easily oxidised and rapidly destroyed by ultraviolet radiation. The
ultimate source of all vitamin A is in the carotenes which are synthesized by plants.
Animals, as well as man in turn convert a considerable portion of carotene of the food
they eat into vitamin A. Carotenes are dark red crystalline compounds also known as
‘pro-vitamin A’ or ‘precursors of vitamin A’. Alpha, beta, gamma molecules of
carotene are of significance in nutrition. The form that shows maximum vitamin A
activity is beta-carotene (β carotene).
Functions
1. Vitamin A is required for normal vision in dim light. The retina has two kinds of
cells-rods and cones. Rods are sensitive to dim light, the cones respond to bright light.
The rods contain a pigment called rhodopsin. Rhodopsin is formed by the
combination of a specific form of vitamin A with a protein. Rhodopsin in the
presence of bright light breaks down into its components. In the dark these
components, vitamin A and protein again combine to regenerate rhodopsin. This
rhodopsin helps us to see in dim light. This is called a visual cycle.
2. Vitamin A is required to maintain the integrity of epithelium, especially the
membranes that line eyes, the mouth and the gastrointestinal, respiratory and
genitourinary tract. These membranes offer resistance to bacterial invasion.
3. Vitamin A is essential for normal skeletal and tooth development.
4. It has a probable role in the immunological defence mechanism of the body.
Food sources
Only animal foods contain vitamin A as such; fish-liver oil being the outstanding. Milk,
butter, whole milk, cheese, liver and egg yolk contain good quantities of vitamin A.
Vitamin A as such is not present in plant foods, but its precursor, carotene is present
which is converted into vitamin A in the body. Carotene is present in plant foods with
green and yellow colourings. There is a direct correlation between the greenness of a leaf
and its carotene content.
Green leafy vegetables- spinach, turnip tops, beet greens, coriander leaves, curry leaves.
Yellow vegetables- carrot, sweet potatoes, pumpkin.
Yellow fruits- papaya, mango, apricot, peaches.
Recommended allowance for Indians as given by the ICMR expert committee (2010) is
shown in Table 4.1. Vitamin A is measured in microgram (mcg or μg) but values are also
sometimes reported as International Units (IU).
52
1 IU of vitamin A activity = 0.3 mcg of retinol or 0.6mcg β carotene
The value of vitamin A is expressed as retinol equivalents (RE)
According to FNB, USA (2002),
1 RE = 1 mcg retinol
= 12 mcg β carotene
According to ICMR (2010), following formula is used to interconvert retinol and β
carotene
1 mcgβ carotene = 0.125 mcg Retinol
When the diet contains sources of both β carotene and retinol, Vitamin A is calculated by
the following method:
Retinol Equivalents (mcg) = Retinol (mcg) +β carotene (mcg)/8
Table 4.1:Recommended Dietary Allowance of Vitamin A for Indians
Vitamin A (mcg/d)
Group
Retinol β-carotene
Men 600 4800
Women 600 4800
Pregnancy 800 6400
Lactation 950 7600
Infants 0-6 months -
350
6-12 months 2800
Children 1-3 years 400 3200
4-6 years 400 3200
7-9 years 600 4800
Boys (10-17) years 600 4800
Girls (10-17) years 600 4800
2010).
Deficiency
a. Xerophthalmia is an eye manifestation arising due to Vitamin A deficiency.
Blindness, as a result of xerophthalmia, is an important public health problem in
India. One of the earliest manifestations of xerophthalmia is night blindness (XN).
Individual suffering from night blindness cannot see in dim light or around dusk. This
is followed by conjunctivalxerosis (X1A), which means dryness of the conjunctiva
(this transparent membrane that covers the cornea and lines the inside of the
eyelid)(Figure4.1).
In addition to xerosis, dry, foamy, triangular spots may appear on the conjunctiva.
These are called Bitot’s spot (X1B)(Figure4.2). As in case of conjunctiva, the normal
53
cornea (the anterior, transparent portion of the outermost layer of the eye) is moist
and shining.
When vitamin A deficiency become severe, the cornea becomes dry and dull and
appear like ground glass. This condition is called corneal xerosis (X2)which means
dryness of the cornea (Figure 4.3). The most dangerous form of xerophthalmia is
known as keratomalacia (X3B). In this condition the cornea becomes very soft and
raw and easily infected. It leads to destruction of the eye. The eyes get completely
melted and destroyed (Figure4.4). This condition leads to irreversible blindness.
b. The deficiency of vitamin A leads to the degeneration and keratinization of the
epithelium. This increase the susceptibility to infection of the eye, nasal passages,
middle ear, pharynx, mouth, respiratory tract, lungs and genitourinary tract.
c. Dry and scaly skin is an important symptom of deficiency of this vitamin. This
patched skin is an important symptom of Vitamin A deficiency which is known as
toad’s skin.
Major changes in the eyes due to Vitamin A deficiency
Figure 4.1: ConjunctivalXerosis Figure 4.2: Bitot’s spot
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Figure 4.3: Corneal Xerosis Figure 4.4: Keratomalacia
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54
V
VITAMIN D
Pure Vitamin
V D was isolated in crystalline form in
n 1930 and was called calciferol. It was
also known
k as anntirachitic vitamin.
v
Chem
mistry and Characterist
C tics
Vitammin D is a group
g of stterol compoounds posseessing anti-rachitic prooperties, bu ut only
two are
a of nutritiional interesst.
i. Vitamin D2 or Ergocalciferol foound in plan nts and
ii. Vitamin D3 or chollecalciferol which occu urs in anim mal cells andd activates in the
skin on exposure
e to ultraviolet light.
Pure vitamin D is i white, crrystalline coompound which
w is soluuble in fats and fat sollvents,
but innsoluble in water.
w t heat, alkaalis, and oxidation.
Theyy are stable to
Sunligght convertts an inactiive form of Vitamin D in our skin s into a circulatingg form
(Figure 4.5), Vittamin D3.O Once converrted to the D3 form, thist Vitamiin regulatess gene
expreession, impaacting a widde variety off health and
d performannce-related vvariables, su
uch as
exercise-inducedd inflammation, tum mor suppreessor genees, neurological fun nction,
cardioovascular heealth, glucoose metaboliism, bone health
h and skkeletal muscle performmance.
Fiigure 4.5: Metabolism

M m of Vitamiin D3 in liveer and kidn
ney
55
Functions
1. Vitamin D regulates the absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the intestinal
tract and also calcification of bones and teeth. It believed that vitamin D renders the
intestinal mucosa more permeable to calcium and phosphorus. Thus vitamin D is
required for normal bone and teeth development.
2. Vitamin D regulates the enzyme ‘alkaline phosphatase’ which regulates the release of
phosphate organic compounds.
Food sources
Vitamin D occurs only in foods of animal origin. Fish liver oils are the richest natural
source. Liver, eggs and butter contain useful amount. Small amounts are present in fresh
milk and milk products.
Another cheap source of vitamin D is sunlight. Exposure to ultraviolet rays of the
sunlight converts the precursor of Vitamin D (7dehydro-cholesterol) present in the skin,
to its active form.

The recommended daily allowance of vitamin D is not given by ICMR. If the exposure to
sunlight is sufficient, deficiency symptoms are not seen. In case of inadequate exposure
to sunlight, a daily supplement of 400 IU is recommended for adults.
Deficiency
Deficiency of vitamin D leads to rickets in children, a condition in which the level of

calcium and phosphorus is always low. Bone growth cease and in more severe cases the
bone which has already formed maybe demineralized. The long bones increase at the
ends and they may become curved instead of remaining straight. This results in clinical
changes which are observed by
 Swelling or bending of ribs leading to the condition known as ‘rachitic rosary’
(Figure 4.6).
 Knock-knees (Figure 4.7)
 Bowed legs (Figure 4.8)
 Curvature of vertebral column
 Deformities of the pelvic bones
 Softening of the skull
 The delayed closing of fontanels in infants
 Delayed dentition.
 Malformation of teeth and tooth decay.
56
Deficiency in adults leads to Osteomalacia, a condition characterised by
 Softening and bending of bones
 Pain in bones of legs and lower back
 Difficulty in walking
 Bones become fragile so that they are susceptible to frequent fractures
In old age a deficiency of both Vitamin D and Calcium leads to osteoporosis a condition
in which bones become porous, fragile and breaks easily leading to multiple fractures.
Figure 4.6: Rachitic Rosary Figure 4.7: Knock knees Figure 4.8: Bow legs
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VITAMIN E
Evans and Bishop in 1922 established that the fact that a fat soluble factor was necessary
for reproduction in rats. They showed that the absence of this factor, or vitamin E, as it
was designated, leads to infertility in rats.
Chemistry and characteristics

Vitamin E consists of a group of chemical substances called ‘tocopherols’. Alpha to
copherol is the compound possessing the greatest Vitamin E activity. High temperature
and acids do not affect the stability of this vitamin, but oxidation takes place in the
presence of rancid fats or lead and ironsalts. Decomposition occurs in ultraviolet light,
alkalis and oxygen.
Functions
i. The primary role of Vitamin E is to act as an antioxidant. By accepting the

oxygen, it helps to prevent the oxidation of Vitamin A in the intestine, thereby
sparing vitamin A.
57
ii. Vitamin E reduces the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids, thereby helping to
maintain the integrity of cell membranes.
iii. Vitamin E plays a role in the formation of RBC’s in the bone marrow.
iv. It helps in releasing the energy from carbohydrates and fats, through the synthesis
of a coenzyme Q.
v. In some animals Vitamin E is required to prevent the sterility.
Food sources
Many vegetable oils such as wheat germ oil and cottonseed oils are good sources of
vitamin E. Good concentration of Vitamin E is present in dark-green leafy vegetables,
nuts, legumes, as well as whole grain cereals. Although foods of animal origin are low in
vitamin E, liver, heart, kidney, milk and eggs are the animal sources of this vitamin.
Human milk provides an adequate amount of Vitamin E to infants; cow's milk is low in
this vitamin.
The vitamin E requirement is linked to that of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)content
of the diet, as it protects the oxidation of PUFA. The requirement of Vitamin E suggested
is 0.8mg/gof dietary essential fatty acids.
Deficiency
Vitamin E deficiency results in increased haemolysis (breakdown) of the red blood cells
leading to anaemia. Premature infants also shows a low level of tocopherol. In some
species of animals, vitamin E deficiency is also known to cause reproductive failure .In
human beings vitamin E deficiency is not frequently reported.
VITAMIN K
A Danish scientist Dam (1934) found that a ‘Koagulation vitamin’ (coagulation or

clotting) was necessary to prevent fatal haemorrhages in chicks by promoting normal
blood clotting.
Chemistry and Characteristics
Vitamin K is found in nature in two forms: K1or phylloquinone, is found in plant source
(e.g. alpha –alpha) and K2 or menaquinoneis produced by bacterial synthesis (in human
and animals). These are soluble in fat. They are not destroyed by heat but are unstable to
alkalis, strong acids, oxidation and light.
Functions
1. Vitamin K is essential for the formation of prothrombin and other clotting proteins by
the liver.
2. Vitamin K probably also participates in oxidative phosphorylation in the tissues.
58
3. Heart health: Vitamin K may help keep blood pressure lower by preventing
mineralization, where minerals build up in the arteries. This enables the heart to pump
blood freely through the body.
Food sources
Vitamin K1 occurs in high amounts in leafy green vegetables, such as spinach, cabbage,
cauliflower. Other sources include vegetable oils and some fruits.
Sources of menanoquines, or K2, include meat, dairy products, pork liver, eggs,
fermented soy beans. Cereals, fruits and other vegetables are poor sources.
The variations in intestinal synthesis and in the diet have made it impossible to establish a
daily allowance. Dietary deficiency is not believed to be a problem.
Deficiency
Deficiency usually occurs due to faulty absorption or due to liver disorders that affect the
synthesis of prothrombin. Dietary deficiency is rather unusual. A low level of prothromb
in and other clotting factors leads to increased tendency to haemorrhages. Premature
infants, anoxic infants and those whose mothers have been taking anticoagulants are most
susceptible to deficiency.
1. Name various fat soluble and water soluble vitamins.

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2. What are the various functions of vitamin D in our body?

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3. Briefly explain the following :
a. Visual cycle
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59
b. Dietary sources of vitamin A
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c. Xerophthalmia
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d. Rickets
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e. Vitamin E as an antioxidant
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VITAMIN B COMPLEX
In 1911, Funk coined the term ‘vitamin’ for the substance which he found effective in
preventing beri-beri. McCullum and Davis applied the term water-soluble B to the
concentrates which curedberi-beri. It was soon discovered that vitamin B was not a single
substance but a group of compounds, to which we now designate as the B complex. Some
of these are discussed here:
THIAMINE OR VITAMIN B1
Thiamine hydrochloride is a white crystalline substance. It has a faint yeast-like odour

and a salty, nut like taste. It is readily soluble in water but not in fat solvents or fats. It is
readily destroyed by heat in neutral or alkaline solution; in acidic medium it is resistant to
heat up to 120oC.
Functions
Thiamine teams up with an enzyme to form a coenzyme. The latter act as a catalyst with
the oxidation processes.
1. It is essential for the utilisation of carbohydrates in the body; in deficiency there is
accumulation of pyruvic acid and lactic acid in the tissues and body fluids.
60
2. Thiamine is also essential for the maintenance of good appetite and normal
digestion.
3. It has a role in brain metabolism as the deficiency causes neurological and nervous
disorder.
Food Sources
All the natural foods contain thiamine, even if in very small amounts. Important sources
are dried yeast, whole grain cereals and pulses, oilseeds and nuts especially groundnuts.
Meat, fish, egg, vegetables and fruits are relatively poor sources.

Thiamine requirements are expressed on the basis of energy intake. The recommended
dietary allowances is 0.5 milligram/1000kcal.
Deficiency
The clinical manifestations of thiamine deficiency are beri-beri and Wernicke’

encephalopathy. The Philippino word beriberi means “I can’t I can’t”. Beri-beri exists in
three forms- dry, wet and infantile beri-beri. Manifestations of minor thiamine deficiency
are loss of appetite, absence of ankle jerks, knee jerks and presence of calf tenderness.
o Dry beriberi- Thiamine deficiency with nervous system involvement is termed
dry beriberi. This presentation usually occurs when poor caloric intake and
relative physical inactivity are present. The neurologic findings can be peripheral
neuropathy characterized by symmetrical impairment of sensory, motor, and
reflex functions of the extremities, especially in the distal lower limbs. Histologic
analysis has shown that the lesions arise from a degeneration of the myelin in the
muscular sheaths without inflammation
o Wet beriberi- a more acute form, there is oedema (overabundance of fluid in the
tissues) resulting largely from cardiac failure and poor circulation.
o Infantile beri-beri- Disease in infants due to deficiency of thiamine. This disease

is well-known in undeveloped countries among malnourished infants but it is very
rare in developed countries. It can occur if a breastfeeding mother has an
inadequate intake of thiamine.
RIBOFLAVIN OR VITAMIN B2

In its pure form this vitamin is bitter tasting, orange yellow, odourless compound in
which crystals are needle shaped. It dissolves sparingly in water to give a typical greenish
61
yellow fluorescence. It is stable to boiling in acid, but in alkaline solutions it is readily
decomposed by heat. It is also destroyed by exposure to light.
Function
Riboflavin, like thiamine unites with the enzymes and helps in the tissue oxidation with
the release of energy, thus helping in protein, fat and carbohydrate metabolism.
Food sources
The richest source is dried yeast. Among the good sources are milk, liver, meat, eggs,
kidney and green leafy vegetables. Cereals and fruits are not rich sources, but due to the
large quantity consumed, they supply much of vitamin in the Indian diets.
The recommended dietary allowance is 0.6 mg/ 1000 kcal.
Deficiency
Ariboflavinosis is one of the most common of the deficiency diseases. Signs suggestive
but not specific include:
i) Angular stomatitis: the patients develop cracks on both the sides (angles of
upper and lower lips) of the mouth (Figure 4.9).
ii) Cheilosis: The lips develop cracks and become red (Figure 4.10).
iii) Soreness of tongue.
iv) Redness and burning sensation in the eyes and vascularization of the cornea.
v) Scrotal or vulvar dermatitis
Figure 4.9: Angular stomatitis Figure 4.10: Cheilosis
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62
NIACIN OR NICOTINIC ACID

It occurs in white needle-like bitter tasting crystals. It is moderately soluble in hot water,
but only slightly soluble in cold water. It is stable to heat, alkalis, acids, light and
oxidation and unstable to reduction. In fact, it is one of the most stable of the vitamins.
Niacin occurs in two forms: niacin and proniacin form i.e. tryptophan. Human body can
make 1 mg of this vitamin from 60 mg of tryptophan. Thus if a diet contains large amount
of tryptophan, it will provide enough niacin, even though the diet might be low and its
niacin content.
Functions
1. Niacin is rapidly converted in the body to nicotinamide, which is a component of
coenzymes which are essential for the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
2. It is also essential for the normal functioning of skin, intestinal tract and nervous
system.
Food sources
Poultry, meat, fish and peanuts are the good sources. Whole grains are fair sources of
niacin. Potatoes, legumes and some green leafy vegetables contains fair amount of niacin
but most fruits and vegetables are poor sources. Germination and fermentation enhances
the value of niacin in the food.
The recommended daily allowance is 6.6 mg/ 1000 kcal for adults.
Deficiency
Niacin deficiency results in pellagra. Pellagra involves the gastrointestinal tract, the skin
and nervous system.
Early signs include fatigue, headache, and backache, loss of weight and loss of appetite.
Nausea and vomiting are followed by diarrhoea (i.e. loose motion is present).A
characteristic symmetrical dermatitis especially on the exposed surface of the body-
hands, forearms, elbows, leg, knees, and neck appear. Neurological symptoms include
dizziness, confusion, poor memory and irritability. The classic ‘D’ are the final stages i.e.
dermatitis, diarrhoea, dementia and death.
63
PYRIDOXINE OR VITAMIN B6
Vitamin B6 consists of a group of related compounds: pyridoxine, pyridoxal and

pyridoxamine. Vitamin B6 is soluble in water and relatively unstable to heat and to acids.
It is destroyed in alkaline solutions and is also sensitive to light.
Functions
Vitamin B6 is the coenzyme for a large number of enzyme systems, most of which are
involved in amino acid metabolism. It plays a role in the conversion of (a) tryptophan to
niacin (b) linoleic to arachidonic acid and in the (c) inter conversion of amino acids.
Food sources
Foods rich in pyridoxine are meat, poultry and fish. Potatoes, sweet potatoes are fair
sources. Whole grain cereals are also good sources.

The recommended allowance of vitamin B6 for adults is 2 mg/d.
Deficiency
The deficiency of this vitamin causes impaired protein synthesis and microcytic
hypochromic anaemia (smaller sized RBCs pale in colour due to low concentration of
haemoglobin). The symptoms include convulsions, dizziness, vomiting, cheilos is, glossit
is and abdominal pain.
FOLIC ACID OR VITAMIN B9
Characteristics
Folacin is a generic term for folic acid and other compounds having the activity of folic
acid. It consists of three linked components (Figure 4.11): a pteridine group, para amino
benzoic acid (PABA) and glutamic acid (an amino acid).Pure folic acid occurs as a bright
yellow crystalline compound, only slightly soluble in water. It is easily oxidised in an
acidic medium and is sensitive to light. Folate and folic acid are forms of a water-soluble
B vitamin. Folate occurs naturally in food, and folic acid is the synthetic form of this
vitamin.
64
Figure 4.11 : Folic acid and its component molecules
Functions
1. It is a key ingredient in the making of the nucleic acid that forms part of all
genetic material i.e. DNA.
2. It is also required for normal production of red blood cells (RBCs) in the bone
marrow.
3. It is also required for oxidation of amino acid phenylalanine to tyrosine.
Food sources
It is present in both free and conjugated form. Liver, kidney, deep green leafy vegetables
are good sources of this vitamin. Cereals provide a fair amount. Vegetables, dairy foods,
pork and light green vegetables are poor sources.
The ICMR expert committee (2010) has recommended the dietary allowance of free Folic
acid per day as shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Recommended Dietary Allowances of Folic Acid
Age Group Folic acid (mcg/d)
Adults 200
Pregnancy 500
Lactation 300
Infants 25
Children
1-3 years 80
4-6 years 100
7-9 years 120
Adolescents
10-12 years 140
13-15 years 150
16-17 years 200
2010).
65
Deficiency
Folic acid deficiency results in megaloblastic anaemia, glossitis and gastrointestinal
disturbances. Severe deficiency results in infertility or even complete sterility. This
anaemia is the second most common cause of nutritional anaemia in India. Deficiency of
folic acid during pregnancy leads to Neural tube defects (NTDs) in the foetus.
CYANOCOBALAMIN OR VITAMIN B12
Characteristics
Cobalam in is another name for vitamin B12.This vitamin is the only cobalt containing
substance essential for health. It occurs as deep red needle like crystal which is slightly
soluble in water. This vitamin is absorbed from the ileum only. Its absorption depends on
the presence of an intrinsic factor (a muco-protein produced by the parietal cells of gastric
mucosa).
Functions
1. It helps in the synthesis of nucleic acid and nucleoproteins.
2. It is essential for the maturation of red blood cells in bone marrow.
3. It is also required for the maintenance of nervous tissues.
Food sources
It is present only in the foods of animal origin. Liver, meat, egg and milk are good
sources. It is not found in the foods of vegetable origin.

The ICMR expert committee (2010) has recommended the intakes of vitamin B12 as
shown in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Recommended Dietary Allowances of Vitamin B12
Age Group Vitamin B12 (mcg/d)
Adults 1.0
Pregnancy 1.2
Lactation 1.5
Infants 0.2
Children and Adolescents 0.2-1.0
2010).
Deficiency
Deficiency of this vitamin occurs due to inability to absorb sufficient B12(due to lack of
intrinsic factor) leading to Perniciousanaemia. Macrocytic anaemia and degenerative
66
changes of the nervous system may results from deficiency of this vitamin. Other
deficiency symptoms includes: weakness, weight loss, anorexia, indigestion, diarrhoea,
memory loss and lack of concentration.
ASCORBIC ACID OR VITAMIN C
Vitamin C, also called ascorbic acid is a white crystalline compound of relatively simple
structure and closely related to monosaccharide sugars. It can be prepared synthetically at
low cost from glucose. Of all the vitamins, Vitamin C is the most easily destroyed. It is
highly soluble in water. It is very unstable when it comes in contact with heat, light,
alkalis, oxidative enzymes and trace elements.
Functions
Vitamin C plays a pivotal role in body-building process and in disease prevention. The
various functions of vitamin C, including the antioxidant activity, formation of protein,
tendons, ligaments and blood vessels, for healing wounds and form scar tissue, for
repairing and maintaining cartilage, bone, and teeth, and aiding in the absorption of iron.
1. Collagen formation- It is required for the formation and maintenance of collagen, a

protein widely distributed in the body. Collagen is the cementing material that holds
the cell of the body together.
2. Vitamin C is necessary for production of tissues and for quick post-operative
healing.
3. It plays an important role in the normal metabolism of amino acids.
4. Iron Absorption- It helps in easy absorption of iron from gastrointestinal tract by
the reduction of ferric ion to ferrous ion. It enhances the absorption of iron from
plant sources (non-heme iron) and improve the absorbability of fortification iron
(nonchelated inorganic iron) added to diets that contain inhibitors of iron absorption
(e.g., the phytates and polyphenols)
5. Antioxidant- One of the important
properties of vitamin C is its antioxidant
activity. Antioxidant activity of vitamin
C helps to prevent certain diseases such
as cancer, cardiovascular diseases,
common cold, age-related muscular
degeneration and cataract. Antioxidants
neutralize free radicals by donating one
Figure 4.12 : Antioxidant Mechanism

67
of their own electrons, ending the electron-stealing reaction, as shown in Figure 4.12.
Food sources
Fruits and vegetables are the main sources of this vitamin. Citrus fruits (orange,
grapefruit, lemon and lime), berries, melons, pineapples, guava, pears, banana, leafy
vegetables, green pepper, amla, tomatoes are good sources of ascorbic acid. Dry legumes
contain negligible amount which increase approximately seven times during germination.
Eggs, meat and poultry do not have any Vitamin C.Human milk contains four to six times
as much ascorbic acid as cow's milk that protects the infant from its deficiency.
The values recommended by ICMR expert committee (2010) is shown in the Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Recommended Dietary Allowances of Ascorbic Acid

Age Group Vitamin C (mg/d)
Adults 40
Pregnancy 60
Lactation 80
Infants 25
Children and Adolescents 40
2010).
Deficiency
Deficiency of ascorbic acid results in defective formation of the intercellular cementing
substance collagen. Fleeting joints pain, irritability, retardation of growth in infants and
children, anaemia, shortness of breath, poor healing of wounds and increased
susceptibility to infections are some of the signs of deficiency.
Gross deficiency of ascorbic acid results in Scurvy. Scurvy is a disease characterized by
swelling and bleeding of gums, multiple haemorrhages, anaemia and weakness. Today
frank scurvy is uncommon but partial deficiency of ascorbic acid maybe frequent.
Let’s check the progress
a. Ariboflavinosis
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68
b. Pellagra
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c. Pernicious anaemia
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d. Scurvy
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2. Mention some of the main food sources of the following nutrients:
a. Thiamine
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b. Folic acid
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c. Ascorbic acid
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SUMMARY
Vitamins are broadly categorised as fat soluble vitamins (e.g. Vitamin A, D, E and K) and
water soluble vitamins (e.g. Vitamins of B group and Vitamin C). Vitamin A is present as
preformed vitamin in animal food sources and as β carotene in plant sources. Vitamin D
can be synthesised in our skin in the presence of sunlight and it is essential for calcium
absorption. Vitamin E plays an important role as antioxidant while vitamin K is needed
for normal blood clotting. Most of the B group vitamins act as coenzyme in the
metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Vitamin C is found in good amount in
fresh fruits and vegetables particularly citrus fruits. Most of the water soluble vitamins
are sensitive to heat, acids and alkalis, therefore readily destroyed during cooking.
KEY WORDS
Antirachitic - used or tending to prevent or cure rickets the antirachitic activity of vitamin
D.
69
Conjunctiva- the mucous membrane that covers the front of the eye
Cornea- the transparent circular part of the front of the eye ball
Epithelium- the layer of cells covering internal and external surfaces of the body
Fontanel- open spaces on top of the baby’s skull
Genito-urinary- it refers to the genital and urinary organs
Haemorrhage- abnormal and severe bleeding (internal or external)
Megaloblasts- large and immature red blood cells
Neural tube defects- defect in the formation of neural tube in foetus
Night blindness- inability to see in dim light
Rachitic rosary- rows of bead like deformities on the ribs
REFERENCES
FNB. Food and Nutrition Board, Dietary reference intakes for vitamin A, vitamin K,
arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, Iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon,
vanadium and zinc, Washington DC: National Academy Press, 2002.
ICMR.Nutrient requirements and recommended dietary allowances for Indians.A report

Edition)
Websites:
https://www.google.co.in/imghp?hl=en
70
LESSON 5
MICRONUTRIENTS-II
INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters, nutritional needs of the family for energy, protein,
carbohydrates, fats and vitamins were discussed. Let us now study the nutritional needs
of other important constituents required by human body viz. Minerals and Water.
OBJECTIVES
 Understand the importance of minerals and water in our body.

 Enlist the dietary sources of various mineral elements.
 Describe the adverse consequences of their deficiency.
MINERALS
Minerals may be defined as those elements which remain largely as ash when plant and
animal tissues are burnt. The human body contains more than 19 minerals, all of which
must be derived from foods. A total of 4% of the body weight is made up of minerals.
Some of the important minerals found in our body include calcium, phosphorus, iron,
iodine, sodium, potassium, zinc and chloride. All these minerals are derived from the
food we eat. Of these, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, chloride and magnesium
are the minerals required in larger amount by the body. Calcium and phosphorus,
accounts for three-fourth of the minerals present in the body, and five other elements
account for most of the rest. Many of these elements are present in such minute amounts
that they are referred to as a trace elements or micronutrients.
Table 5.1: Minerals

Macro minerals Micro minerals
(Required in large amounts) (Required in smaller amounts)
Calcium Iron
Phosphorus Iodine
Potassium Zinc
Chloride Copper
Magnesium
Minerals are important for the body in various ways. They are required to form such
organic compounds like phosphoproteins, haemoglobin and thyroxin. Hard skeletal
structures are formed with the help of elements like calcium, phosphorus and magnesium,
71
whereas soft tissues contain a relatively high proportion of potassium. Mineral elements
are also required in the constitution of enzymes, for maintaining osmotic pressure and
water balance between intracellular and extracellular compartment, for proper functioning
of the nervous system, for muscular contraction and so on. The body requires different
amounts of each mineral because each mineral has a different set of functions.
Requirements vary according to age, sex and physiological state (for example
pregnancy). They may also be influenced by state of health.
Bioavailability and absorption of minerals
The bioavailability of a mineral (i.e. how readily it can be absorbed and used by the body)
may be influenced by a variety of factors. Bioavailability will depend upon the chemical
form of the mineral, other substances present in the diet and (for nutrients such as iron)
the individual person’s needs as determined by how much of the nutrient is already stored
in the body. This is because the body has sensitive mechanisms for preventing storage of
nutrients that can be damaging in excess (as is the case with iron).
For example, the bioavailability of iron from plant sources (non-haem iron) is relatively
poor compared with iron from meat (haem iron) but absorption is increased when vitamin
C is consumed during the same meal because the vitamin C converts it to a more
bioavailable chemical form.
Some dietary constituents reduce bioavailability. Phytate, for example, found in products
made from wholegrain cereals (especially unleavened breads such as chapattis) can bind
and hence reduce the absorption of calcium, iron and zinc. Iodine absorption may be
hindered by nitrates. Similarly, oxalate present in spinach binds any calcium present,
making it unavailable for absorption. Also an excess of one mineral may hinder the
absorption of another by competing for the same transport systems in the gut, e.g. excess
iron reduces zinc absorption. This generally only becomes a problem when zinc intakes
are already marginal. Unlike some vitamins, minerals are fairly stable in normal food
processing and storage conditions.
CALCIUM
Calcium (Ca) is the most abundant mineral in the body and is essential for a number of
vital functions. Almost 1 kg of calcium is present in an adult man of 60 kg; out of which
99% of the calcium is in the bones and teeth and remaining 1% is widely distributed in
body fluids where it fulfils many functions.
Functions
1) Bone and tooth formation- Calcium together with phosphorus and other
elements give rigidity to bones and teeth. This characteristic makes it possible for
the bones to support the body. Bone forms protective cavities for vital organs- the
heart and lungs in the chest cavity, the brain in cranial cavity.
72
2)) Co factorr and regullator of bioochemical reactions
r
o Blood clottiing- Calciuum acts as a a catalyyst for thee conversion of
prrothrombin to thrombinn, this being g one of thee several steeps in the cllotting
off blood (Figgure 5.1).
o Membrane
M i
integrity a permea
and ability- It activates
a thee permeabillity of
thhe cell memmbrane (reggulating the passage off substances into and out of
ceells).
o Contraction
C n of muscle-- It is directtly related to
t muscle ccontraction. In the
abbsence of caalcium, musscles lose th
heir ability to
t contract.
o Activation
A o enzymess- It activaates the num
of mber of ennzymes inclluding
lippase, adenoosine triphossphate and some
s proteoolytic enzymmes.
Figuree 5.1: Rolee of calcium

m in blood clotting
c
3)) It has a roole in the trransmission n of nerve impulses(cconveying m

message from one
nerve cell to anotherr).
4)) It aids inn the absorp ption of vitaamin B12 frrom the ileuum.
Foodd sources
Milk and milk products

p aree excellent sources
s of calcium.
c Ceertain greenn leafy vegeetables
such as mustard green, turnnip greens, mint,
m spinacch, and carrrot leaves rrank next to
o dairy
produucts in theirr calcium coontent. Citrrus fruits, leegumes, meeats, grains and nuts prrovide
the least calcium
m
Factoors favourin
ng and deprressing absoorption
Incorpporating heealthy foods in the diet is not en

nough. Onee should unnderstand factors
f
affectting the absorption off nutrients from the food.
fo Some factors aree responsib
ble for
increaased absorpption of particular
p n
nutrient wh
hereas somee decreasess its absorrption.
73
Calcium is the hardest mineral to get absorbed in the body. 30-80 % of the dietary
calcium is not getting absorbed in the adult body.
Factors increasing absorption of calcium:
i. Vitamin D- Vitamin D works in the digestive tract to absorb calcium into the blood
stream from the walls of the duodenum. Vitamin d also helps maintain normal blood
calcium level.
ii. Parathyroid hormone- It increases calcium transport across the membrane of
intestinal cells.
iii. Acid environment- Hydrochloric acid secreted in the stomach during the process of
digestion is required for the absorption of calcium in the duodenum. Calcium
supplements could be taken with magnesium at bedtime or between meals due to the
acid environment needed in the stomach to assimilate the calcium. Always consult a
physician before beginning a new supplement regimen.
iv. Milk lactose- It favours absorption in infants. Lactose is acted upon by intestinal
microbial flora to form acid which causes lowering of pH which makes calcium more
soluble.
v. Amino acids- Supplemental calcium is often chelated, or combined with protein
molecules called amino acids, to help the body absorb them during digestion. Lysine
and arginine increase calcium absorption.
vi. Exercise- Exercise along with vitamin D intake helps calcium absorption thereby
making bones strong.
Factors decreasing absorption of calcium:
i. Oxalic acid & phytic acid- Foods that are high in oxalic acid such as spinach, chard
and chocolate, reduce calcium absorption. Oxalic acid binds with the calcium to form
a salt crystal, calcium oxalate which cannot be absorbed. Phytic acid, which is found
in whole-grain foods and high-fibre foods, effects calcium absorption the same way.
ii. Ageing- Calcium absorption is deceased during old age. It is associated with Vitamin
D deficiency and hype parathyridism.
iii. Stress- Stress can have a negative effect on HCL production in the stomach and on
normal digestive behaviour in the body, and can therefore have a negative effect on
calcium absorption.
iv. Caffeine, drugs like anticoagulants, cortisone and thyroxine reduce calcium
absorption.
v. Lack of exercise leads to decrease calcium absorption
74
The ICMR expert committee (2010) has recommended dietary allowances as shown in
Table 5.2
Table 5.2: Recommended Dietary Allowances of Calcium and Phosphorus

Age Group Calcium/day (mg) Phosphorus/day (mg)
Adults 600 600
Pregnancy 1200 1200
Lactation 1200 1200
Infants (0-12 months) 500 750
Children (1-9 years) 600 600
Adolescents (10-17 years) 800 800
2010).
Deficiency
A deficiency of calcium in the diet results in retarded calcification of bones and teeth in
the young. Due to the deficiency of calcium bones start bending and there is enlargement
of ankle and wrist. In children, the deficiency disease is known as Rickets and in adults,
as Osteomalacia. Repeated pregnancies coupled with inadequate dietary intake can also
give rise to the deficiency of calcium.
PHOSPHORUS
Phosphorus accounts for about 1% of body weight, or one-fourth of the total mineral
elements in the body. About 85% of phosphorus is in combination with calcium in bones
and teeth. Soft tissues contain much higher amounts of phosphorus than of calcium and
most of it is in organic form.
Functions
Phosphorus is one mineral which performs widely differing functions. These are:
1. Mineralisation of bones and teeth- It combines with calcium to form insoluble
compound, calcium phosphate, which gives strength and rigidity to bones.
2. Absorption and transport of nutrients- The Phosphorus containing lipoproteins
facilitate the transport of fats in the circulation.
3. Component of essential body compounds- Phosphorus is a constituent of
nucleoproteins, the basics genetic material. Phospholipids are constituents of cell
membranes, thus regulating the transport of solutes into and out of the cell.
4. Phosphorylation is the key reaction in many metabolic processes.
75
5. Phosphorus captures and store vital energy in the cells of many tissues by forming a
high energy compound. Muscle tissue is a prominent example where phosphorus
helps in energy store and thus fuel muscle contraction.
6. Regulation of Acid-Base balance- Inorganic phosphorus in the body fluids
constitutes an important buffer system in the regulation of body neutrality.
Food Sources
Phosphorus is widely distributed in foods; the milk and meat groups being important
contributors. Whole grain cereals and flours contain much more phosphorus than refined
cereals and flours. Vegetables and fruits contain only small amount of phosphorus.
The ICMR expert committee has recommended the intake as shown in table 5.2. The
requirements have been given based on elemental Calcium: Phosphorus ratio of 1:1 for
most age groups, except for infants, where the suggested ratio is 1: 1.5. The ratio of
Calcium: Phosphorus is important for the calcification of the bones.
Deficiency
A deficiency of phosphorus is generally not seen in human beings because diets having
cereals as major food are seldom inadequate in phosphorus.
1. Explain the role of calcium in blood clotting?

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2. What are the factors affecting the absorption of calcium?
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MAGNESIUM
The amount of magnesium in the body is much smaller than that of calcium and
phosphorus i.e. about 20-35 g in the adult body. Of this about 60% are carbonates and
phosphates at the surface of the bones. Most of the remaining magnesium is within the
cells.
76
Functions
1. It is required for numerous biological reactions involving the release of energy

2. It is a constituent of bone. It is involved in bone mineralization.
3. It is also essential for normal metabolism of calcium and phosphorus.
4. Its presence in the extracellular fluids regulates the transmission of nerve
impulses.
5. It activates the enzyme responsible for breakdown of glycogen.
Food Sources
Dairy products excluding butter provide enough magnesium. Flour and cereal products,
dry beans, soyabean, peas and nuts are good sources of magnesium. Green leafy
vegetables are excellent sources because magnesium is a part of chlorophyll.
Effect of imbalances
Under normal conditions of health and food intake magnesium deficiency is not likely to
occur. A deficiency of it may result from malabsorption syndrome, chronic alcoholism,
and toxaemia of pregnancy or after intake of diuretics. Deficiency of magnesium results
in neuromuscular irritability, tetanic convulsions, twitching, tremors and convulsions. In
excess, it results in extreme thirst, excessive heat in the body, decrease in neuromuscular
movements.
POTASSIUM
An adult body contains about 250 g of potassium of which about 97% of the potassium in
the body is in intracellular fluid intracellular fluid (intracellular fluid refer to fluid inside
the cells) while the remainder being in the extracellular fluid compartments (extracellular
fluid refers to fluid outside the cell).
Functions
1. Within the cell it maintains the osmotic pressure and fluid balance.
2. It is required for the synthesis of proteins.
3. It is required for enzymatic reactions taking place within the cell. Some Potassium is
bound to phosphate and is required for the conversion of glucose to glycogen.
4. It is required for the transmission of nerve impulse and for contraction of muscle
fibres.
77
Food Sources
It is widely distributed in foods. Meat, poultry and fish are good sources. Fruits,
vegetables and whole grain cereals are especially high in potassium. Banana, potatoes,
tomatoes, carrots, orange juice, grapefruit juice are rich sources.
The exact amount of potassium required is not known. A normal diet provides this
mineral in sufficient amount.
Deficiency
Primarily the deficiency of potassium is not seen. Impaired appetite, severe malnutrition,
chronic alcoholism and burn injuries can disturb the acid base balance and lower osmotic
pressure.
SODIUM
An adult body contains approximately 120g of sodium of which about 50% of the body’s
sodium is present in the extracellular fluid, 40% in bones and 10% or less in intracellular
fluid (intracellular fluid refers to fluid inside the cell).
Functions
1. It is required for maintenance of normal osmotic pressure and water balance.

2. It is also required for maintaining the permeability of cell membrane.
3. Sodium ‘pump’ helps to maintain the electrolyte difference between intracellular
and extracellular fluid compartments.
Food sources
Common salt or sodium chloride is the chief source of sodium in the diet. One teaspoon
of salt provides almost 2000 mg sodium. It is universally used to flavour the food we eat
and is also used for preserving food for long periods. Numerous sodium compounds are
used in food processing and preparation like baking soda, baking powder, sodium
alginate, sodium propionate and sodium citrate. Sodium is a naturally occurring
constituent in animal foods, including milk, egg, meat, poultry and fish and in certain
vegetables as spinach, celery, beet greens and fenugreek. Most vegetables, fruits, cereals,
legumes are naturally low in sodium.
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5-10 gm of salt (sodium chloride) is sufficient for an average healthy adult. An individual
doing hard labour may need more.
Sodium Imbalance
Osmotic pressure and the pH are seriously affected when there is a disturbance in the
concentrations of sodium in the extracellular fluid of the body tissues. When there is
retention of sodium in the tissue, oedema occurs. In cardiac and renal failure sodium
excretion gets reduced. Excess sodium losses occur during the hot weather causing
muscular weakness, cramps, fatigue, vomiting and loss of appetite. In this case a small
amount of salt may be added to liquid intake.
CHLORINE
Chlorine exists in the body almost entirely as chloride ion. Most of the 100 g or so of
chloride ions present in the extracellular fluid, but it also occurs to some extent in the red
blood cells and to a lesser degree in other cells.
Functions
1. It is important in regulation of osmotic pressure, water balance and acid-base

balance.
2. It activates the gastric enzymes thus aids in the digestion in the stomach.
3. It is one of the several activators of salivary amylase.
The requirements of chlorine have not been ascertained, but, if sodium chloride is taken
liberally, it ensures the adequate intake of chloride as well.
Chloride Imbalance
Severe vomiting, drainage or diarrhoea leads to large loses of chloride and an alkalosis,
because of the replacement of chloride with bicarbonate.
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1. What are the various functions of magnesium in our body?
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2. Briefly explain the concept of Sodium imbalance.
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IRON
Iron is chief among the trace elements required for the body and is essential for the
formation of haemoglobin in red blood cells; haemoglobin binds oxygen and transports it
around the body. Iron is also an essential component in many enzyme reactions and has
an important role in the immune system. In addition, it is required for normal energy
metabolism and for the metabolism of drugs and foreign substances that need to be
removed from the body. Muscle tissues contain about 3% of iron as myoglobin and the
rest is stored as ferritin, hemosiderin, and in liver, spleen, kidney and bone marrow.
Functions
1. Iron is a major constituent of the red coloured compound called haemoglobin present
in the red blood cells. Haemoglobin (Hb) is necessary for transport of oxygen to
various parts of the body. Hb carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and in turn
helps in carrying carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. From the lungs carbon
dioxide is then exhaled out.
2. Iron is also present in the muscles in the form of myoglobin. Myoglobin has the
capacity to store oxygen. This oxygen is used for muscle contraction and for other
immediate needs of the muscle cells.
3. Iron facilitates the complete oxidation of carbohydrates, fats and proteins within the
cells.
4. Iron forms a vital component of certain enzymes and substances that aid in
metabolism.
5. Iron has protective function. It helps in preventing infections.
Food Sources
Dietary iron is found in two basic forms. Either as heme iron (from animal sources) or
non-heme iron (from plant sources). Heme iron is the most bioavailable form of iron.
However, the predominant form of iron in all diets is non-haem iron, found in cereals,
80
vegetables, pulses, beans, nuts and fruit. Absorption of non-haem iron is affected by
various factors in food. Phytates (in cereals and pulses), fibre, tannins (in tea) and
calcium can all bind non-haem iron in the intestine, which reduces absorption. However,
vitamin C, present in fruit and vegetables, aids the absorption of non-haem iron when
eaten at the same time, as does meat.
Liver, red meat, pulses, nuts, eggs, dried fruits, poultry, fish, whole grains and dark green
leafy vegetables are all sources of iron. Lean meats, deep green leafy vegetables and
whole grain cereals are good sources. Egg yolk and organ meats are also among good
sources. Liver is an excellent source of iron. Other vegetable and fruits are fair sources.
Milk, cheese and ice cream are poor sources. Jaggery contains a good amount of iron.
The requirement of iron for the body is a small, but due to poor absorption, much more is
needed. From a vegetarian diet only 10% of the dietary iron is observed. For a mixed diet
15-20% absorption takes place. Keeping this in mind ICMR expert committee (2010) has
recommended the daily allowances for various age groups as shown in Table 5.3
Table 5.3: Recommended Dietary Allowances of Iron

Age Group Iron (mg)/day
Adult Male 17
Adult Female 21
Pregnancy 35
Lactation 21
Infants (0-6m) 46 mcg/kg/d
(6-12m) 5
Children (1-9 years) 9-16
Adolescents boys (10-17 years) 21-28
Adolescents boys (10-17 years) 26-27
2010).
Deficiency
Anaemia results due to deficiency of iron. Usual symptoms are fatigue, giddiness, and
breathlessness on exertion, sleeplessness and loss of appetite. Paleness of the tongue,
conjunctiva (white of eye) and nail bed is observed in anaemic person. In severe anaemia,
the nails of the fingers and toes become brittle and spoon shaped (koilonychias). Severe
anaemia can even lead to death.
81
IODINE
Iodine is an essential component of the thyroid hormones, thyroxine and triiodothyronine,

which are vital regulators of metabolic rate and of physical and mental development.
About one third of iodine present in an adult body variously estimated from 15 to 23 mg
is found in the thyroid gland. The concentration in thyroid tissue is 2500 times as great as
in any other tissue, all of which contain traces.
Functions
The only known function of iodine is as a constituent of thyroglobulin, a protein complex
of several iodine containing compounds. The thyroid hormone regulates the rate of
oxidation within the cells and in doing so, regulates the physical and mental growth, the
functioning of nervous and muscular tissues, circulatory activity and the metabolism of
all nutrients.
Food Sources
Iodine is supplied by food and water; the variations are wide depending upon the iodine
content of the soils from which they come. People living in coastal areas and eating
locally grown foods ingests enough iodine for their use. In hilly areas where there is a
deficiency of iodine in food and drinking water&Iodization of the salt is the only
technique available to make good this deficiency in order to prevent goitre.
The daily requirement of iodine is 0.15mg or 150 μg/day for adults. This can be obtained
by consuming 10g of iodised salt/day for a healthy adult (non-hypertensive). Growing
children, pregnant and lactating women may need more (Table 5.4).
Table 5.4: ICMR Recommended Dietary Allowances of Iodine, 2010

Group μg/day
Adults 150
Infant 90
Children (1-5+years) 90
School age children (6-11+years) 120
Adolescents ≥12 150
Pregnancy 200
Lactation 200
82
Deficiency
Endemic goitre results in the parts of the world,

where soil has low iodine content. Endemic
goitre is a public health problem in sub-
Himalayan region, Maharashtra and sub-Vindhya
region, where 50% have goitre. Goitre is
characterized by the swelling of the thyroid gland
(Figure 5.2). Figure 5.2: Goitre
Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co
mmons/thumb/4/42/Goitre.jpg/120px-oitre.jpg
FLUORINE
Fluorine occurs normally in the body primarily as a calcium salt in the bones and teeth. It
is not essential for life but small amount of fluoride bring about striking reductions in
tooth decay.
Functions
The main function of fluoride in the body is in the mineralisation of bones and teeth.
Fluoride also protects the teeth from dental caries (tooth decay) and is now routinely
added to most toothpastes.
Food Sources
The main source is drinking water. It occurs in traces in many foods and in good amounts
in shellfish, cheese etc.
Deficiency and Excess of Fluorine
Fluorine is required for deposition of fluoride on teeth and discourages the solubility of
minerals and growth of acid forming bacteria. If there is a deficiency of fluorine during
the growing period, it will result in dental caries and tooth decay.
In rare cases, very large amounts of (non-dietary) fluoride can cause fluorosis. Symptoms
may be mild such as mottling and crumbling of the teeth. The enamel on the teeth loses
its lustre, becomes patchy, chalky white and pits appear on its surface. This condition is
known as dental fluorosis. It can also cause severe causing skeletal changes such as
calcification of ligaments and tendons which leads to muscle, joint and bone problems.
ZINC
Zinc is an important trace mineral that people need to stay healthy. Of the trace minerals,
this element is second only to iron in its concentration in the body. It is found in traces in
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all body tissues and the body’s content of zinc is 2-3 g. It is a constituent of insulin and of
many enzymes in the body. Zinc deficiency has been reported to result in growth failure
and sexual infantilism in adolescents and in loss of taste and delayed wound healing. Zinc
is widely distributed in foodstuffs both animal and vegetable - but the bioavailability of
zinc in vegetable foods is low. Animal foods such as milk, meat and fish are dependable
sources. For adult man and non-pregnant and non-lactating woman (NPNL) woman for
zinc is set at 12 and 10 mg/dayrespectively recommendations for all physiological groups
for zinc. Growing children and pregnant and lactating woman need more i.e. 12 mg/day.
Most human diets provide these amounts.
Functions
i) Regulating immune function
The human body needs zinc to activate T lymphocytes (T cells). T cells help the
body in two ways:
o Controlling and regulating immune responses
o Attacking infected or cancerous cells
Zinc deficiency can severely impair immune system function.
ii) Treats diarrhoea
According to the World Health Organization, diarrhoea kills an astonishing 1.6
million children under 5 every year. Zinc pills may help reduce diarrhoea.
iii) Effects on learning and memory
Zinc has a crucial role in regulating how neurons communicate with one another,
affecting how memories are formed and how we learn.
iv) Treat the common cold
Zinc is found be beneficial in reducing the duration and severity of the common
cold in healthy people, when taken within 24 hours of onset of symptoms."
v) Wound healing
Zinc plays a role in maintaining skin integrity and structure. Patients experiencing
chronic wounds or ulcers often have deficient zinc metabolism and lower serum
zinc levels. Zinc is often used in skin creams for treating diaper rash or other skin
irritations.
vi) Decreased risk of age-related chronic disease
It has been known for decades that zinc has a significant role in immune function.
Deficiency has been linked to increased inflammation in chronic disease and
triggering new inflammatory processes.
vii) Preventing Age-related Mascular Degeneration (AMD)
Zinc prevents cellular damage in the retina, which helps in delaying the
progression of AMD and vision loss.
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WATER
The body's need for water is only second to that of oxygen. One can live for weeks
without food, but death is likely to follow a deprivation of water for more than a few
days. A 10% loss of body water is a serious hazard and death usually follows at a 20%
loss.
About 70% of body weight of lean adult is accounted 1 liters Plasma 3 liters
for by water. Variations in the water contents in Transcellular fluid

different individual’s ae mainly due to differences in Extracellular fluids
fat contents. In obese males, water constitutes lower Interstitial lymph fluids
percentage to body weight (45-60%). All body tissues Intercellular fluids
contain water but variations in tissue contents are 8.5 litres
Na: K- 28:1
wide.
In our body, water is mainly distributed in two Intracellular fluids
compartments (Figure 5.3): 30 litres
o Intracellular fluids (ICF) which are present Na: K- 1:10
within the cells accounts for about 45% of our
body weight Figure 5.3: Body fluid
o Extracellular fluids (ECF), which are present compartments
outside the cells. Examples plasma, interstitial
lymph fluids, and transcellular fluid.
Figure illustrates body fluid components.
Functions
Water performs number of functions in the human body:
i. Part of structure- Water is a structural component and a cushion of all the cells.
ii. Water is the medium of all body fluids including the digestive juice, the lymph,
the blood, the urine and the perspiration.
iii. Acts as solvent- Water is a solvent for the products of digestion, holding them in
solution and permitting to pass through the walls for absorption.
iv. Transport of nutrients- It is a carrier of nutrients as well as of waste.
v. Body temperature regulation- Water has the capacity to regulate the internal
temperature of the body in response to the external temperature. It helps in
maintaining the temperature of the body by distributing the heat in the body.
Sweat is the main means by which water prevents the human body overheating
when the temperature outside it is very high. The evaporation of sweat brings a
loss of calories, in the form of heat. This release of energy enables our internal
temperature to remain constant.
85
vi. Metabolic and biochemical reactions- Water is not just a transporter of
nutritional elements. It acts as a reactant and plays an active role in our metabolic
processes. Through a process called hydrolysis, water molecules are part of the
biochemical breakdown of proteins, lipids and carbohydrates, which are
structurally complex foods, into units more absorbable by the body.
vii. Acts as lubricant- Water is essential as a body lubricant. It is the main
constituent of saliva that makes swallowing possible, the mucus secretion of
gastrointestinal, respiratory and genitourinary tract, the fluids that bathe the joints
and so on.
Food Sources
To meet the body’s need water is supplied by the ingestion of water and beverages, the
preformed water in foods and the water resulting from the oxidation of foods.
Water Balance
Our body loses water due to excretion in urine, faeces and perspiration. Some of the
water is also lost with the air that we exhale. To make up these losses it is important to
consume liberal amount of water. Table 5.5 illustrates the balance between water intake
and water losses.
Table 5.5 Normal Water Balance

Available water (g) Excreted water (g)
Water intake 1100 In urine 1000
Water in diet 900 In stool 200
Water of oxidation 200 In vapour (skin and lungs) 1000
Total 2200 2200
Let’s check the progress
1. Discuss the importance of water in the body.

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a. Haemoglobin
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b. Symptoms of anaemia
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c. Deficiency of fluorine
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SUMMARY
Minerals are important for our body to function properly. Minerals must be supplied to
the body in balanced amounts (neither deficiency nor excess) to remain healthy. Some of
the important minerals found in our body include calcium, phosphorus, iron, iodine,
sodium, potassium, zinc and chloride. All these minerals are derived from the food we
eat. Of these, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, chloride and magnesium are the
minerals required in larger amount by the body. Calcium together with phosphorus and
other elements give rigidity to bones and teeth. Iron is present in the haemoglobin.
Sodium is required for maintenance of normal osmotic pressure and water balance. Water
is the medium of all body fluids and is absolutely essential to sustain life.
KEY WORDS
Extracellular fluid- The fluid present outside the cells.
Intracellular fluid- The fluid present inside the cells.
Osmosis is the movement of water from an area of low concentration of solute to an area
of higher concentration of solute.
Osmotic pressure- it is the pressure that would have to be applied to a pure solvent to
prevent it from passing into a given solution by osmosis, often used to express the
concentration of the solution.
Osteomalacia- is a characteristic feature of vitamin D deficiency in adults. Softening of
bone, particularly in the sense of bone weakened by demineralization
Rickets- a disease of children caused by vitamin D deficiency, characterized by imperfect
calcification, softening, and distortion of the bones typically resulting in bow legs.
REFERENCES
Edition)
Websites:
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88
UNIT 3
CULINARY SCIENCE
Lesson 6 : Introduction to Cooking
Lesson 7 : Methods of Cooking
Lesson 8 : Role of Food Groups in Cookery
Lesson 9 : Effect of Cooking on Food components
Lesson 10 : Ways of Conserving and Enhancing Nutrients
89
90
LESSON 6
INTRODUCTION TO COOKING
Some foods like fruits, vegetables and nuts are eaten raw. It is good to consume food in
raw form as they retain most of its nutritional value. However, most of the foods are
cooked before they are actually eaten. Cookery is an art or practice of cooking. Cooking
is defined as “a chemical process which encompasses the mixing of ingredients; the
heat application and withdrawal; decision making, technical knowledge and
manipulative skills.” It also involves some amount of creativity and hence is considered
as both art and technology.
Food preparation denotes preparation and cooking. It follows a flow pattern which begins
with the selecting and purchasing materials, their handling, processing and the ultimate
presentation of dishes to customers.
In the course of food preparation, depending on the recipe, foods are subjected to various
processes such as washing, grinding, cutting, fermentation, and germination and cooking.
In Indian cuisine, fermentation (idli, dosa, dhokla) and germination (sprouting) are
common practices. These methods improve digestibility and increase nutrients such as B-
complex vitamins and vitamin C.
OBJECTIVES
 To understand the terminologies, concepts and principles required for cooking.

 To explain the meaning and importance of pre-preparation and preparation of
food
OBJECTIVES OF COOKING
Before going into the details of cooking, we should know why we cook food. Though the
main objective is to make the food edible, yet there are other reasons for doing so such as:
1. Improvement of food quality
o Makes the food attractive and palatable- Cooking makes the food look attractive and
also renders it more tasteful than the uncooked food. More sight of a well-cooked and
pleasant looking food activates our digestive enzymes and makes us feel hungry.
o Improves food digestibility and palatability- Cooking makes the food soft and tender
which makes it easy and quick to digest. For example, after cooking carbohydrates
present in food become easier to digest to a certain extent. Similarly, proteins
coagulate on cooking which makes the digestion simple. It is due to this reason that
soft and well-cooked food is recommended for people in diseased conditions, as their
digestive system is weak.
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o Enhances the availability of nutrients- For example, cooking destroys trypsin
inhibitor present in protein foods. This makes the trypsin freely available to the body.
Similarly starch is more easily available after cooking.
2. Increases variety- Variety can be brought in meals easily by using different methods
of cooking. For example, one single foodstuff like potato can be cooked by using
different methods into a number of dishes and thus add variety to the meals, i.e.
potatoes can be cooked as potato sabzi, potato chips, potato chaat, potato halwa,
baked potatoes etc., simply by changing the methods of cooking
3. Destruction of micro-organisms- Cooking of food destroys the micro-organism
present in them to a large extent, thus, making it safe for consumption. Many
foodstuffs like milk, meat, fish, can harbour certain disease-producing microorganism
thus making the person sick on the consumption of such foodstuff. Raw milk may
have microorganism responsible for causing tuberculosis and typhoid and such milk if
consumed raw can be harmful. Meat especially pork, contain eggs of worms which
can cause an infestation in the body. Fortunately, these microorganisms are destroyed
by usual cooking procedures, thus making the food safe. Another advantage of
destroying microorganisms is that the food can be kept for a longer time i.e. its shelf
life is increased e.g. pasteurized milk.
4. Increases consumption of food- Cooking improves the colour, texture and makes the
food chewable and appealable. Hence, increases the consumption of food and helps us
in meeting our nutritional requirements.
5. Concentrate nutrients- Cooking help to concentrate nutrients in food. This may occur
due to elimination of moisture or using different food combinations or due to cooking
procedures, e.g. sweets like rabri, khoa burfi.
6. Increases antioxidant value
Thus, the cooking of food is very important, as it increases digestibility, appeals to the
palate and destroys microorganisms.
PRINCIPLES OF COOKING
Heat transfer: It is an important feature of the cooking process as heat is applied in order
to cook the food. It is defined as “the exchange of thermal energy between the two
matters.”
When food in solid or liquid form becomes warm, its molecules absorb energy and start
vibrating rapidly and hence start to jump. As they strike, heat energy is created and
transferred (Figure 6.1), which warms and cooks the food.
92
Figure 6.1: Process
P of heat
h transffer
Meth
hods of Heaat Transfer
Theree are 3 wayys by whicch heat is transferred
t to food -coonduction, convection n and
radiaation. Each of these meethods of heeat transfer has
h its own distinctive features, bu
ut also
have some crossoover.
A. CONDUCTIION is a method m in which
w heat iss transferredd to the foood when it comes
c
inn direct conntact with a hot object like a hot pan.
p Thereaafter heat iss transferred
d from
thhe hotter porrtion of food to its cooller part thro
ough conducction.
Foor example,,
 The stovee will conduuct heat eneergy to the bottom
b of thhe utensil annd from there, the
utensil coonducts heatt to its contents.
 Hot oil inn the utensill uses conduuction heating as the foood comes iinto direct contact
c
with it.
B. CONVECTIION is a meethod in whhich the tran nsfer of heat occurs by the movem ment of
m
molecules thhrough any liquid or gaas. When water
w is boilled, the hott water molecules
risse to the topp and the cooler
c (hencce denser) water
w moleccules at the top moves to the
boottom of thee vessel (Figgure 6.2).
Foor examplee, thawing of
o frozen food
fo by roo
om temperaature air or by running
g cold
w
water
Thhere are twwo main convection
c heat cookiing methodds: natural and mech
hanical
coonvection.
o Natural
N Con
nvection
Natural convvection occurs when molecules
N m at
a the bottoom of a coooking utenssil get
w
warm and riise while cooler
c (heavvier) moleccules in thee food sinkk. This creeates a
ciirculating cuurrent that evenly
e distriibutes heat throughout the food beeing prepareed.
Foor example, when water in a utennsil is placeed on the sttove to boil, conduction heat
w
warms up thhe utensil, which theen heats thhe water molecules
m innside. Thereafter,
coonvection causes
c them
m to move away
a from the interioor of the uttensil as theey are
reeplaced by cooler
c moleecules. This continuouss current creeates heat trransfer with
hin the
w
water via connvection.
o M
Mechanical Convection n
M
Mechanical convection occurs whhen outside forces circulate heatt, which sh hortens
coooking timee and cooks food more evenly. Exaample stirrinng the liquid in a pot
93
C. RADIATION is the method by which energy is transferred to food through the
waves from an energy source. This wave when striking the food, the molecules start
vibrating and heat is produced. The radiation can cook food by two methods: infrared
and microwave radiation (Figure 6.2).
o Infrared Radiation
It operates on an electric or ceramic heating element that provides electromagnetic
energy waves which travel in any direction at the speed of light and heat the food
rapidly. These waves are mainly absorbed in the surface of the food. Examples in case
of toaster ovens, and broilers.
o Microwave Radiation
It utilizes short, high-frequency waves that can pierce through the food, which in turn
stirs water molecules present in the food and create friction and transfers the heat. If a
solid substance is heated, transfer of heat occurs through conduction, while liquids do
so through convection. Microwave radiation usually cooks food faster than infrared
radiation, as it is able to penetrate foods several inches deep. Microwave radiation
works finest when cooking small batches of food.
Figure 6.2: Different methods of heat transfer
PRE-PREPARATION STEPS IN COOKING

Food is one thing that unites us all despite different cultures and regions. Food
preparation is an extensive area and involves numerous actions from obtaining raw
ingredients and consuming them as food. It's somewhat simplistic and complex,
ubiquitous and artistic, personal and universal.
Transforming the raw food constituents into the required form is called ‘pre-
preparation’.
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CLEA
ANING/WASHING
W
Cleanning the foodfo is thee first step in any food

prepaaration. Sincce most foood products consumed today
are treated
t witth insecticcides or other
o chem
micals.
Thereefore, it is necessary
n too wash offf these chem
micals
beforee consumpttion. Additionally, dust and dirt from
insectts or birds can
c also be cleaned
c via washing.
Advanntages
 It helps us
u to removee dirt, sprayys pesticidess etc.
 The warm m water used in washinng can help us remove the
t worms.
 It also helps us in rem
moving blood, and other impuritiees from fleshh products.
Disaddvantages
 Water-soluble vitammins and minnerals are lost if they are

a soaked for a long period
p
of time orr washed affter cutting.
 B compleex vitamins are also losst during waashing of ceereals like riice.
PEEL
LING AND
D SCRAPIN
NG
Peelinng and scraaping help in i removingg inferior, muddy andd inedible pportions. Sk
kins of
vegetables or fruuits can bee removed by peeling. Vegetablees like gingger, galang gal are
scrapeed. Peels off vegetabless like carrotts could be used for making
m stockks. Removinng the
surfacce layers byy using a cirrcular motioon is known
n as paring e.g.
e in case of an applee.
Advanntages
 It helps us
u to remoove inediblee or undesiirable
portions from
f food.
 Fruits and
a vegetaables appeaal better after
peeling.
Disaddvantages
 Discardinng the outerr leaves of vegetables

v such as cabbbage, spinacch and lettucce and
peeling fruits
fr and veegetables suuch as applees, peaches,, pears, potaatoes and carrots,
lead to a disproportioonate loss of
o many vitaamins and dietary
d fibree.
CUTT
TING
Cuttinng involvess reducing thhe food to smaller
s partts with the help
of a knife
k or sciissors. Wheen food is chopped
c ussing a chopping
knife or an eleectric food chopper, it is called d as choppping.
Varioous terms unnder this aree:
Dicin
ng  Cutting innto even sizee cubes.
Minccing  Cutting innto very finee pieces
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Shredding  Cutting into fine, long pieces.
Slicing  Cutting into slightly thicker, flat pieces.
Grating  Reducing to fine particles by rubbing over a rough, sharp surface.
Advantages
 It helps us in cooking food faster.

 It helps in improving the appeal of the food e.g. salads.
Disadvantages
 Loss of many heat-labile and water-soluble vitamins.
Flower cuts Cubes Chiffonade
Julienned Diagonal cuts Roll cuts

Figure 6.3:Vegetable cuttings
Other terminologies
Processing
There are various forms of processing techniques to which food may be subjected before
reaching to the consumer. All of these processes have some effect on their nutrient
content. Although foods are often compared before and after processing, a better
comparison is at the stage when the food is eaten. For example, during the frozen peas
loses about a 10 per cent of vitamin C. But because they require a shorter cooking time
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than fresh peas, there is virtually no difference between the vitamin C content of fresh
and frozen peas as they appear on our plate. The nutritional changes that occur in the
commercial preparation of food do not differ much from those in the same food prepared
in the home. Both types of food preparation involve some form of processing. There may
be differences in palatability and the food manufacturer may use cheaper ingredients such
as emulsifiers, cereal fillers and synthetic flavours. This may be partially offset by the
fresher foods usually available to the manufacturer. The effect of the different types of
processing on nutrients is discussed below.
 Grinding- Crushing into small particles in a mill, a grinding stone.

 Milling- A grinding process using a mill.
 Mashing- Process by which soft foods ae beaten to a pulp like cooked potatoes.
 Blanching- To cook by dipping briefly into boiling water, then directly into cold
water. This is not meant to cook the food but to inactivate substances which may
adversely affect the nutrient content, colour, flavour or texture of the food.
Varying amounts of nutrients are lost in this process, in particular, the water-
soluble vitamins.
 Dehydration- or the drying of foods is a method of preservation. With the
exceptions of vitamin C and pro vitamin A, the nutrient losses that occur in drying
are not large. Further losses can occur depending on how the dried food is further
processed. If the food is eaten in the dried form, such as dried apricots, then the
food is a concentrated source of many nutrients, including dietary fibre
 Canning- involves heating food in a closed container to ensure that the micro-
organisms present in the raw food can no longer cause deterioration of the food or
be hazardous to health. The amount of heating depends on the type of food.
Nutrient losses occur from destruction during heating and storage stages. Some
nutrients, such as water-soluble vitamins and minerals, may dissolve in the water
of the can, but they are lost only if this liquid is not consumed. We can reduce
losses of vitamins during storage by storing the cans in a cool place.
 Pasteurization- involves heating food for a short time to kill harmful micro-
organisms that are present in the food. Not all micro-organisms are destroyed, and
spoilage of the food may still occur on storage, but this can be delayed by
refrigeration. Nutrient losses during pasteurization of milk and fruit juices are
generally small, and in the case of fruit juices, they must contain not less than a
specified minimum amount of vitamin C. This generally means that vitamin C is
added by the processor to make up for any losses that occurred during processing.
To minimize further nutrient losses, milk and fruit juices should be stored away
from light and in a cool place.
 Marination- the process of steeping/soaking foods in a flavouring mixture before
cooking and may last seconds or days.
 Steeping- soaking redients in liquid in order to extract colour or flavour
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 Homogenization- Process of making something same throughout e.g. milk by
passing large drops through a small opening under great pressure into smaller
ones.
 Centrifuging- Separation of a mixture of dense and lighter materials by being
spun about a central axis at high speed e.g. separation of cream from milk.
 Emulsification- Process by which emulsion is formed.
 Emulsion- a stable suspension of small droplets of one liquid in another with
which it is immiscible.
 Evaporation / Reduction – Process of liquid converting to a gaseous state.
 Sieving- Passing of food material through a mesh/sieve to remove impurities
1. Define the following.

a. Canning
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b. Marination
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c. Blanching
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2. Enlist the objectives of cooking.
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3. Explain the principle of heat transfer.
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SUMMARY
Cookery is an art and science of preparing food for consumption by using heat. In order
to make food digestible and palatable, we need to cook food. Apart from this basic reason
there are many reasons behind cooking food. There are 3 ways by which heat is
transferred to food - conduction, convection and radiation. Each of these methods of heat
transfer has its own distinctive features. Pre-preparation is one of the most important
steps in the process of cooking and involves transforming raw ingredients into the
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required form. It also involves several processing techniques to which food may be
subjected before reaching to the consumer. All of these processes have some effect on
their nutrient content.
REFERENCES
Edition)
Websites:
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-food-preparation-definition-types.html
https://www.google.co.in/search?q=heat+transfer&sxsrf=ACYBGNSg-DlM5rXrC8
https://www.rsph.org.uk/uploads/assets/uploaded/1946fe2a-4e6d-46cb-
b673b078ddeb12e4.pdf
https://hmhub.me/techniques-used-in-pre-preparation/
http://bieap.gov.in/Pdf/HOPaperI.pdf
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LESSON 7
METHODS OF COOKING
INTRODUCTION
Food is being cooked, since the times of the early man, when he accidentally discovered
that cooked meat tastes much better than raw meat. Thereafter, food has generally been
consumed in the cooked form by man. With the advancement in all the fields, the man
started cooking his food by different methods; as a result, today we use all these different
methods to cook our food. A brief description of these cooking methods, their advantages
and disadvantages will help in creating awareness about the correct choice of a method
for cooking a particular food item.
OBJECTIVES
 To develop an understanding of the basic methods of cooking
 Describe the merits and demerits of different methods of cooking.
The various methods of cooking can be broadly classified into their categories according
to the source of heat i.e. moist heat or dry heat which are further classified as shown
below:
Methods of cooking
Moist heat Dry heat Using fat Combination
Boiling
Steaming-
Direct
Indirect Baking Sauteing
Pressure Roasting Shallow frying Braising
cooking Grilling/boiling Deep fat frying
Stewing
Simmering
Poaching
Figure 7.1: Various methods of cooking
MOIST HEAT METHOD

These are the methods in which we use the heat generated by water in some form or the
other. The methods include boiling, steaming, pressure-cooking, and stewing.
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1) Boiling
In this method, the foodstuffs are cooked in boiling water. Thus, the food comes in direct
contact with water. In this, the foodstuffs are immersed in water in a suitable container,
covered with a lid and the heat is applied. Once a vigorous boil starts the heat can be
reduced and cooking continued till the food is tender. Food may be boiled in any liquid,
which is bubbling at the surface such as stock, milk, juices or syrups. Foods that are
cooked by boiling are rice, eggs, dals, potatoes, meat, sago and beetroot. Boiling can be
done with an excess of water (eggs) or with sufficient water (dal, upma). Food cooked by
this method is always recommended for patients.
Points to be considered for good results
o Put water in just sufficient quantity, so that it is used up by the food completely. If
extra water is used for boiling, then the amount that cannot be used up by the food has
to be discarded. When the extra water is discarded it takes away certain water-soluble
nutrients and the flavour of the food with it.
o Cover the utensil when the food is being cooked so that cooking is quick and the fuel
consumption less.
o Boiling violently does not cook the food faster; In fact, it wastes fuel, breaks the food
and spoils its appearance. It is always advisable to simmer the gas, once the boiling
starts.
Advantages of boiling
1. It is the simplest method of cooking. It does not require special skill and equipment.
2. Uniform cooking can be done.
3. The food cooked is light and easily digestible.
4. If the amount of water is proportionate to the quantity of food to be cooked and the
food is cooked covered, the nutrients are retained in the food to a large extent.
Disadvantages of boiling
1. It is time-consuming. It takes time and fuel may get wasted.
2. Water-soluble pigments, like betalain/betacyanin (red pigment), may be lost. Beetroot
should be cooked along with the skin to prevent the loss of colour.
3. Boiled foods are not considered tasty because flavour compounds are leached into the
water. Over boiling of food make the food mushy.
4. If the food is boiled in excess water, which is later thrown away, then this leads to
draining away of water-soluble nutrients particularly Vitamin C, Vitamin B group
and minerals.
However, if sometimes there is extra water after boiling which has to be drained away,
then it should be used in some other preparations like cooking of dals, soups, etc. so that
the nutrients are not lost.
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2) Steaming
Steaming is also a method of cooking food with water, but in this case, the food does
not come in direct contact with water. In this method, the food is cooked by the heat
generated by steam and hence takes a slightly longer time, as compared to boiling.
Steaming is done in two ways i.e. direct steaming and indirect steaming.
 Direct Steaming – In this method, the food comes in direct contact with the steam.
Direct steaming can be done in an ordinary steamer or in an improvised steamer as
described below. Take sufficient water in a suitable container and allow it to boil so
as to generate steam. The food to be cooked is kept in a metal strainer over this utensil
and it is covered tightly with a lid. This way the steam rising from the water below
rises up and comes in direct contact with the food kept in the strainer, thus cooking it.
The water in the container is maintained at boiling temperature throughout the process
of steaming. For example, steaming of cut vegetables, or sprouted pulses, fish, idli,
dhokla etc.
 Indirect Steaming – In this method, the food does not come in direct contact with the
steam, but is cooked by the heat of the steam surrounding the container containing the
food material. The water is boiled in a utensil. The food to be steamed is kept in a
smaller container, which can be closed from the top and then placed in this utensil
containing water. The utensil containing water is also covered with a tight-fitting lid.
As the boiling water forms the steam, it surrounds the container containing food,
which gets cooked by the heat of this surrounding steam. The process takes a slightly
longer time than the direct method of steaming. The heat has to be maintained
throughout the process so that the formation of steam continues. Example of indirect
steaming is steaming of puddings like custards.
o The water in the lower vessel has to be maintained at boiling temperature throughout
so that the process of steam formation continues.
o The container should always be covered with a tight-fitting lid so that the steam does
not escape.
o In indirect steaming container containing the food should be closed properly or
covered tightly with a greaseproof paper, so as to prevent condensation of moisture
from falling on the food.
o Keep some boiling water handy so that the water in the steamer or the lower vessel
can be easily replaced as it boils away.
Advantages
1. Whether cooked by the direct or indirect method the food is soft, easy to digest and
hence ideal for the elderly and sick people particularly those with weak digestion.
2. The food is tasty and full of flavour.
3. The food retains maximum nutritive value particularly in the indirect method of
steaming; there is practically no loss of nutrients. However, some amounts of water-
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soluble nutrients i.e. vitamins of B group and vitamin C are lost by indirect method of
steaming (dripping loss) but the nutrients loss is much less as compared to boiling.
4. The food generally does not get over-heated.
5. It does not require constant attention.
6. The texture of the food is better and becomes light and fluffy.
7. Steamed foods have good flavour.
Disadvantages
1. It is a slow process of cooking and only easy to cook foods can be prepared by this
method.
2. If a sufficient amount of water is not there in the lower container, it might evaporate
completely and the container starts burning even before the food is cooked.
3) Pressure Cooking
In this method, the food is cooked under pressure and with an increase in pressure the
temperature also correspondingly increases. Thus, the food is cooked very fast. Actually,
it is a type of steaming only, in which water is boiled under high pressure, thus raising the
temperature and reducing the cooking time. The equipment used for this purpose is a
pressure cooker, which is common equipment in every household these days. There are
two-three containers in a pressure cooker, which allow more than one thing to be cooked
at the same time, thus saving fuel, as well at a time. If only one item has to be cooked it
can be used without these containers. Practically foods which can be cooked in a pressure
cooker are pulses, rice, vegetables, meat etc.
o Do not fill the pressure cooker more than two-thirds.
o Put the weight on the cooker only after some steam has been formed and it starts
coming out of the vent pipe. This makes sure that there is no blockage in the vent
pipe.
o Once the pressure has been built, heat should be reduced and time noted.
o Cook for a specific time according to the food being cooked.
o Before opening the pressure cooker, make sure that the pressure has dropped
completely, which can be achieved by either allowing it to cool on its own or by
cooling it under running water.
Advantages
1. Pressure-cooking saves time and fuel and thus is a very economical method of
cooking.
2. Retention of nutrients is maximum in pressure cooking.
3. By using separate containers, more than one food can be cooked at one time.
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Disadvantages
1. If proper precautions are not taken, as described earlier, it can be dangerous as it can
burst.
2. Food can be overcooked if cooked for extra time than specified.
4) Stewing
This is a very gentle method of cooking, in which the food is cooked in a closed pan
using only a small quantity of liquid. Once the liquid reaches the boiling point, the heat is
reduced, and it is only allowed to simmer in it, which makes it a slow and long process.
The amount of water left after cooking is only marginal i.e. one to two tablespoons which
are served along with the food. Thus, the flavour of food is fully retained. The foods
which are generally stewed are fruits, vegetables, meat etc.
o Use a pan with a tight-fitting lid.
o Prepare the food and cut into moderate size pieces, so that it is convenient to serve.
o Use liquid only insufficient amount as to half cover the food.
o Bring the liquid to boiling point and then simmer very gently until the food is perfectly
tender.
o Serve the liquid left with the food only.
Advantages
1. Cheap cuts of meat which are tough or under-ripe, fruits and vegetables can be
prepared by this method, as the slow moist method of cooking softens fibres thus
making the food tender.
2. Meat and vegetable may be cooked and served together, making an appetizing dish.
3. Food retains most of the nutrients and is full of flavour, thus very appetizing.
Disadvantages
1. It is a very slow method of cooking.
2. It requires constant attention.
3. A good amount of vitamin C is destroyed because of the slow process of cooking.
5) Simmering
When foods are cooked in a pan with a well-fitting lid at a temperature just below the
boiling point (82-99ºC) congregates of the liquid in which they are immersed, the process
is known as simmering. It is a useful method when foods have to be cooked for a long
time to make it tender as in the case of cheaper cuts of meat, fish cooking, custards,
kheer, vegetables, and carrot halwa. This method is also employed in making soups.
Advantages
1. Food gets cooked thoroughly.
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2. Scorching or burning is prevented.
3. Losses due to leaching are minimum.
Disadvantages
1. There is loss of heat-sensitive nutrients, due to the long period of cooking.
2. It takes more time and more fuel is required.
6) Poaching
This involves cooking in the minimum amount of liquid at a temperature of 80-85ºC that
is below the boiling point. Foods generally poached are eggs, fish and fruits. For
poaching eggs, the addition of little salt or vinegar to the cooking liquid lowers the
temperature of coagulation. Eggs cook quickly by poaching.
Advantages
1. It is a very quick method of cooking.
2. Food is easily digestible since no fat is used.
Disadvantages
1. Food is bland in taste.
2. Water-soluble nutrients may be leached into the water.
DRY HEAT METHOD
1) Baking
It is the cooking of food in hot air in a closed oven. The food to be cooked is kept in a
preheated oven, where it is surrounded by hot air in the closed oven, thus getting cook by
the dry heat. Usually, the oven is heated to a particular temperature according to the food
which is to be baked and this temperature is maintained throughout the cooking
procedure. The foods generally prepared by this method are cakes, biscuits, pies, pastries,
pudding, vegetables, and potatoes etc.
o The food should always be kept in a preheated oven.
o The temperature of the oven should be maintained throughout.
o The oven should be closed properly and should not be opened too frequently as the air
from the outer atmosphere gets in and disturbs the temperature.
o Food should be baked till firm and light brown in colour.
Advantages
1. The food cooked by baking is easy to digest.
2. Baked foods add variety to our meals.
Disadvantages
1. It is a slow method of cooking and takes a longer time.
2. Specific equipment i.e. an oven is needed to use this method.
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2) Roasting
It is cooking the food uncovered in hot air i.e. by dry heat. This can be done in a tandoor,
in an oven or in a thick heavy pan. Certain foods like chicken, joints of good quality
meats, are roasted with occasional basting (i.e. addition of a little fat, so as to prevent the
surface from drying, add to the flavour), whereas vegetable likes potatoes, sweet potatoes,
and brinjal are roasted on a direct flame or in an oven without addition of any fat.
Similarly, cereals like suji, broken wheat, and vermicelli etc. are roasted in a heavy-
bottomed pan with or without the addition of a little fat depending on the preparations to
be made from them.
Some foodstuffs can also be roasted in a suitable medium like sand or salt which gets
heated faster and can retain the heat, so as to maintain the right temperature required by
this method, they immediately puff up and are ready to eat. Thus the temperature required
in roasting is generally higher than baking.
o While roasting on the oven, the ventilation of the oven is very important and both the
oven and shelves should be thoroughly clean, otherwise, the flavour is affected.
o The temperature should be maintained throughout.
o Avoid piercing of food while roasting, as the juices can escape.
o While roasting on an open fire, the food should be turned frequently.
Advantages
1. Compared to baking, it is a quicker method of cooking.
2. A variety of foodstuffs can be prepared by roasting.
3. It requires less or no fat.
4. Flavour is improved.
5. It reduces the moisture content of food and improves keeping quality e.g. rava.
6. It is easy to powder e.g. cumin seeds after roasting.
Disadvantages
1. The foodstuffs being roasted required constant attention.
2. Losses of nutrients like amino acids occur when the food becomes brown
3) Grilling or Broiling
It is cooking of food by direct heat over a hot fire or under a grill; this is also a method of
cooking by direct heat. Usually, the food is put on grill bars and is cooked over direct
heat with the help of little fat. The grill bars are first brushed with oil to prevent food
from sticking and can be heated by charcoal, coke gas or, electricity. Since the heat is
high, the foods get cooked quickly. The only first-class cut of poultry, certain fish and
vegetables like tomato, and mushroom, can be prepared this way. The most common
grilled preparation is seekh kababs.
o The food should be basted occasionally with melted fat to prevent drying of the
surface and to add flavour.
o It should be turned frequently to prevent browning.
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o Proper care should be taken so that the food is uniformly brown on all the sides.
Advantages
1. The food prepared is of delicacy and tasty.
2. It is a quick method of cooking.
3. It requires less or no fat.
Disadvantages
1. Only good quality foods can be prepared by this method and hence it is an expensive
method.
2. It needs constant attention.
FRYING
This is a method of cooking in which the food is cooked by the heat of hot fat. Fat or oil
can be heated to a much higher temperature, as compared to water and thus, as the food
comes in contact with this heated fat, it gets cooked quickly. Fried foods are very tasty
and hence popular in our meals. There are three types of frying:
Sautéing Shallow fat frying Deep fat frying
1) Sautéing
This means to toss the foodstuff in a little amount of heated fat until it is partially cooked
and absorbs the fat. The food is tossed occasionally or turned over with a spatula to
enable all the pieces to come in contact with the oil and get cooked evenly. Sometimes
the pan is covered till tender in its own steam. The product obtained when cooked by this
method is slightly moist, tender but without any liquid or gravy. It is usually done as a
pre-preparation step in many dishes e.g., sautéing of vegetable in the preparation of
vegetable pulao, or sautéing of noodles, thin pieces of meat etc.
2) Shallow fat Frying
In this method, a shallow pan like frying pan or an ordinary griddle is used in which the
food is fried in a little amount of fat. During frying it is turned over, so that it may be
evenly browned on both the sides. In this case also, the fat used is usually absorbed by the
foodstuff. The preparations generally cooked by this method are parantha, omellete,
tikkis, pancakes etc.
Some food contains sufficient fat in themselves like bacon and sausages. Hence these can
be fried without the addition of any fat.
3) Deep fat frying
The food is completely immersed in hot fat and therefore a deeper utensil like karahi and
a large quantity of fat is required. The fat is heated in the karahi and as it becomes hot,
the food to be fried is put in it which gets cooked quickly. Common preparations which
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are made by this method are poories, pakoras, cutlets, samosas etc. While deep frying
care should be taken to see that the fat does not get overheated, as the fat decomposes at
high temperature, which not only spoils the taste of the food but is even harmful to our
body. At the same time, if the fat is not hot enough, the food can break up and also
absorbs extra fat, thus making it very greasy. Therefore, it is important to judge that the
fat has been heated to the right temperature which can be done in the following ways:
i. When the fat starts giving a light smoke and becomes still it indicates that it has
been heated to the right temperature.
ii. If a one-inch square piece of bread becomes golden brown and crisp in one
minute, then the temperature of such fat is right for frying.
iii. Similarly, an easy way is to just try a little piece of the food first and if fries all
right, then proceed with the rest.
Both sweets and savouries can be cooked by this method. Food cooked by deep fat frying
has a much better appearance as compared to shallow fat frying as the food is evenly
browned and is crisp. Though an initially large quantity of fat is required in deep fat
frying the net absorption of fat by the food is less in deep-fried foods, as compared to
shallow fried foods.
o Use fat with high smoking points as it can be heated to a higher temperature for
example oils have a higher smoking temperature as compared to pure ghee, and hence
should be preferred for frying.
o See that the fat has been heated to the right temperature and maintain the temperature
during frying so that the fat is not allowed to burn.
o Make the food into a suitable size and shape and see that there are no cracks on the
surface.
o While deep frying products like cutlets, usually, a coating of breadcrumbs are used;
make sure that there is an even and firm coating and all excess bread crumbs should
be removed otherwise they come out in the frying fat.
o Do not put too many articles at one time as this lowers the temperature.
o Turn the foodstuff frequently so that it is evenly browned on both sides.
o Once the fat has been used for frying, strain it and store in closed containers in the
cool place.
o Avoid using the same oil for frying repeatedly.
Advantages
1. It is a quick method of cooking.
2. Fried food is very appetizing and tasty.
3. Fried foods have better-keeping quality e.g. poories can be kept for a longer time as
compared to chapattis, without spoiling their taste and flavour.
4. Frying introduces variety in the meals, as fried foods are crisp in texture.
5. Fried foods have a higher satiety value.
6. It increases the calorific value of food.
7. In shallow fat frying, the amount of oil consumption can be controlled.
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Disadvantages
1. Fried foods are difficult to digest as the food gets covered with a layer of fat first.
2. Due to high temperature, the nutrient losses are higher, particularly of fat-soluble
nutrients.
3. As fats and oils are expensive, it is not an economical method of cooking.
4. Sometimes the food may become oily or soggy with too much absorption of oil.
5. More attention is required while cooking and care should be taken to avoid accidents.
6. Repeated use of heated oils may produce harmful substances and reduces the smoking
point.
COMBINATION METHOD
1) Braising
It is a combination of two methods of cooking i.e. roasting and stewing. It is done in a
suitable pan, which has a tight-fitting lid. It is usually used for meats, which is first
roasted on all sides and then placed in the pan. Stock or gravy is then added which
usually covers two-thirds of the meats. The lid is closed tightly, after adding flavouring
and seasonings and then it is allowed to cook gently on fire as is done in stewing. It can
also be done in an oven. When the meat is tender it is usually served with the little liquid,
which is left in.
o Roasting should always be done uniformly so that even browning is achieved.
o For stewing use a pan with a tight-fitting lid and right quantity of water.
Advantages
1. The food is very tasty and full of flavour. Even most of the nutrients are retained.
Disadvantages
1. It is a time-consuming method and requires constant attention.
Many food preparations are made not by a single method but by a combination of
cooking methods.
Vegetable Curry : Sautéing and simmering
Upma : Roasting and boiling
Meat cutlet : Boiling and deep-fat frying
Matar Paneer : Frying and stewing
Thus, we can say that we cook our food by various methods to make it appetizing
irrespective of the method used for cooking; the heat treatment definitely affects the
colour, taste, flavour, and the nutritive value of the foodstuff. Similarly, other ingredients
added during cooking i.e. fat, spices, vinegar, and soda etc. also have such effects.
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SUMMARY OF METHODS OF COOKING
Cooking methods Merits Demerits

DRY HEAT METHODS
Roasting  A quick method of cooking.  Food can be scorched due to carelessness.
In this method, food is cooked in a heated  It improves the appearance, Flavour and  Roasting denatures proteins reducing their
metal or frying pan without covering it. texture of the Food. availability.
e.g. meats, chicken; potato, sweet potato,  Spices are easily powdered if they are first
and brinjal; suji, daliya, vermicelli. roasted.
Baking  Baking lends a unique baked flavour to foods  Special equipment like oven is required
Cooking in hot air in a closed oven. e.g. Bread, cakes, biscuits,  Foods become light and fluffy  Baking skills are necessary
fish, vegetables like potato, stuffed tomato, mushrooms.  Uniform and bulk cooking can be achieved.  Careful monitoring needed to prevent
 Flavour and texture are improved. scorching.
 Variety of dishes can be made.
Grilling/Broiling  Enhances the flavour, appearance and taste of  Constant attention is required to prevent
Grilling or broiling refers to the cooking the product. charring.
of food by exposing it to direct heat. In  It requires less time to cook.
this method, food is placed above or in  Minimum fat is used.
between a red hot surface. e.g. Papads,
corn, phulkas, chicken
FRYING
Deep fat Frying  Quick method of cooking.  Careful monitoring is required as food easily
Cooking food in heated oil or fat. Frying  Calorific value of food is increased since fat is gets charred
food in a large amount of fat in a deep used as the cooking media  Food may become soggy due to too much oil
pan.e.g. Poories, kachories, koftas,  Delicious flavour and attractive appearance to absorption.
cutlets, pakoras, samosas, gujiya, mathri, foods  Fried foods are not easily digested.
vadas, chips, fish.  Taste and texture are improved.  Repeated use of heated oils will have ill effects
on health.
Shallow fat Frying
It is done in just enough fat to prevent sticking. e.g. Eggs,
paranthas, dosas, pancakes, cheelas, tikkis.
Sautéing  Takes less time  Constant attention is needed as there is a
Frying and tossing food in a small amount of  Simple technique chance of scorching or burning.
hot fat in a frying pan with rounded sides.  Minimum oil is used
e.g. Vegetables like cabbage, beans, carrots,
capsicums, onions, sprouts.
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Cooking methods Merits Demerits
MOIST HEAT METHODS
Direct steaming  Less chance of burning  Steaming equipment is required.
Done in an ordinary steamer or by putting  The texture of food is better as it becomes  Limited to the preparation of selected foods.
food in a metal sieve over a pan of boiling light and fluffy. Eg. Idli.
water and keeping it covered. e.g. Cabbage,  Cooking time is less
fish, idli, dhokla, peas, beans, carrots.  Fuel wastage is less.
Indirect steaming  Steamed foods contain less fat and are easily
Steamed by having the food in a covered dish placed in steam digested
or over boiling water. e.g. Steamed puddings and custards.  Nutrient loss is minimised.
Pressure Cooking  Cooking time is less compared to other  The initial investment may not be affordable to
To cook food using water or other liquid in a methods. everybody
sealed pot, normally a pressure cooker e.g.  Nutrient and flavour loss is minimised.  Knowledge of the usage, care and maintenance
Almost all types of foods  Conserves fuel and time as different items can of cooker is required to prevent accidents
be cooked at the same time  Careful watch on the cooking time is required
 Less chance for burning and scorching. to prevent overcooking.
 Constant attention is not necessary.
Stewing  Loss of nutrients is avoided as the water used  Time-consuming
Cooking in a covered pan using only a small for cooking is not discarded  Wastage of fuel.
quantity of liquid which is kept simmering.  Flavour is retained.
e.g. Cheap cuts of meat, tough or under-ripe
meat, fruits and vegetables.
Boiling  Simple method  Continuous excessive boiling leads to damage
Boiling is a method of cooking foods by  Uniform cooking can be achieved. in the structure and texture of food.
just immersing them in the water at 1000  Loss of heat-labile nutrients such as Vitamins
C and maintaining the water at that B and C if the water is discarded.
temperature until the food is tender. e.g.  Time-consuming
Rice, egg, dal, meat, roots and tubers are  Loss of colour – water-soluble pigments may
cooked by boiling. be lost.
COMBINATION METHOD
Braising Food preparations prepared by combination
A combined method of roasting and methods are Upma -Roasting and boiling. Cutlet -
stewing. e.g. various meats and vegetables. Boiling and deep-frying. Vermicelli payasam -
Roasting and simmering.
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1. Enlist various purpose/objectives of cooking food?
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2. What are the methods of cooking involved in the preparation of:
a. Dosa
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b. Cutlet
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c. Brinjal bharta
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d. Potato paratha
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3. Differentiate between:
a. Direct and indirect steaming
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b. Roasting and baking
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c. Shallow frying and deep-frying
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SUMMARY
Cooking makes food tastier and more digestible. It improves the bioavailability of
nutrients and makes the food safer for consumption. There are various methods of
cooking food; some are moist methods while some used dry heat. Some of the moist heat
methods are boiling, steaming, pressure-cooking, and stewing. Dry heat methods include
baking, roasting and grilling/broiling. Methods in which oil is used as the medium of
cooking are sautéing, shallow fat frying and deep-fat frying. However, a combination of
methods may be used for cooking food.
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KEYWORDS
Broiling- it is same as grilling.
Poaching- simmering food in some liquid (water, stock or milk)
Searing- heating the surface of foods like meat to very high temperatures to prevent
leakage of juices.
REFERENCES
Edition)
113
LESSON 8
ROLE OF FOOD GROUPS IN COOKERY
Apart from having nutritional role/ function in the diet, the different food groups have
their uses in cookery which are derived principally from their distinct physical properties.
Role of cereals in cookery
o Cereals form the staple diet as they are inexpensive and contribute to most of the
calorie and protein in the diet.
o Cereals along with pulse improve the quality of protein by mutual
supplementation.
o Also provide good amount of starch and B vitamins.
o Cereals also contribute to satiety and are used to prepare the main dish. Meal is
incomplete without cereals.
o As a thickening agent, e.g., corn flour in custards, rice flour in pulusu, vermicelli
in payasam, colour in white sauce, macaroni in soups.
o As a coating agent, e.g. bread crumbs in cutlets or maida paste in cutlets
o As a beverage, e.g. malted beverage.
o As desserts, e.g., rice kheer, wheat halwa.
o Used in making easy to cook products like macaroni, corn flakes and rice flakes
o Cereals are used as covering for stuffing samosas, puran polis
o Breakfast foods or snacks made for cereals from fermentation e.g., idli dhokla.
Role of pulses in cookery
o Rich source of protein and B vitamins.

o Improve the quality of cereal protein by mutual supplementation.
o Due to high proteins and fibre content pulses give satiety.
o Improves consistency and flavour of dal, sambhar and rasam.
o Used in fermentation preparation example idli and dosa.
o Used in snacks like sundal, bajji, pani puri and bhel puri.
o Used in salads, e.g. sprouted pulses
o Used in desserts and sweets like paruppu payasam and besanladduorburfi.
o Thickening agent and prevent curdling, e.g. bengal gram flour in kadhi.
o Stuffing agent -poorna burelu, dal kachori.
o Parched pulses are used in making chutneys and chutney powders.
o As seasoning - in curries.
Role of nuts/oilseeds in cookery
Nuts and oilseeds are used in cookery as a whole, halved, flaked, ground or desiccated
form.
a. As healthy snacks- fresh, raw, roasted or boiled or salted forms and also fried
forms.
114
b. Thickening agents- Coconut, poppy seeds and cashewnuts in the preparation of
gravy.
c. In making chutneys, e.g. groundnut and coconut.
d. Sweets like chikki, burfi, kozhukattai, cashewnut cake are made from nuts.
e. Oil is used as a cooking media for frying and seasoning. Oil is also used as
preservative in pickles.
f. Nut powders like groundnut are used as chutneys and salad dressing.
g. Used in desserts e.g. badam kheer, ice-creams, cakes, pastries, payasams and
chocolate.
h. Peanut butter is used as a topping on the bread or as a side dish along with
chapatis.
i. Oilseed cakes are used as weaning food or as thickening agents in vegetables like
capsicum.
j. Nuts are used as garnishing material-raw, roasted, salted or boiled forms.
Role of milk in cookery
a. Adds nutritive value (proteins and energy) of the diet, e.g. flavoured milk, plain
milk, milkshakes, cheese toast.
b. Adds taste and flavour to the product, e.g. milk in tea, payasam, coffee.
c. Thickening agent alongwith starch, e.g. cream soups or white sauce in pasta.
d. Desserts, e.g. puddings, ice-cream.
e. Leavening agent-to improve the texture, e.g. Curd or butter milk in bhatura,
dhokla.
f. Marinating agent- Curdfo marinating chicken and meat.
g. Souring agent- curd in rava dosa, dry curd chillies.
h. Binding agent- Khoain carrot halwa.
i. Milk and curd increase shelf-life of poories, preserve better when the dough is
mixed with milk/curd.
j. To prevent browning in vegetables, e.g. buttermilk is used for preventing
browning when plantain stem is cut.
k. Adds variety, e.g. buttermilk sambhar, avial and mutter paneer.
l. Garnishing agent- Cheese
m. Clarifying agent- in sugar syrup.
n. Salted buttermilk is used for quenching thirst.
Role of egg in cookery
a. Eggs are used as boiled, scrambled or poached for table use.
b. Thickening agent-stirred custards and baked custards, soups, puddings. Help in gel
formation.
c. Emulsifying agent-mayonnaise, ice-cream.
d. Leavening agent – cakes, foamy omelette, soufflés, and meringue. Egg white foam
used in certain candies also improves the texture by controlling the crystallisation
of sugar.
e. Binding and coating agent- cutlet, French toast or Bombay toast, banana fritters.
f. Interfering substances – ice-creams. Beaten egg white act as the interfering
substance in frozen desserts. Tiny bubbles of air trapped in egg prevent ice crystals
from coming together and creating large masses of icy material.
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g. Clarifying agent- raw eggs can be added to hot broths and coffee. When protein in
egg coagulates they trap the loose particles in liquid and clarify it.
h. Garnishing agent – hard-boiled eggs are often diced and used to garnish dishes.
i. Flavouring agent-custards.
j. Enriching agent- to enrich the nutritive value e.g. Bombay toast.
k. Glazing agent – for pastries to give the surface a golden brown colour when
cooked.
l. Improve colour – custards.
Role of Sugar in cookery
Apart from making some foods more palatable and providing calories it also contributes
to food’s appearance, texture and shelf-life. Some of the important roles sugar plays are:
a. Provides bulk, density, and viscosity– it contributes to the texture of food, example
in meringue and biscuits. It provides viscosity in beverages and foods like syrups,
chutneys and sweet sauces.
b. As a preservative- It reduces the water activity, and makes water inaccessible for use
by microorganisms, which reduces microbiological activity in foods and beverages.
Thus foods with high sugar concentration like jams, squashdo not need to be
refrigerated. It also increases the shelf life of foods by acting as a humectant.
c. Enhancing flavour – Sugar makes food more appetising and also enhances fruit
flavours in foods such as sour fruits (frozen berries), or porridge.
d. For colour– Sugar breaks down to produce the colour and caramel flavour on
heating. This is caused by non enzymatic reaction between reducing sugars with
amino acids (proteins), called as Maillard reaction. Sprinkling of powdered sugar on
muffins gives a nice texture and appeal.
e. As an anticoagulant – Sugar delays the coagulation of proteins when heated,
example baked custards and other desserts.
Role of fats/oils in cookery
a. As a medium of cooking
Fat is used in deep or shallow frying. It is a good heat transfer medium than air and
water as it heats up very quickly because of its greater specific heat, and its operating
temperature of about 200◦ C is considerably higher than that of water. It provides the
characteristic colour, flavour and texture of fried food.
Pan-frying is used to cook dosas, chapatis, cutlets and tikkis. Deep fat frying is used
in preparing pooris, vadas, cutlets and pakodas.
i. Fat improves the texture of foods

It helps in the proper development of textures in cakes, cookies etc.
 Help in leavening/creaming
Leavening agent is substances used for the expansion the dough by the release of the
gases (made from the main ingredients containing gluten). Fat, also build up a air
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pockets to enclose air if beaten with a paddle,. This aeration, or creaming ability, is
important for baking of a cake. Better the creaming ability, the lighter will be the
cake.
 As a shortening agent / tenderizing agent

It helps to shorten the baked products which are merely solid masses firmly held
together by gluten strands.
 For smoothness
 Fat has textual effects on ice creams and frozen desserts as they limit the
size of water crystal and maintains the smooth texture.
 It also prevents crystallisation of sugar example halwa.
 It prevents lump formation and brings smoothness example pulao or upma
 It also forms emulsions in mayonnaise and gives smooth texture.
ii. Improves palatability

It gives taste and flavour to the food. Fats like ghee also improve flavour and
reduce pungency. Butter on bread also improves its palatability.
1 Define the following

a. Leavening agent
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b. Sugar in peventing cystallisation
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c. Maillard reaction
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2 Explain how fat improves the texture of foods ?
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SUMMARY
Apart from having nutritional role/ function in the diet, the different food groups have
their uses in cookery which are derived principally from their distinct physical properties.
REFERENCES
Edition)
https://www.srasanz.org/sras/basics-sugar/functionsuses-food/
117
LESSON 9
EFFECT OF COOKING ON FOOD COMPONENTS
INTRODUCTION
A number of changes occur in food during its preparation. To obtain acceptable food
products, it is necessary to understand and manipulate these changes. Basically, the
change is the net result of the changes of various components of food viz. its nutrients
like carbohydrates, fats, proteins, their derivatives and water. In addition changes occur
due to various inorganic, mineral components and a number of pigments, flavour
components, vitamins, acids, enzymes etc.
OBJECTIVES
 Identify various factors affecting the colour of plants pigments.

 Recognise the influence of cooking on texture, flavour and taste of food.
 Understand the effect of cooking on nutrients.
The changes which occur in food as a result of cooking are as follows:
A. Colour
Colour factors in food such as anthocyanins, carotenoids, chlorophyll etc, are affected by
heat. In addition to heat, the acidity or alkalinity of the cooking medium, oxygen and
presence or absence of metals, also contribute to colour changes when heated. In some
cases, the colour changes that take place in food on cooking are desirable (as in baking)
while in some other cases the changes may be undesirable (as in the prolonged cooking of
cabbage). The cooking condition should be so organized as to obtain the desired colour
qualities in the cooked food.
Chlorophyll is the green pigment present in green plants, is not much affected by the
heat. The colour of the green leafy vegetables is changed to olive green and then to the
brown in the long run, especially when the medium of cooking is acidic i.e. in the
presence of little vinegar or lemon juice. On the other hand cooking in the presence of
baking soda i.e. in an alkaline medium, the colour intensifies or becomes bright green
such bright colour look better in appearance, but cooking in an alkaline medium destroys
vitamin C and the thiamine content of the food. To maintain the good colour of green
leafy vegetables, it is advisable to cook them uncovered or leaving the pan uncovered for
the first few minutes of cooking.
Carotenoids- This is the yellow-orange colour pigment found in yellow, orange and red
coloured vegetables and fruits, like papaya, carrot, tomato and green leafy vegetables etc.
this pigment remains unaffected by heat or acidic medium but turns slightly blue in
alkaline medium. Thus, the colour of the vegetables and fruits containing carotene
remains unchanged on cooking.
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Anthocyanins- This pigment is responsible for the red, magenta or purple colour of
vegetables and fruits. It is found in black carrots, jamun, phalasas, beetroot, skin or
brinjal etc. The heat has no marked effect on this pigment, and however, cooking in the
acidic medium makes it lighter in colour, whereas in the presence of alkaline medium it
turns to a bluish tinge.
Flavones- This is the white pigment present in vegetables like potato, cauliflower, onion
etc. This is also not much affected by heat or acidic medium, only alkaline medium
makes it turn yellowish in colour.
The effect of various factors (solubility in water, acid, alkali and prolonged heating) is
summarized in Table 9.1
Table 9.1 Effect of various factors on the colour of plant pigments
Name of the Colour Solubility Effect of Effect of Effect of

pigment in water Acid alkali prolonged
heating
Chlorophyll Green Slightly Changes to Intensifies Olive green
olive green green colour
Carotenoids Yellow Slightly Little Little effect Little effect unless
and effect excessive which
Orange may darken
Anthocyanins Red Slightly Stable Purple or Little effect
soluble (red) blue
Flavones White Very White Yellow Darken if
soluble excessive
Thus we see that usual cooking medium generally does not alter the natural colour of
vegetables and fruits, but if cooked in acidic or alkaline medium, it can be adversely
affected. Hence we should avoid the use of any acid or alkali during cooking.
Apart from these characteristic changes in the colour of fruits and vegetables, there are
also marked significant differences in the colour of other foodstuffs before and after
cooking. For example, meat becomes brownish in colour from its original pinkish red,
preparations from wheat flour attain a brownish colour on cooking, sugar syrup turns
golden brown and finally dark brown in colour, as it is heated more and more.
B. TEXTURE
Cooking in general influences the texture of all foodstuffs. The cellulose present in them
becomes softer and this makes the foodstuffs also softer, for example, cooked vegetables
are much softer than raw. Cooking in an alkaline medium softens the cellulose much
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faster and gives the foodstuffs a mushy appearance whereas cooking in an acidic medium
makes the texture hard and such foodstuffs have to be cooked for a longer period.
The starch granules present in the raw foodstuffs get gelatinised in the presence of moist
heat i.e. when they are cooked in the presence of water, they absorb water and swell up,
thus becoming softer and softer and finally, some granules even burst and release the
starch into the medium. This makes the foodstuffs easily digestible. Such changes are
seen in cooking of pulses, rice, potatoes etc., as they are rich in starches. On cooking,
proteins get coagulated, for example egg white, but if overcooked they can become hard
and over-cooking also renders the proteins indigestible.
The texture of the food, after cooking, is also dependent on the method which is used for
cooking. All the moist heat methods i.e. boiling, steaming, pressure cooking and stewing
makes the foodstuffs soft and tender. For example, the texture of cooked rice and pulses
is soft and tender, as compared to their raw state. Frying and roasting usually give a crisp
texture to the foodstuffs. Similarly, baking and grilling also make the foodstuffs soft and
give them some crispness.
C. FLAVOUR AND TASTE
The natural flavours and taste of the food are somewhat changed after cooking. However,
the flavour and taste can be made to cater to one’s taste buds with the help of appropriate
spices and condiments. The spices and other flavouring agents used while preparing food
and combination of the natural flavours and taste of the foodstuffs imparts a characteristic
flavour and taste to the cooked food. The use of fat brings tenderness in texture of cakes
and biscuits and frying makes the food crisp.
Flavour is sensed by taste and smell, the two sense organs of the body. Good flavoured
food encourages the formation of saliva in mouth which is helpful in digesting food.
D. NUTRIENTS
Carbohydrates: Starch, sugar, gums, cellulose is important carbohydrate found in foods.

On cooking the starch granules in foods swell as they absorb water. This process is called
gelatinization and is, in fact, the reason for the thickening of soups, curries, stews to
which cornflour paste is added. Gelatinization takes place in all starch-containing foods
such as potatoes on heating in the presence of moisture.
Dry heat causes the starch to break down into smaller molecules called dextrins. For
example, in the toasting of bread and making of chapattis. Dextrin has a mildly sweet
flavour. Sugar on heating forms syrup with water. On further cooking syrup thickens and
changes colour. This is due to a process called caramelization. The brown, thick liquid
formed is called caramel and is used in a number of preparations such as custard, cakes.
Ordinary cooking causes little loss of carbohydrates. Cellulose is not digested by humans
but becomes softer on cooking and is helpful in smooth movement of food through
digestive tract.
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Proteins- Proteins harden and solidify or coagulate on cooking. The liquid sets on heating
and becomes solid. This is the process of coagulation. However, milk protein is an
exception. Unlike other proteins, it does not coagulate. It is important to cook proteins to
the right extent because proteins shrink and becomes harder on overcooking. This also
renders them dry and rubbery which is indigestible.
Excessive heating of foodstuffs also affects the nutritive value of proteins. Sugars like
glucose and lactose form complexes with amino acids like lysine. These complexes
cannot be broken down by the protein-digesting enzymes. The result, of course, is that
these amino acids are no longer available to the body.
Some pulses like soybean and Bengal gram contain certain substances which hinder the
digestion of the proteins of these foods by the enzyme trypsin present in our intestines.
During cooking these trypsin inhibitors are destroyed. This is why it becomes important
not to consume these foods raw. In fact, the digestibility of protein in several foods
improves as a result of moderate heating in day to day cooking.
Fats & Oils- Ordinary cooking has no effect on fat, but prolonged heating, as in the case
of frying for long periods thickens and darkens the fat. A part of essential fatty acids
present in fat is destroyed and toxic polymerized products are formed. These changes are
accompanied by changes in flavour also, which may not be acceptable. Fats and oils
become rancid by action of air (oxidized), water (hydrolysis) and enzymes. These
changes must be minimized so that the food in which fat is used remains acceptable.
Minerals- There is no loss of minerals in normal cooking procedures. If cooking water is

discarded water-soluble minerals may be lost.
Vitamins- Thiamine and vitamin C are two vitamins, which are most affected by cooking.
The losses may occur due to dissolved nutrients being discarded or destruction due to
exposure of heat in cooking. The amount depends on the combination of these factors.
Discarding the cooking water accounts for a loss of nearly 20-25 percent of thiamine,
depending on the quantity of water used in cooking. If sodium bicarbonate is added to
pulses during cooking, most of the thiamine is destroyed.
Vitamin C is the most liable vitamin lost during washing vegetables after cutting,
exposing cut vegetables to air for long periods before cooking and/or serving and
leaching of vitamin C in the cooking water which is later discarded. There may be a loss
of 10% to 60% depending on the vegetables cooked and the method of cooking used.
Loss of riboflavin during cooking occurs in four ways

o Exposure of the food during cooking to strong light,
o Loss of riboflavin due to heat
o Loss of riboflavin due to leaching by discarding excess of the cooking water
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o Loss of riboflavin due to addition of cooking soda during cooking of dal and
vegetables.
Bottled milk exposed to strong sunlight losses a part of riboflavin present. Loss of other
water-soluble vitamins is mainly due to heat or loss in water.
Vitamin A and Carotene are insoluble in water, so no loss occurs by discarding cooking
water. There is slight destruction of vitamin A and carotene during cooking in water due
to oxidation by air. Frying, baking, roasting and toasting causes considerable losses of
vitamin A and Carotene.

1. Differentiate between gelatinisation and dextrinization.
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2. What do you understand by the term caramelization?
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3. Name the colour pigment present and the effect of heat, acid and alkali in the
following vegetables:
a. Spinach
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b. Carrot
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c. Beetroot
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d. Cauliflower
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SUMMARY
The food contains many nutrient and non-nutrient substances (e.g. colouring and
flavouring substances). During food preparation a number of changes occur in food.
Some of these changes are desirable whereas some are undesirable, making it essential to
understand these changes in order to get the final anticipated product. The changes that
122
occur during the process of cooking involve changes in colour, flavour, texture, taste and
nutrients. The critical aspects in cooking that have important bearing on these changes are
the extent and duration of heat applied as well as medium of cooking (acidic/alkaline).
All these can be manipulated to get the desired product.
KEYWORDS
Cellulose- indigestible plant polysaccharide which is an important component of the plant

cell wall.
Dry heat- heating in the absence of water.
Moist heat- heating in the presence of water.
Caramelization- When sugar is heated it melts on further heating thick, brown liquid is
formed called caramel and the process is known as caramelization.
REFERENCES
Edition)
123
LESSON 10
WAYS OF CONSERVING AND ENHANCING NUTRIENTS
INTRODUCTION
Cooked food has its known characteristics—flavour, taste, texture and colour. Apart,
from some beneficial effects on the food after cooking, significant amounts of some
nutrients particularly vitamins and minerals are also lost during cooking. However, by
judicious preparation of foods, these losses can be minimized to a large extent. Not only
this, there are certain methods that can enhance the nutrient content of some foods. Food
provides the ideal mix of vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients. But the nutrients in
foods begin to decrease as soon as the fruit or vegetable is picked and continues to
decline until the food is eaten. The sooner you eat the food, the less chance of nutrient
loss.
OBJECTIVES
 To identify ways of conserving nutrients before and during cooking.
 Importance of conserving nutrients while cooking
 Apply the methods of enhancing the nutritive value of foods in daily routine.
 To suggest measures to minimize nutrient losses during preparation and cooking
food
The cooking of food involves the pre-preparation of food i.e. before actually subjecting it
to any heat treatment and the actual cooking of food. Many physical and chemical
reactions occur during the processing or preparation of foods. Selection of the right
cooking method to maximise the nutritional quality of your meal is the key to healthy
eating. There is no perfect method of cooking that conserves all nutrients. Saving
nutrients during the process of cooking is called conservation. The ways to conserve
nutrients lost during cooking can hence be covered under two heads:
1. Conservation of nutrients lost before cooking
2. Conservation of nutrients lost during cooking
CONSERVATION OF NUTRIENTS LOST BEFORE COOKING
i. Wash the vegetables before peeling and cutting. Washing the vegetables after
peeling and cutting results in loss of water-soluble vitamins and minerals, which
also get drained out with dirt, dust and other micro-organisms.
ii. Peel vegetables thinly. Potatoes, sweet potatoes and beetroots can be peeled after
boiling.
iii. Cut the vegetables only at the time of cooking and not long before cooking, as due
to exposure to air, some vitamins are lost.
iv. Cut vegetables into moderate size pieces and not very small, because cutting into
a small pieces increase the exposed surface area, thus increasing the losses.
v. Even dry foodstuffs like rice and pulses should not be washed excessively
before cooking as the nutrients are leached in water.
vi. Similarly, meats and poultry should not be excessively washed before cooking.
vii. Unsifted wheat flour should be used as the bran contains minerals and vitamins.
124
CONSERVATION OF NUTRIENTS LOST DURING COOKING
Cooking methods that minimize the time, temperature, and amount of water needed will
help to preserve nutrients. The three R's for nutrient preservation is to reduce the amount of
water used in cooking, reduce the cooking time and reduce the surface area of the food that
is exposed.
i. Always use pressure-cooker to cook food, as it conserves nutrients to the

maximum.
ii. Do not cook food in excess water. If there is water left after cooking, then use the
water in some other preparations. For example, rice water can be added to pulses
and water left after boiling the vegetables can be used to make soups and curries.
iii. Do not use cooking soda while cooking food, as its use results in loss of vitamins,
especially thiamine and vitamin C.
iv. Cook vegetables for the least time. For this add the vegetables to boiling water
and cook them covered.
v. Do not fry in overheated fat or oil.
vi. Cook food according to the quantity needed, so that it does not get stale. If at any
time cooked food is left, store it at low temperature like in a refrigerator to
minimize losses in nutritive value.
vii. Cook the food just before serving, so no reheating is required, as reheating further
destroys the nutrients.
viii. Avoid exposure to direct sunlight.
ix. Cooking in iron and copper pots can destroy some vitamin C, but it can also add
nutritious iron to the food, especially if the food is acidic. Unlined copper destroys
vitamins C and E and folic acid. Cooking utensils made of glass, stainless steel,
aluminium or enamel or lined with a non-stick coating have no effect on nutrient
content.
x. Do not use baking soda to help keep the green colour of vegetables, as this
increases the loss of vitamin C.
Thus adopting the above-mentioned ways in the preparation of food helps to conserve the
nutrients which can otherwise be lost. Not only the nutritive value of our diets can be
increased by conserving nutrients during preparation, but even the amount of nutrients
present in foodstuffs and their availability can be increased by simple technologies. These
methods are:
Germination Fermentation Fortification Enrichment
The first two that are – germination and fermentation can be carried out easily at home,
but fortification and enrichment is essentially a technology adopted at the industrial
level.
125
Germination- Germination is the process, whereby a new plant emerges from the seed, as
marked by the presence of growing root and shoot, the nutrition for this new plant comes
from the embryo of the seed. Germination can be done for whole cereals and pulses. The
process consists of soaking, the pulse or cereals overnight, followed by wrapping them in
a moist thin cloth preferably muslin cloth. The pulse/cereal must be kept in a dark and
humid place. Water should be sprinkled on the cloth occasionally. It usually takes 12 to
48 hours depending upon the atmospheric conditions. The nutritive value of these
germinated grains is increased much fold, as compared to the dried grains.
Effect of Germination on nutritive value

1. During the germination process, vitamin C is synthesized in the growing shoot
thus resulting in increase in the vitamin C content of germinated cereal or pulses,
which otherwise have almost negligible content.
For example, 100 grams of whole green gram (moong) has almost no vitamin C
content, but after sprouting or germination of 1-2 days the vitamin C content is
around 60-80 mg.
2. There is also an increase in the content of the B group of vitamins in these
germinated pulses and cereals.
3. Dry pulses and cereals contain certain non-nutritional factors, such as tannins,
phytates and trypsin inhibitors. Tannins and phytates hinder in the absorption of
iron and calcium in the body, trypsin inhibitors prove to be an obstacle in the
utilization of proteins. All these non-nutritional factors are destroyed to a large
extent on germination, thus increasing the availability of the nutrients present in
them. Destruction of phytates, tannins and increase in vitamin C content by
germination, in turn, promotes absorption of iron in the body.
4. Germinated cereals and pulses are more easily digestible. Consumption of whole
pulses results in flatulence in some individuals, which can thus be overcome by
consuming germinated pulses.
5. Digestibility can be increased as complex substances are converted to simple
substances e.g. starch to amylase.
6. Availability of proteins and amino acids is increased.
7. Germinated pulses can be easily incorporated in our daily diet in a number of
ways. They can be eaten raw, as chaat or in salads or can be used in different
preparations, such as stuffed paranthas, tikkis, cutlets,pulao, raita etc.
Fermentation - Fermented food products are quite popular in all over the world. In India
also preparations like idli, dosa, dhokla, uttapam, bread, naan, curd etc. are all examples
of fermented food preparations.
Fermentation is a process in which some micro-organisms are added to the food. They
change nutrients already present in the foods into simpler and better forms and also make
other new nutrients. For the fermentation process to initiate, some kind of
microorganisms (like bacteria or yeast) are needed which are either present naturally in
the foodstuffs or can be introduced artificially, like yeast.
126
These microorganisms then act on complex carbohydrate and cause their break down into
simpler carbohydrates which are further broken down to ultimately release carbon-
dioxide. The fermentation process is thus marked by the production of carbondioxide
which helps to rise and increase the volume of food product, hence making it lighter.
Fermented foods also have a typical sour taste.
Effect of fermentation on nutritive value
1. Fermentation results in an increase in the content of vitamin of B-group especially
thiamine, riboflavin and niacin.
2. It also results in the destruction of phytates and trypsin inhibitor, thus increasing the
availability of other nutrients like iron, calcium and proteins.
3. The resultant product is light and easily digestible as fermentation break down the
indigestible protective coating and cell wall both physically and chemically, making
the structure more permeable to the water of cooking as well as to man’s digestive
juices.
4. Texture and taste are improved.
5. Quality of protein is improved as availability of some amino acids increases.
6. The shelf life of food product can be prolonged e.g. milk is converted to curd.
Fortification– Fortification signifies the addition of a specific nutrient to a food product
which is lacking in the foodstuff or is present in limited amounts. For example, common
salt is fortified with iodine, bread is fortified with lysine to enhance its protein utilization.
Similarly, vanaspati is fortified with Vitamin A and Vitamin D.
As evident from the above examples fortification is usually done in such foodstuffs which
are consumed commonly by people so as they can avail of its beneficial nutritional
effects. Thus, fortification is a very important method to increase the nutritional value of
foodstuffs.
Enrichment - Another process, similar to fortification is enrichment. Enrichment means
the addition of such nutrients to foodstuffs which were originally present, but they are
lost in the processing.
For example, certain nutrients which are present in whole wheat are lost in the processing
of wheat into flour, particularly refined flour which is used for making bread. Thus, bread
does not have these vitamins present in it, but it can be enriched with vitamins of B-group
i.e. they can be added artificially during the process of bread making, thus making it more
nutritious.
Thus, both germination and fermentation process has beneficial effects on the nutritive
value of food and can be easily carried out at the household level. Fortification and
enrichment can only be carried out at industrial level.
1. How is the germination of pulses beneficial?

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127
2. Explain the advantage of fermenting food products.
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3. Differentiate between fortification and enrichment.
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SUMMARY
By taking proper care during the preparation of foodstuffs the nutrients present in them
can be conserved at a large extent. Use of simple household methods like germination
and fermentation can further enhance their nutritive value and these can be easily carried
out at household level without incurring any extra expenditure. The food thus prepared
will not only be more nutritious, but also more interesting and tasty. Food fortification is
being used as a cost-effective measure in overcoming micronutrient deficiencies.
KEYWORDS
Tannins- Polyphenolic biomolecule that binds to and precipitates proteins and various
other organic compounds.
Phytates- Compounds occurring in plants, especially cereal grains, capable of forming
insoluble complexes with calcium, zinc, iron, and other nutrients and interfering with
their absorption by the body.
Trypsin inhibitors- Trypsin is an enzyme involved in the breakdown of proteins, thus
important for digestion of proteins in humans and other animals. A trypsin inhibitor is a
type of inhibitor that reduces the biological activity of trypsin.
REFERENCES
Edition)
http://www2.ca.uky.edu/HES/fcs/factshts/FN-SSB.006.PDF
128

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B.A. (Prog.

DISCIPLINE SPECIFIC CORE COURSE

SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING

For Limited Circulation Only

UNIT 1 : BASIC CONCEPTS IN FOOD AND NUTRITION

UNIT-3 : CULINARY SCIENCE

BASIC CONCEPTS IN FOOD AND NUTRITION

Lesson 1 : Concept of Food, Nutrition and Health

Lesson 2 : Introduction to Food, Food Groups and Balanced Diet

CONCEPT OF FOOD, NUTRITION AND HEALTH

 To interpret the basic relationship between food, nutrition and health.

1. Undernutrition refers to the deficiency of one or more nutrients. It can be Protein

Overnutrition Overweight or obesity

Figure 1.2: Types of malnutrition

‘Every human being is the author of his own health or disease’

In 1986, the WHO further elucidated that health is:

Figure 1.3: Different dimensions of health

iii. Social Dimension

iv. Emotional Dimension

Health does not exist in isollation. It deepends on many

Person'ss characteriistics and behaviours

Genetic facctors -Heredity plays a vital role in determinning one’s lifespan, an

o Behavioural determinants of health

2. Social and economic environment

o Social determinants of health

o Economic determinants of health

--Income- Money is also said to influence health as health status improves at

--Employment and working conditions-the health and work shares a dynamic

Environmental factors play an important role. Sometimes the environment alone

Robinson, W.D., ‘Nutrition in medical education’, Proceedings, Western Hemisphere

INTRODUCTION TO FOOD, FOOD GROUPS AND BALANCED DIET

Food is any solid, semi-solid or liquid substance which is consumed to provide

Figure 2.1: The Digestive processes

Physiological Psychological Social

Energy giving Body building Protection and regulation

o Whole grain cereals o Pulses o Green leafy

Figure 2.2: Functions of food

1) Physiological functions of food

2) Psychological functions of food

3) Social functions of food

1. Cereals, grains and products

2. Pulses and legumes

3. Milk and meat products

i. Milk and milk products.

i) Milk and its products

ii) Eggs, meat, fish and chicken

Food Group Food items Main Nutrients

I. Cereal, grains and Energy, Protein, Invisible

II. Pulses and legumes

III. Milk and meat

IV. Fruits and vegetables Fruits: Mango, Papaya, Vitamin A, Vitamin C,

Figure 2.33: Sample meal

1. Explain the following briefly:

1 calorie = 4.184 joule

Figure3.1: Components of total energy expenditure (TEE)

Factors affecting components of energy expenditure

Recommended Dietary Allowances:

Table 3.1: Recommended Energy Requirement/day

LET’’S CHECK THE PROG GRESS