Genetic programming

In artificial intelligence, genetic programming (GP) is a technique of evolving programs, starting from a
population of unfit (usually random) programs, fit for a particular task by applying operations analogous to
natural genetic processes to the population of programs.

The operations are: selection of the fittest programs for reproduction (crossover), replication and/or
mutation according to a predefined fitness measure, usually proficiency at the desired task. The crossover
operation involves swapping specified parts of selected pairs (parents) to produce new and different
offspring that become part of the new generation of programs. Some programs not selected for reproduction
are copied from the current generation to the new generation. Mutation involves substitution of some
random part of a program with some other random part of a program. Then the selection and other
operations are recursively applied to the new generation of programs.

Typically, members of each new generation are on average more fit than the members of the previous
generation, and the best-of-generation program is often better than the best-of-generation programs from
previous generations. Termination of the evolution usually occurs when some individual program reaches a
predefined proficiency or fitness level.

It may and often does happen that a particular run of the algorithm results in premature convergence to
some local maximum which is not a globally optimal or even good solution. Multiple runs (dozens to
hundreds) are usually necessary to produce a very good result. It may also be necessary to have a large
starting population size and variability of the individuals to avoid pathologies.

History
The first record of the proposal to evolve programs is probably that of Alan Turing in 1950.[1] There was a
gap of 25 years before the publication of John Holland's 'Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems' laid
out the theoretical and empirical foundations of the science. In 1981, Richard Forsyth demonstrated the
successful evolution of small programs, represented as trees, to perform classification of crime scene
evidence for the UK Home Office.[2]

Although the idea of evolving programs, initially in the computer language Lisp, was current amongst John
Holland’s students,[3] it was not until they organised the first Genetic Algorithms (GA) conference in
Pittsburgh that Nichael Cramer[4] published evolved programs in two specially designed languages, which
included the first statement of modern "tree-based" Genetic Programming (that is, procedural languages
organized in tree-based structures and operated on by suitably defined GA-operators). In 1988, John Koza
(also a PhD student of John Holland) patented his invention of a GA for program evolution.[5] This was
followed by publication in the International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence IJCAI-89.[6]

Koza followed this with 205 publications on “Genetic Programming” (GP), name coined by David
Goldberg, also a PhD student of John Holland.[7] However, it is the series of 4 books by Koza, starting in
1992[8] with accompanying videos,[9] that really established GP. Subsequently, there was an enormous
expansion of the number of publications with the Genetic Programming Bibliography, surpassing 10,000
entries.[10] In 2010, Koza[11] listed 77 results where Genetic Programming was human competitive.
In 1996, Koza started the annual Genetic Programming conference[12] which was followed in 1998 by the
annual EuroGP conference,[13] and the first book[14] in a GP series edited by Koza. 1998 also saw the first
GP textbook.[15] GP continued to flourish, leading to the first specialist GP journal[16] and three years later
(2003) the annual Genetic Programming Theory and Practice (GPTP) workshop was established by Rick
Riolo.[17][18] Genetic Programming papers continue to be published at a diversity of conferences and
associated journals. Today there are nineteen GP books including several for students.[15]

Foundational work in GP

Early work that set the stage for current genetic programming research topics and applications is diverse,
and includes software synthesis and repair, predictive modeling, data mining,[19] financial modeling,[20]
soft sensors,[21] design,[22] and image processing.[23] Applications in some areas, such as design, often
make use of intermediate representations,[24] such as Fred Gruau’s cellular encoding.[25] Industrial uptake
has been significant in several areas including finance, the chemical industry, bioinformatics[26][27] and the
steel industry.[28]

Methods

Program representation

GP evolves computer programs, traditionally

represented in memory as tree structures.[29] Trees can
be easily evaluated in a recursive manner. Every
internal node has an operator function and every
terminal node has an operand, making mathematical
expressions easy to evolve and evaluate. Thus
traditionally GP favors the use of programming
languages that naturally embody tree structures (for
example, Lisp; other functional programming
languages are also suitable).

Non-tree representations have been suggested and

successfully implemented, such as linear genetic
programming which suits the more traditional
imperative languages.[30] The commercial GP software
Discipulus uses automatic induction of binary machine
code ("AIM")[31] to achieve better performance. A function represented as a tree structure
µGP[32] uses directed multigraphs to generate
programs that fully exploit the syntax of a given
assembly language. Multi expression programming uses Three-address code for encoding solutions. Other
program representations on which significant research and development have been conducted include
programs for stack-based virtual machines,[33][34][35] and sequences of integers that are mapped to arbitrary
programming languages via grammars.[36][37] Cartesian genetic programming is another form of GP, which
uses a graph representation instead of the usual tree based representation to encode computer programs.

Most representations have structurally noneffective code (introns). Such non-coding genes may seem to be
useless because they have no effect on the performance of any one individual. However, they alter the
probabilities of generating different offspring under the variation operators, and thus alter the individual's
variational properties. Experiments seem to show faster convergence when using program representations
that allow such non-coding genes, compared to program representations that do not have any non-coding
genes.[38][39] Instantiations may have both trees with introns and those without; the latter are called
canonical trees. Special canonical crossover operators are introduced that maintain the canonical structure
of parents in their children.

Selection

Selection is a process whereby certain individuals are selected from the current generation that would serve
as parents for the next generation. The individuals are selected probabilistically such that the better
performing individuals have a higher chance of getting selected.[18] The most commonly used selection
method in GP is tournament selection, although other methods such as fitness proportionate selection,
lexicase selection,[40] and others have been demonstrated to perform better for many GP problems.

Elitism, which involves seeding the next generation with the best individual (or best n individuals) from the
current generation, is a technique sometimes employed to avoid regression.

Crossover

In Genetic Programming two fit individuals are chosen from the population to be parents for one or two
children. In tree genetic programming, these parents are represented as inverted lisp like trees, with their
root nodes at the top. In subtree crossover in each parent a subtree is randomly chosen. (Highlighted with
yellow in the animation.) In the root donating parent (in the animation on the left) the chosen subtree is
removed and replaced with a copy of the randomly chosen subtree from the other parent, to give a new
child tree.

Sometimes two child crossover is used, in which case the removed subtree (in the animation on the left) is
not simply deleted but is copied to a copy of the second parent (here on the right) replacing (in the copy) its
randomly chosen subtree. Thus this type of subtree crossover takes two fit trees and generates two child
trees.

Replication

Some individuals selected according to fitness criteria do not participate in crossover, but are copied into the
next generation, akin to asexual reproduction in the natural world. They may be further subject to mutation.

Mutation

There are many types of mutation in genetic programming. They start from a fit syntactically correct parent
and aim to randomly create a syntactically correct child. In the animation a subtree is randomly chosen
(highlighted by yellow). It is removed and replaced by a randomly generated subtree.

Other mutation operators select a leaf (external node) of the tree and replace it with a randomly chosen leaf.
Another mutation is to select at random a function (internal node) and replace it with another function with
the same arity (number of inputs). Hoist mutation randomly chooses a subtree and replaces it with a subtree
within itself. Thus hoist mutation is guaranteed to make the child smaller. Leaf and same arity function
replacement ensure the child is the same size as the parent. Whereas subtree mutation (in the animation)
may, depending upon the function and terminal sets, have a bias to either increase or decrease the tree size.
Other subtree based mutations try to carefully control the size of the replacement subtree and thus the size
of the child tree.
Similarly there are many types of linear genetic programming
mutation, each of which tries to ensure the mutated child is still
syntactically correct.

Applications
GP has been successfully used as an automatic programming tool, a
machine learning tool and an automatic problem-solving engine.[18]
GP is especially useful in the domains where the exact form of the
Animation of creating genetic
solution is not known in advance or an approximate solution is
programing child by mutating parent
acceptable (possibly because finding the exact solution is very removing subtree and replacing with
difficult). Some of the applications of GP are curve fitting, data
random code
modeling, symbolic regression, feature selection, classification, etc.
John R. Koza mentions 76 instances where Genetic Programming
has been able to produce results that are competitive with human-produced results (called Human-
competitive results).[41] Since 2004, the annual Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference
(GECCO) holds Human Competitive Awards (called Humies) competition,[42] where cash awards are
presented to human-competitive results produced by any form of genetic and evolutionary computation. GP
has won many awards in this competition over the years.

Meta-genetic programming
Meta-genetic programming is the proposed meta-learning technique of evolving a genetic programming
system using genetic programming itself. It suggests that chromosomes, crossover, and mutation were
themselves evolved, therefore like their real life counterparts should be allowed to change on their own
rather than being determined by a human programmer. Meta-GP was formally proposed by Jürgen
Schmidhuber in 1987.[43] Doug Lenat's Eurisko is an earlier effort that may be the same technique. It is a
recursive but terminating algorithm, allowing it to avoid infinite recursion. In the "autoconstructive
evolution" approach to meta-genetic programming, the methods for the production and variation of
offspring are encoded within the evolving programs themselves, and programs are executed to produce
new programs to be added to the population.[34][44]

Critics of this idea often say this approach is overly broad in scope. However, it might be possible to
constrain the fitness criterion onto a general class of results, and so obtain an evolved GP that would more
efficiently produce results for sub-classes. This might take the form of a meta evolved GP for producing
human walking algorithms which is then used to evolve human running, jumping, etc. The fitness criterion
applied to the meta GP would simply be one of efficiency.

See also
Bio-inspired computing
Covariance Matrix Adaptation Evolution Strategy (CMA-ES)
Fitness approximation
Gene expression programming
Genetic improvement
Grammatical evolution
Inductive programming
Multi expression programming
 Propagation of schema

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External links
Aymen S Saket & Mark C Sinclair (https://web.archive.org/web/20070813222058/http://uk.ge
ocities.com/markcsinclair/abstracts.html#pro00a/)
Genetic Programming and Evolvable Machines (https://www.springer.com/computer/ai/journ
al/10710), a journal
Evo2 for genetic programming (http://www.modulusfe.com/products/trading-system-develope
r-components/evo2-genetic-algorithm/)
GP bibliography (http://gpbib.cs.ucl.ac.uk/)
The Hitch-Hiker's Guide to Evolutionary Computation (http://www.cems.uwe.ac.uk/~apipe/In
t%20and%20Adapt%20Sys/Revision%20material%20CD%20image/evonet.dcs.napier.ac.u
k/index20.html)
Riccardo Poli, William B. Langdon,Nicholas F. McPhee, John R. Koza, "A Field Guide to
Genetic Programming (http://www.gp-field-guide.org.uk/)" (2008)
Genetic Programming, a community maintained resource (http://www.geneticprogramming.c
om)
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