Pes Powerenergy 030421

Volume 19 • Number 2 • March/April 2021
magazine
Volume 19 • Number 2 • March/April 2021

www.ieee.org/power
©SHUTTERSTOCK.COM/VLADGRIN
©SHUTTERSTOCK.COM/PETR VACLAVEK
46
on the
cover
features
18 Operational Security 56 A Vision to Enhance Transmission
By Julia Matevosyan, Shun Hsien Huang, Security
Pengwei Du, Nitika Mago, and Rochie Guiyab By Evangelos Vrettos, Marc Hohmann,
contents
and Marek Zima
28 Energy Insecurity Due to Gas Supply
Availability 69 A Novel Approach to Transmission
By Guillermo Bautista Alderete Bottleneck Management in Japan
By Noritaka Ohashi, Kazuki Terashima,
37 The Impact of Renewables on and Makoto Tanaka
Operational Security
By Ivan M. Dudurych 79 The Fragile Grid
By Pierluigi Mancarella and Farhad Billimoria
46 Energy Security Through Demand-Side
Flexibility
By Jacob Østergaard, Charalampos Ziras,
Henrik W. Bindner, Jalal Kazempour,
Mattia Marinelli, Peter Markussen,
Signe Horn Rosted, and Jørgen S. Christensen
columns & departments

4 Editors’ Voice 91 Society News
10 Leader’s Corner 93 Book Reviews
16 Guest Editorial 96 Calendar
89 Awards 100 In My View
IEEE POWER & ENERGY SOCIETY (PES)

The IEEE Power & Energy Society is an organization of IEEE members whose principal interest is the advancement of the
science and practice of electric power generation, transmission, distribution, and utilization. All members of the IEEE are
eligible for membership in the Society. Mission Statement: To be the leading provider of scientific and engineering information on
electric power and energy for the betterment of society, and the preferred professional development source for our members.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2020.3043609
march/april 2021 ieee power & energy magazine 1

Spanish Editorial Board
magazine Enrique Tejera (Panama Canal Authority, Panama),
Editor-in-Chief
Editors: M. Baquedano (GRA - University of
Florida Power Lab, Honduras), J. Cerda (University
Editor-in-Chief of Michoacan, Mexico), G. Gonzalez (National
Steve Widergren (Pacific Northwest National Editorial Board Secretariat of Energy, Panama)
Laboratory, USA), [email protected] L. Barroso (Comillas Pontifical, Brazil), J. Feltes
(Siemens Power Technologies International, USA), Advertising
Immediate Past Editor-in-Chief N. Hatziargyriou (National Technical University of Erik Henson, Naylor Association Solutions
Michael Henderson (Power System Analysis and Athens, Greece), T. Hong (University of North Car- +1 352 333 3443, fax: +1 352 331 3525
Training, USA) olina at Charlotte, USA), B. Johnson (University [email protected]
of Idaho, USA), B. Kroposki (National Renewable
Associate Editors Energy Laboratory, USA), D. Lew (Energy Sys-
John Paserba (Mitsubishi Electric Power Products, tems Integration Group, USA), M. Miller (National IEEE Periodicals/Magazines Department
Inc., USA), History Grid, USA), D. Novosel (Quanta Technology, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854 USA
Antonio Conejo (The Ohio State University, USA), USA), M. O’Malley (University College Dublin, Geraldine Krolin-Taylor, Senior Managing Editor
Ning Lu (NC State University, USA), Barry Ireland), N. Ochoa (University of Melbourne, Janet Dudar, Senior Art Director
Mather (National Renewable Energy Labora- Australia), A. Orths (Energinet, Denmark), Gail A. Schnitzer, Associate Art Director
tory, USA), Issues C.E. Root (Velco, USA), H. Rudnick (Systep Theresa L. Smith, Production Coordinator
Jianhui Wang (Southern Methodist University, Ingenieria y Disenos Limitada, Chile), G.B. Sheblé Felicia Spagnoli, Advertising Production Manager
USA), Submissions (EPPMT LLC, USA), J.C. Smith (ESIG, USA), Peter M. Tuohy, Production Director
E. Uzunovic (Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Kevin Lisankie, Editorial Services Director
Assistant Editor USA), S.S. Venkata (Venkata Consulting Solutions Dawn M. Melley, Senior Director, IEEE Publishing
Susan O’Bryan (USA) LLC, USA) Operations
IEEE POWER & ENERGY SOCIETY (PES) IEEE Trans. on Energy Conversion, A. Tessarolo
Governing Board Technical Council IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, F. DeLeon
F. Lambert, President V. Vittal, Chair, H. Chen, Vice Chair IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, N. Hatziargyriou
J. Bian, President-Elect D. Watkins, Secretary, F. Rahmatian, Past-Chair IEEE Trans. on Smart Grid, C. Canizares
M. Armstrong, Vice President, Chapters IEEE Trans. on Sustainable Energy, B. Chowdhury
V. Vittal, Vice President, Technical Activities Technical Committee Chairs IEEE Open Access Journal of Power and Energy, F. Li
B. Enayati, Vice President, Education K. Schneider, Analytical Methods for IEEE Power & Energy Magazine, S. Widergren
B. Pal, Vice President, Publications Power Systems eNewsletter, S. Fattah
W. Bishop, Vice President, Meetings J. Yagielski, Electric Machinery Editor-in-Chief at Large, W. Xu
J. Romero Aguero, Vice President, Membership J. Yale, Energy Development & Power Generation Marketing, E. Batzelis
& Image B. Chalamala, Energy Storage & Stationary Battery PES Representative to IEEE Press, K. Bhattacharya
S. Bahramirad, Vice President, New Initiatives/ H. Geene, Insulated Conductors Website, R. Rana
Outreach D. Harmon, Nuclear Power Engineering
N. Hadjsaid, Treasurer K. Fodero, Power System Communications Meetings
J. Sykes, Secretary & Cybersecurity Committee Chairs
S. Rahman, Past-President L. Lima, Power System Dynamic Performance General Meeting Steering, W. Cassel
D. Diaz, Region Rep., U.S. & Canada E. Hanique, Power System Instrumentation Joint Technical Committee Meeting Steering,
J. Milanovic, Region Rep., Europe, Middle East, & Measurements S. Ward
& Africa F. Li, Power System Operation Planning Technically Cosponsored Conferences Steering,
S. Leon, Region Rep., Latin America & Economics A. Borghetti
D. Sharafi, Region Rep., Asia & Pacific M. Yalla, Power System Relaying & Control Transmission & Distribution Conference &
G. Gonzales, Member-at-Large R. Melton, Smart Building, Load & Exposition Committee for North America
R. Kappagantu, Member-at-Large Customer Systems Steering, C. Segneri
A. Sannino, Member-at-Large P. Fitzgerald, Substations Innovative Smart Grid Technologies North America,
J. Yu, Member-at-Large S. Hensley, Surge Protective Devices J. Romero Aguero
K. Flowers, Switchgear Innovative Smart Grid Technology Conference–
IEEE Division VII Director B. Forsyth, Transformers Europe, D. Van Hertem
M. Sanders S. Santoso, Transmission & Distribution Innovative Smart Grid Technology Conference–
IEEE Division VII Director-Elect Asia, D. Sharafi
Technical Council Coordinating Committees PowerAfrica Steering Committee, H. Louie
C. Cañizares H. Sun, Energy Internet Website, Open
PES Executive Director D. Houseman, Intelligent Grid & Emerging
Open Technology Education
D. Alexander, Marine Systems Committee Chairs
Standing Committee Chairs A. Leon, Renewable Systems Integration Power & Energy Education, A. Srivastava
Open, Constitution & Bylaws PES Scholarship Plus, J. Hoffman, C. Root
M.T. Correia de Barros, Fellows Technical Council Standing Committees PES University, L. Hennebury
N. Hadjsaid, Finance F. Rahamatian, Awards Website, Open
A. Apostolov, History Open, Industry Education
J. Bian, Long-Range Planning D. Watkins, Organization & Procedures New Initiatives and Outreach
S. Rahman, Nominations & Appointments T. Burse, Standards Coordination Committee Chairs
H. Chen, Technical Sessions Executive Advisory Council, G. van Welie
Region Representatives Open, Webmaster IEEE Smart Cities, D. Novosel
D. Diaz, M. Gosalia, B. Gwyn, J. Khan, IEEE Smart Grid, P. Wung
I. Kuzle, S. Leon, J. Milanovic, M. Papic, Publications IEEE Smart Village, J. Nelson
D. Sharafi, C. Wong, X. Wu Publications Board Chair, B. Pal Industry Tech Support Leadership, D. Novosel
Chapter Committee Chairs Editors-in-Chief Media Engagement, D. Kushner
C. Diamond, Awards & Resources IEEE Electrification Magazine, L. Fan Website, K. Anastasopoulos
Z. Wang, Chapters Website IEEE Power Engineering Letters, M. Fotuhi-
IEEE prohibits discrimination, harassment, and bullying. For more infor-
N. Nair, Distinguished Lecturer Program Firuzabad mation, visit http://www.ieee.org/web/aboutus/whatis/policies/p9-26.html.
Z. Wang, Electronic Communications
T. Ribeiro de Alencar, Student Chapters Coordinator IEEE Power & Energy Magazine
Membership & Image Committee Chairs IEEE Power & Energy Magazine (ISSN 1540-7977) (IPEMCF) is published bimonthly by the Institute of Electrical and
A. Vaccaro, Awards & Recognition Electronics Engineers, Inc. Headquarters: 3 Park Avenue, 17th Floor, New York, NY 10016-5997 USA. Responsibility for the
S. Fattah, Humanitarian Activities contents rests upon the authors and not upon the IEEE, the Society, or its members. IEEE Operations Center (for orders, sub-
scriptions, address changes): 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854 USA. Telephone: +1 732 981 0060, +1 800 678 4333.
J. Benedict, Marketing
Individual copies: IEEE members US$20.00 (first copy only), nonmembers US$89 per copy. Subscription Rates: Society members
M. Seif, Membership Development included with membership dues. Subscription rates available upon request. Copyright and reprint permissions: Abstracting is permit-
L.F. Gaitán, Social Media ted with credit to the source. Libraries are permitted to photocopy beyond the limits of U.S. Copyright law for the private use of
J. Cardoso, Web Site Development patrons 1) those post-1977 articles that carry a code at the bottom of the first page, provided the per-copy fee indicated in the code
R. Li, Women in Power is paid through the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 USA; 2) pre-1978 articles without fee.
S. Akar, Young Professionals For other copying, reprint, or republication permission, write Copyrights and Permissions Department, IEEE Operations Center, 445
Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854 USA. Copyright © 2021 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. All rights
reserved. Periodicals postage paid at New York, NY, and at additional mailing offices. Postmaster: Send address changes to IEEE
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2020.3043610 Power & Energy Magazine, IEEE Operations Center, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854 USA. Canadian GST #125634188
Printed in U.S.A.
2 ieee power & energy magazine Promoting Sustainable Forestry

march/april 2021
SFI-01681
OPTIMISE AND EVALUATE THE DISPATCH
OF YOUR SYSTEM WITH POWERFACTORY!
UNIT COMMITMENT AND DISPATCH OPTIMISATION
Time sweep optimisation
Consideration of contingencies (n-k)
Storage schedule optimisation
Full consideration of network constraints, exchange flows and generation unit limitations
such as ramp rates, up- and downtimes
Support of contingency constraint optimisation and consideration of planned outages
OPTIMAL POWER FLOW

Linearised DC optimisation (including contingency constraint/optimisation)
AC load flow optimisation with interior point method
Active power and reactive power and voltage profile optimisation
Various controls such as: Generator active and reactive power, transformer, quad booster
and shunt taps, static var systems
PowerFactory provides flexible results analysis and visualisation with dedicated reports,
colouring modes and diagrams.
For more information visit POWER SYSTEM SOLUTIONS

www.digsilent.de/powerfactory
MADE IN GERMANY
Serving more than 160 countries.
editors’ voice
Barry Mather and Steve Widergren
energy security
ensuring affordability & availability
A
AS THE WORLD FACED THE systems in the face of change and as-
g r i p s of t h e C OV I D -19 p a n - sociated system challenges as seen
demic, the mere idea of potential by the higher penetration levels of re-
lockdowns sent packages of toi- newable energy generation, increased
let paper flying off the shelves. adoption of new grid technologies,
That has been followed by the and market developments for grid
loss of jobs and income that stag- services to address an expanding suite
gered economies globally. Fortu- of operational issues. Guest Editors
nately, power and energy system Antonio Conejo and Federico Milano
operation has remained largely have assembled an international
©SHUTTERSTOCK.COM/KATYR
stable. But imagine the further contingent of experts in various spe-
hoarding and pandemonium that cialized areas of operational security
would ensue should the electrified to provide a truly comprehensive per-
world’s societies confront short- spective of the wide range of chal-
ages in access to the energy on lenges and solutions evolving in this
which they have become so dependent. rates. This leads to an associated reduc- space. In total, the seven feature articles
Think of the economic collapse that tion in more traditional fossil supply sys- include perspectives from six countries
would transform the orderly operation tems characterized by an abundance of and seven separate power systems. The
of businesses and governments. Anxi- spinning mass to which we have applied feature articles discuss the following:
ety at the thought of the reactions to decades of engineering advancement in ✔ the operational challenges being
such situations does more than lead to design and paradigms for system op- managed in Texas, given sus-
lack of sleep. Many of us in this busi- eration. Innovation in batteries, sensing, tained growth in renewable en-
ness have jobs that directly consider communications, and information tech- ergy generation capacity
the short- and long-term availability of nology gives rise to economic drivers for ✔ an in-depth analysis of the inter-
uninterrupted energy access. Most of cooperative operating arrangements that dependency of California’s natu-
the rest of us work to see that energy is harness greater efficiencies and offer fu- ral gas and electric power system
delivered safely at an affordable price. ture promises of robustness and resilience to ensure the secure operation of
These two aspects form the foundation in response to system operation pertur- the electric power system as it is
for exploring energy security. bations. But this new type of system is modernized
A host of global, regional, and local not so familiar. Now, as in the past, our ✔ the challenges to and impacts on
issues inspires socioeconomical trends industry is responding to change to better power system short-term stabil-
and policies that drive changes in the en- understand the complex interplay of these ity being experienced and ad-
ergy supply chain. Our energy systems emerging shifts so that we may attain dressed in Ireland as higher lev-
are evolving in response to these trends some level of proficiency in managing els of renewable energy operate
and policies as spurred on by seemingly these evolving power and energy systems. within the system
faster leaps in technology-based capabili- May our success in this endeavor afford ✔ a view of how the Danish power
ties. The responses to climate change, and us a moment to rest as we summon new system can meet operational se-
the factors that may encourage it, have strength for the next set of energy security curity and decarbonization goals
given rise to advancement in renewable challenges that are sure to follow. harmoniously
resources being produced at cost-effective ✔ the operational security issues real-
In This Issue ized in the strongly interconnected
The articles in this issue explore the op- Swiss power system as the power
Date of current version: 19 February 2021 erational security of the world’s power systems of both Switzerland
4 ieee power & energy magazine march/april 2021

Ready
To
ARC FLASH EV
EVALUATION
SwiTch? Design safer power systems while ensuring compliance with NEC,
OSHA, NFPA, IEEE, NESC, and CSA standards
Receive up to 60% off Fully integrated with Short Circuit, Over-Current Coordination,
and Equipment Evaluation modules
when you switch Evaluate alternatives quickly and easily to establish an optimal design
to SKM. Improve safety margins with user-definable arcing fault tolerance
Save time by automatically generating arc flash labels and work permits
You’ll also receive Determine required PPE levels instantly
free service to convert Increase flexibility by creating custom labels in any size with
competing software user-defined logos, text, comments, and field placement.
Avoid potential fines, post productivity, and increased insurance
projects over to SKM! and litigation costs.
Compare results from multiple project scenarios in a single table
ADDITIONAL SOFTWARE FROM SKM

DAPPER® Integrated Electrical Analysis Software. Comprehensive AUTO DESIGN Automatically sizes Cables, Transformers,
“The main advantage with Three Phase Short-Circuit Studies, Load Flow Study, Demand Load Buses, and Protective Devices to achieve proper size and
Study, Feeder and Transformer Sizing Study, Impact Motor Starting ratings that meets criteria limits set by the Equipment Evaluation
Power*Tools for Windows is Study, and Load Schedules. (Unbalanced Studies also available) study. Utilize user-defined Design libraries. Best suited for new system
designs or to resolve undersized and/or overdutied equipment for
its user-friendliness. PTW is CAPTOR® Time-Overcurrent Coordination. Graphical Time-Overcurrent
Coordination. Integrated with one-lines, short-circuit modules, Equipment existing systems. (Requires Equipment Evaluation module)
Evaluation, and Arc Flash. Comprehensive protective device library. I*SIM Dynamic Simulation and Transient Stability. Model, Simulate,
easy to use and the ready- and Analyze Dynamic Responses to Power System Electro-Mechanical
AUTO COORDINATION & EVALUATION Instantly identify
Disturbances. Includes Generator Sizing and Stability, Rotor Angle and
to-use standard models coordination and protection issues by evaluating each
Voltage Stability, Flux Level Machine Representation, Identify Fault
equipment for adherence to the National Electric Code (NEC).
Clearing Times. User Defined Graphical Models for Exciter, Turbine
enable you to speed up Automatically make changes to resolve violations.
Governor, PSS, and other controllers.
CABLE AMPACITY Accurate calculation of ampacity and
your work. Changing data is temperature rise in various power cable installations. Based DISTRIBUTION RELIABILITY Calculates the reliability indices of
individual load points and the overall distribution systems with either
on and fully compliant with IEC 60287.
simple and makes evaluating A_FAULT ANSI Short-Circuit Study. Three Phase Short-Circuit Study
radial or loop configuration.
based on the ANSI/IEEE C37 Standards. Separate solutions for low, DC SYSTEMS ANALYSIS Battery Sizing, Load Flow, & Short Circuit
different cases very easy.” medium and high voltage systems and for symmetrical, momentary Analysis. Evaluate all loading conditions for DC duty cycle loads and
and interrupting calculations. (Unbalanced Studies also available) AC emergency loads. Complies with IEEE std. 485, 1115, 399, 946,
and IEC std. 61660.
EQUIPMENT EVALUATION Equipment Evaluation Report. Automatically
compares short-circuit ratings, withstand ratings. Applies de-rating GROUND MAT Substation Ground Grid Design and Analysis. Optimizes
adjustments and user defined pass/marginal/failed criteria. Includes grid design using general purpose finite element algorithm for
error checking for input data and topology. potential analysis and graphical facilities to validate grounding
systems efficiency.
TMS Transient Motor Starting Simulation. Time-based motor starting
simulation with graphical output. Includes reduced voltage and Data Exchange Seamlessly share project data between
capacitor starting, graphical motor and load models. SKM projects and other third-party software. Exchange
format includes Tab Delimited, CSV, and SKM XML. Also includes
HI_WAVE Power Quality Investigation and Filter Design. Frequency
an interface to exchange data with Autodesk Revit and Intergraph
Scan, Harmonic Current, Voltage Distortion, Harmonic Load Flow and
SmartPlant Electrical.
Interactive Filter Design. Evaluate and correct harmonic distortions.
SKM Power*Tools Training Classes

Visit skm.com to find a class near you today! 101/102 Introduction to SKM Power*Tools
Hurry, classes fill up fast! 103/104 Intermediate Topics in SKM Power*Tools
201/202 Power System Application – Coordination & Arc Flash
Training more than five engineers? 204/205 Motor Starting and Harmonics
One Pearl Street
Email [email protected] for a 206 DC System Analysis & Arc Flash
Redondo Beach, CA 90277
personalized On-Site Training quote. 207 Grounding and Applications
1-800-500-4SKM
www.skm.com • [email protected] Chosen By The Top 40 eleCTriCal engineering Firms in The World
and its neighbors evolve, includ- Leader’s Corner er system, the lifecycle of its acquisition,
ing the need for new adaptive The Asia and Pacific area—Region 10 maintenance, and retirement is complex
control mechanisms of the IEEE Power & Energy Society and offers rich opportunities for analysis
✔ a detailed account of the nation- (PES)—encompasses the most populat- methodologies and tools to improve as-
al-level implementation of ad- ed areas of the world as reflected in the set management. The expanded deploy-
vanced protective relaying meth- size and growth of its PES membership. ment of smart technology in sensing
ods to enable higher levels of This region is represented on the PES and control is contributing to changes
renewable generation while co- governing board by Dean Sharafi, who in the asset mix. Smart technology
ordinating generation response joins us in this issue to provide a glimpse also provides sources for more data
to contingencies in Japan of the extent of diversity in activities, from which to extract information on
✔ a comprehensive look at the oper- events, and initiatives covered across the status and predictions of health for
ational security of the Australian this varied landscape. The influence and better diagnostics and efficient mainte-
power system, focusing on how impacts on our profession are sure to nance strategies.
system security can be achieved increase from Region 10, as we see re- Our second book review concerns
by balancing technology and ported in contributions to this magazine. the growing asset area associated
market solutions, which can both with renewable energy. Gerry Sheblé
serve to improve or diminish Book Reviews evaluates the educational textbook
overall system security. We take a break from the “History” col- Renewable Energy Technologies and
In addition, the “In My View” column umn this month to bring you two book Resources by Nader Anani. This intro-
discusses some of the difficult issues re- reviews. Mohammad Shahidehpour duction to renewable energy resourc-
lated to power system security, such as provides a summary of and insight into es, with equipment explanations and
how security is defined, its relation to op- Infrastructure Asset Management with worked examples on how to model and
erational risk, what will change and what Power System Applications by Lina analyze them, offers a valuable source
will stay the same as grids evolve, and Bertling Tjernberg. Given the vast out- of information as practical concerns
how societies can achieve power system lay of equipment needed to supply and such as power system interconnection
security given all of its many facets. deliver energy through the electric pow- become commonplace.
World Leader in Developing

BIGWOOD SYSTEMS, INC. Powerful and Field
Field-Proven
www.bigwood-systems.com
+1.607.257.0915 On--line and Off
On Off--line Tools
[email protected] for Power Grid Modeling, Analysis, Assessment,
NY, USA
Head Office Branch Offices Enhancement and Optimization
Ithaca, NY Taipei, TWN | Beijing, CHN
Innovation prevails!
Network Applications for the Control Center

“Bigwood Systems’ Online Voltage • Real-time and Look-ahead Static and Dynamic Security
Stability product is simply the best in the Assessment (patented screening, ranking, and detailed
field.” - CAISO Project Leader analysis)
“BSI On-line Transient Stability • Reactive Power Reserve Monitoring, Management &
Assessment is a superb product.” Enhancement
- TEPCO Manager
• Actionable Control Recommendation engine to
“The BSI VAR Management System is a
eliminate violations and mitigate unstable contingencies
best practice tool for all utilities.” • New-Generation State Estimation for Transmission and
- SERC Audit Staff
Distribution Networks with a low number of measurements
using SCADA & PMU data
• Global Optimal Power Flow (for over 250,000 control variables with
AC/DC constraints)
• Distribution Network Management Tools
• Renewable Energy Forecasting, Uncertainty Modeling,
Representation & Management
• Advanced Measurement-Based Power System Modeling
(Generation, Transmission & Load)
World-Wide Customer Base
Over 40 electrical utilities served world-wide, including long-standing
customers such as California ISO, PJM Interconnection, Tokyo Electric
Power Company, Tennessee Valley Authority, and UK Power Networks,
among others. BSI’s advanced technology, innovation and satisfied
customers are key differentiators.
Society News and Awards torial columns and reports of conferenc- articles from these authors through the
The “Awards” column recognizes the es in this magazine, this is the first issue editorial process. Our sincere apprecia-
PES members elevated to the class of in which articles examining its impacts tion goes out to them and the team that
2021 IEEE Fellows. We list all 31 new on power and energy systems and the they assembled. Recognition is also due
Fellows who are members of PES or implications for systems operations are to Associate Editor Barry Mather, who
were elevated by PES together with a beginning to appear. It will not be the led the technical review of the articles
statement of each member’s contribu- last. As the rollout of vaccines to com- and contributed to this column, as well
tion. IEEE Fellow is our highest class bat the novel coronavirus expands, there as to Assistant Editor Susan O’Bryan,
of membership, offered to only a select is light on the horizon. But the effects who provided language editing support
few. Hats off! of the pandemic on human life and our and managed our editorial process and
In other news, the 10th IEEE PES economies will be concerns that we will its handoff to the professional staff at
Innovative Smart Grid Technologies Eu- be confronting for months and years to IEEE Publishing. The remaining forces
rope Conference was held in an online, come. We look forward to bringing you for continued excellence that drive this
virtual setting on 26–28 October 2020, as more information and perspectives as magazine forward include Associate
organized and hosted by the Delft Uni- clarity emerges regarding these impacts Editors John Paserba, Antonio Conejo,
versity of Technology, The Netherlands. and their effects on power and energy Ning Lu, and Jianhui Wang, who pro-
European attention on climate change- systems operations and planning. vided counsel and contributed to up-
mitigating initiatives set the tone for this The successful production of this coming issues in the production cycle
conference. Thanks in part to its virtual issue of IEEE Power & Energy Maga- as this one goes to press. Finally, credit
nature, nearly one-third of the online at- zine rests on the contributions of many, is due to past Editor-in-Chief Mike
tendees came from outside Europe. starting with Guest Editors Antonio Henderson, who continues to calmly
Conejo and Federico Milano, who answer the phone when called about all
Wrap Up developed the theme for the issue, re- matters of concern that this new editor-
While we have acknowledged the im- cruited a stellar crew of authors, and in-chief stumbles to address.
p&e
pacts of the COVID-19 pandemic in edi- managed the creation of the technical
Leaders in power
systems prevent
and survive cyber
attacks with the
RTDS® Simulator
IT’S NOT JUST WEATHER OR WILDLIFE. PREPARE FOR CYBER

INCIDENTS THAT CAN DISRUPT SERVICE AND DAMAGE EQUIPMENT.
Worldwide, the RTDS Simulator is a crucial component of cybersecurity

testbeds, offering users the safest, most controllable way to simulate attacks
on the power system.
Connect a real-time model of the grid to a communication network simulator
and quantify the impacts of a cyber attack. Anticipate the behaviour of
real protection, control, and measurement equipment through closed-loop
testing. Results are authentic. Service is uninterrupted. This provides you
with a realistic, flexible, and contained environment for the validation of
energy system security technologies.
Learn more about cybersecurity project opportunities at rtds.com/applications/cybersecurity
YOUR WORLD IN REAL TIME.

RTDS.COM
leader’s corner
Dean Sharafi
Region 10
its past, present, & future
A
A FEW YEARS AGO, WHEN THE there. I hope that we can have this pro- areas, including a large part of Africa,
late Patrick Ryan was in Australia dur- gram in other countries in Asia-Pacif- but in 1981, those areas of Africa be-
ing the 2011 IEEE Power & Energy ic, as there has been great interest came a part of Region 8.
Society (PES) Innovative Smart Grid expressed, especially from our PES It has been a great pleasure for me
Technologies Asia (ISGT Asia 2011) Chapter in Indonesia. to represent this wide and enduring re-
Conference, we had a conversation on I started with a story of gratitude gion before the PES Governing Board
the final night of the event. We were for Ryan to signify the importance of since 2017. I had been involved with
on a ferry ride along with conference volunteering. I now want to give read- PES for many years before this ap-
delegates, enjoying the evening lights ers of IEEE Power & Energy Maga- pointment, and my focus in this role
and sounds of Perth on the Swan River. zine a quick snapshot of Region 10. has been on addressing the question of
Ryan asked my opinion about some- Asia-Pacific is one of IEEE’s Regions what can be done to serve PES mem-
thing that was just an idea at the time with a strong PES presence. The region bers in this new capacity.
but eventually became an important has the largest population among all In PES, Chapters are at the core of
PES program, namely, the PES Schol- of IEEE’s Regions and the strongest serving members and the wider PES
arship Plus Initiative. membership of the PES. We now have community. An active Chapter is an
I remember that the conversation 46 PES Chapters, 179 Student Chap- enabling element in offering programs,
turned to volunteering and how im- ters, and 11,185 members with a steady activities, professional networking
portant volunteers are in achieving membership growth trend. Asia-Pa- opportunities, special events, work-
any objective in an organization such cific incorporates a vast geographical shops, webinars, and conferences to
as PES. Ryan said everything starts area, from Pakistan to New Zealand, support local members in achieving
and ends with volunteers! His words with several time zones. When our their personal and professional goals.
are still ringing in my ears. The PES members are preparing their dinner in My focus has been on supporting ex-
Scholarship Plus Initiative now sup- Auckland, our members in Islamabad isting PES Chapters and developing
ports many students in North America are about to start their workday. This future ones in Region 10. Because of
pursuing their education in the electri- wide range of time zones resembles the the strong leadership in our Chapters,
cal power industry and provides intern- diversity of culture, education, public we have achieved continued growth in
ship opportunities for them in power infrastructure, engineering, industry, PES membership. Our Chapter leaders
companies. I expressed my support for and power system perspectives in the support local members and demon-
the idea, thinking about how this ini- numerous countries of the region. strate the benefits of PES membership
tiative could benefit many countries in Historically, IEEE has had a sig- through high-quality technical and
Asia-Pacific. Now, in addition to North nificant presence in Asia-Pacific. The professional activities.
America, the Scholarship Plus Initia- formation of Region 10 was approved PES is growing in Asia-Pacific with
tive also supports students in Italy; for by the IEEE Board of Directors in new Chapters in the Philippines and
the last few years, with the same pas- 1966; however, the Institute of Radio in several cities in China. Some new
sionate approach that our PES leaders Engineers had a section that was created Chapters in China are in the process
have shown in India, this program is in Asia-Pacific before the formation of of forming. During the last two years,
in its fourth year of implementation Region 10, namely, Japan (Tokyo) start- PES has also formed the PES China
ing in 1955. New Zealand and Pakistan and PES India Councils.
followed in 1968, with India forming in PES councils facilitate the activities
Date of current version: 19 February 2021 1969. Initially, Region 10 covered other of members and coordinate the work of

• •
• •
• •
PES Chapters in a country or region. The PES China Council has coor- Recently, strong interest has been
China and India qualified for such dinated PES Chapter activities and expressed by the Association of South-
councils as they have vast geographical cooperated with local engineering as- east Asian Nations in establishing a
coverage with numerous Chapters and sociations, such as the Chinese Society PES council, and I am working with
specific technical interests. The coun- of Electrical Engineers. The council Chapter leaders to determine how we
cils manage the interactions between has established numerous committees, can support them in that objective.
PES Chapters and local industry as well such as the IEEE PES Energy Storage The Asia-Pacific region has also
as the relationship between PES and lo- and Stationary Battery Satellite Com- hosted numerous conferences and work-
cal engineering organizations. These mittee, the IEEE PES Technical Satel- shops in the last decade, including ISGT
councils provide leadership to Chapters lite Council, and the Power and Energy Asia, the Asia-Pacific Power and Energy
through training workshops, tutorials, Cloud Forum. Engineering Conference, and the inau-
webinars, and so on to make PES vis- The PES India Council organized the gural IEEE PES Generation, Transmis-
ible to the engineering sector and grow PES Global Workshop and welcomed sion, and Distribution Conference and
its membership. They have also coordi- Bangalore Electricity Supply Company Exposition Asia 2019 held in Bangkok,
nated technical and standards-related Limited and Schneider Electric as PES Thailand. This PES event, the largest
activities to support our industry and corporate members. The council also outside of North America, had more
provide solutions to specific challenges set up a team of mentors to support the than 11,000 participants, accommodated
facing the industry in their respective growing student membership as well as 274 exhibition booths from 25 countries,
countries. Both the PES China and PES a team of industry professionals to help and enjoyed the expertise of more than
India Councils have proved their value academic institutions deliver industry- 300 authors and speakers from various
in the two years of their operation. driven talks and workshops. countries around the world.
Modeling of renewables and their controls in DSAToolsTM

Dynamic Security Assessment Software • Supporting latest generic models for dynamic simulations
• Block-diagram based approach to develop user-defined models and
Offering a simple, user-friendly interface templates using the UDM Editor application
with extensive analysis options, DSATools TM
is a suite of software tools for power system • Ability to link to user-written C/C++ code (DLL)
analysis. The software is designed for • White-box (open) and black-box (closed) model development
applications in both off-line studies and
on-line dynamic security assessment. Experience and support
• Provider of hybrid simulation platforms to perform TSA-EMT hybrid
www.dsatools.com studies with TSAT & PSCADTM or TSAT & RTDSTM
• Engineers highly experienced in developing dynamic models for
transient stability studies and small signal stability studies
• Consulting services for custom model development and generic
model validation/tuning
TSAT SSAT
Contact us:
[email protected]

Mag W h e re i n d ) Days?
ne t W
ire Ma i n the World Ca n I F n (7
de to Order n Se v e
and Shipped Withi
Craig Wire Products ~ Frequently Asked Questions

• When was Craig Wire started? November 2007
• Who founded Craig Wire? Jack Craig, Brad Archambeau, Linda Belcher, Brett Portwood
• Is Craig Wire a joint venture? No. CWP is a privately held independent LLC.
• What is the breadth of CWP’s product line? Please visit our website www.craigwire.com for a full review
of our product offering.
• What is the minimum order quantity? For 99% of our product line the minimum is 250 pounds.
We will readily take orders for 1,000 pounds or more.
• What is the delivery time? Our standard shipment time after receipt of order is 14 days.
In an emergency CWP can ship within 7 days.
Call Craig Wire

• Customer Service: 770.920.2222
• Sarah Berkowitz: 770.558.7301
• Brad Archambeau: 770.500.7199
• Jason Craig: 312.799.0894
Craig Wire Products

1055 Shadix Industrial Way • Douglasville, Georgia 30134
www.craigwire.com
New conferences with innovative And importantly, these days we Yuval Noah Harari, the historian
themes have also been initiated from cannot discuss anything without men- and philosopher of our times, believes
the region with great potential to be- tioning the impact of COVID-19. Dur- it was only because of the specific abil-
come global events, such as Energy ing the coronavirus pandemic, many ity of Homo sapiens to be grouped and
Internet and Energy System Integra- conferences and events went virtual, organized in large numbers that human
tion (EI2), which focuses on address- and we lost face-to-face contact and beings could dominate the world and
ing emerging challenges and utilizing networking opportunities. The silver achieve what other species were inca-
the opportunities of grid modernization lining was that these events became pable of doing. This proves the impor-
through advanced technologies and more widely accessible. For example, tance of being part of an association
the Internet for the integration of new in 2020, Chapter chair training benefit- that pursues specific objectives. I see
types of energy resources. EI2 has also ted from a much larger audience com- no other cause more valued than what
been a great platform for cooperation pared to previous meetings, at no cost PES has set as its objective: namely, to
between PES; the Chinese Society of to PES. undertake our activities for the better-
Electrical Engineers; and other Chi- I look forward to working with ment of society. Our role as PES lead-
nese associations, universities, and Chapter leaders and my colleagues on ers and members is to demonstrate this
research institutes. PES members in the PES Governing Board to serve the value proposition and serve our Society
Asia-Pacific are staying ahead of in- Asia-Pacific PES community during in the best possible way, leveraging the
dustry challenges and facilitating the the next year that I am in this role. I am latest scientific, technological, and en-
cooperation of industry and academia sure that it will be a successful period gineering achievements.
to serve the PES community and re- for PES and our members, and hope-
solve problems that are important to the fully a better world with no concern for
p&e
electric power sector. the pandemic.
Be the force behind change
Bring the promise of technology — and the knowledge and power to leverage it,
to people around the globe. Donate now to the IEEE Foundation and make a
positive impact on humanity.
· Inspire technology education

· Enable innovative solutions for social impact
· Preserve the heritage of technology
· Recognize engineering excellence
Discover how you can do a world of good today.

Learn more about the IEEE Foundation at ieeefoundation.org.
To make a donation now, go to ieeefoundation.org/donate.
guest editorial
Antonio J. Conejo and Federico Milano
energy insecurity
problems & remedial actions
A
AS THE POWER INDUSTRY MOVES “electrical island” of Texas and in In the third article, Ivan Dudurych
from a capacity-limited to an energy- California, where wind and solar pro- presents the all-island Irish power sys-
constrained generation mix, diverse situ- duction, respectively, are the most rel- tem and focuses on the impact of a high
ations impact energy security. Environ- evant concerns. The next three articles share of wind generation on the tran-
mental considerations may prevent the describe energy security approaches in sient, voltage, and frequency stability
deployment of components that increase Europe, including the very distinct cases of the grid. The article provides a set of
the energy security level, e.g., nuclear of Ireland, Denmark, and Switzerland. definitions and best practices adopted
or thermal units, or they may require the The final two articles pertain to security by the transmission system operator
retirement of such components. Limited issues in Japan and Australia, where in- EirGrid Group to cope with the peculiar
transmission capacity, outdated operation- sularity and a continental-wide service features of the Irish grid. On one hand,
al procedures, and/or limited storage avail- area, respectively, call for tailored ap- to reduce emissions, the operators allow
ability may also significantly decrease the proaches. The issue concludes with the up to 65% of instantaneous wind gen-
operational security level. The interaction “In My View” column, which provides eration. On the other hand, the system is
of different energy systems is yet another an insightful formal analysis of energy islanded and connected asynchronously
emerging issue. For example, natural gas security by Göran Andersson. to the British system. This interconnec-
unavailability due to issues with natural In the first article, Julia Matevosyan tion can supply up to 10% of the Irish
gas sources or pipelines affects the opera- and her coauthors provide a compre- peak demand but can trip unexpectedly
tional capability of power systems with a hensive description of the operational and very quickly and cause fast and
significant share of renewable generation. security framework at the Electric Re- large variations of frequency. The article
There exist, of course, new technolo- liability Council of Texas. It includes concludes with a discussion of the rel-
gies and tools that, if properly harnessed, background, a review of issues about evance for monitoring of system secu-
may help maintain or even increase en- high inverter-based resource penetra- rity metrics, such as the rate of change
ergy security. In this vein, demand flex- tion, market-based solutions that com- of frequency, system inertia, and system
ibility has great potential. The redesign prise an array of ancillary services, nonsynchronous penetration level.
of operational procedures involving a improved forecasting, and different sit- The next article, by Jacob Østergaard
comprehensive use of data processing, uational awareness tools to ensure secu- and his coauthors, provides a comprehen-
forecasting, and optimization also ap- rity from day ahead to energy delivery. sive overview of the Danish power system
pears as a viable and effective solution. In our second article, Guillermo and the ambitious targets of the Danish
Models that accurately represent the Bautista Alderete introduces the California government regarding decarbonization.
physical laws (ac power flow equations) power system to the reader. He analyzes The article explains how such targets can
are increasingly important to make in- energy insecurity due to the coupling of be achieved through renewable generation
formed operational decisions. This is- the natural gas and power systems as and load flexibility. The latter appears as
sue of IEEE Power & Energy Magazine a result of significant electricity production the most promising way to keep an accept-
provides an overview of energy security using combined-cycle gas turbines and the able level of system security in a scenario
problems and remedial actions in power high penetration of weather-dependent where a large quota of the generation mix
systems in different regions of the world. renewable sources. The article focuses on is based on weather-dependent sources. A
the issues that have surfaced in southern review of ongoing Danish research proj-
The Article Lineup California as a result of the Aliso Can- ects suggests that there are many chal-
This issue contains seven articles and yon natural gas storage leak in 2015. The lenges but also many possible solutions.
one column. The first two articles ad- remedial and preventive actions taken to Key to the process toward secure decar-
dress energy security issues on the ensure electric energy supply security bonization is the role of distribution sys-
are described. These actions are related tem operators, a multilayered landscape
mostly to the coordination of the operation of energy markets and services, and the
Date of current version: 19 February 2021 of natural gas and power systems. emerging concept of energy communities.

In the issue’s fifth article, Marek renewable sources. Such a methodology lyzed using stability concepts known to
Zima and his coauthors give a comprehen- involves the instantaneous curtailing of power engineers. Such concepts are ex-
sive overview of the Swiss power system, generating units in case of a fault by us- panded and adapted to reflect an energy-
emphasizing the characteristics that make ing an advanced protection system. constrained production mix. Building
it unique in the context of energy security. In the seventh and final article, Pierlu- on these stability concepts, the analysis
Unlike the other systems discussed in igi Mancarella and Farhad Billimoria il- provides several relevant observations to
this issue, the transmission network of lustrate the well-known energy trilemma boost robustness and resilience in cur-
Switzerland is strongly meshed and highly of affordability, sustainability, and reli- rent and future electric energy systems.
interconnected to the grids of neighbor- ability through the unique perspective of Our goal in putting together this issue of
ing countries. A variety of real-world the Australian system. The long, radial IEEE Power & Energy Magazine is to spur
events, spanning generation shortages to Australian transmission system with a a much-needed conversation on energy
the consequences of the lockdown caused high penetration of renewables appears as security as the power industry shifts world-
by the COVID-19 pandemic, illustrates an emblematic example of system brittle- wide from a power-limited to an energy-
the need for flexible and adaptive mecha- ness, where even futuristic solutions, such constrained paradigm. Such a conversation
nisms that guarantee the security of the as the world’s largest battery energy stor- will hopefully involve regulators, operators,
system. The article outlines a new opera- age system installed at Hornsdale (South producers, consumers, researchers, and the
tional paradigm to address energy security. Australia), are both the solution to and academic community. We hope that this
In the sixth article, Makoto Tanaka source of grid security issues. The article will generate innovative ideas that contrib-
and his coauthors describe transmis- concludes with an in-depth discussion on ute to ensuring a secure, efficient, and en-
sion bottleneck management in the two- why the economic implications of system vironmentally friendly supply of electrical
frequency power system of Japan. They fragility are the most compelling challeng- energy. We are most grateful to Mike Hen-
describe, in detail, the fundamentals of es (possibly even more than the technical derson for suggesting the creation of this
a new methodology (the N−1 intertrip challenges) that demand a new approach. issue and nurturing its initial steps and
scheme) being implemented to mini- The issue closes with an “In My to Steve Widergren, Barry Mather, and
mize congestion issues exacerbated by View” column by Göran Andersson. Susan O’Bryan for pertinent corrections
the integration of weather-dependent Physical and cyberinsecurities are ana- and insightful observations. p&e
making life visibly safer

BIRD DIVERTERS POWER LINE MARKERS LOW LINE MARKERS
FireFly® & BirdMark® SpanGuard TM & SpanLite TM QuikMark TM & SpanMark TM

The most effective bird diverters Mark any line. Anywhere. Saving lines & saving lives.
in independent studies. Standard & self-illuminated markers. Snaps directly onto live lines.
800-722-8078 • pr-tech.com
6874
Operational
Security The Case of Texas
By Julia Matevosyan, Shun Hsien Huang,

Pengwei Du, Nitika Mago, and Rochie Guiyab
T
THE ELECTRIC RELIABILITY COUNCIL
of Texas (ERCOT) is the independent transmis-
sion system operator that manages the flow of
electric power to serve 90% of the state’s elec-
tric load. ERCOT’s system-wide load peaked at
74,820 MW on 12 August 2019.
The ERCOT region is one of four electric
grid interconnections in North America and
has only a limited connection of 1.2 GW of
direct current ties to its neighboring grids. It
manages power on an electric grid that includes
more than 46,500 mi of transmission lines and
more than 650 generation units. In the last 15
years, ERCOT has experienced significant
growth of renewable generation, most of which
is wind generation resources connected to the
transmission grid. Looking at the new genera-
tion interconnection requests, wind and solar
are expected to be the primary generation
resources added in the future. As of Septem-
ber 2020, ERCOT has an installed wind gen-
eration capacity of ~25 GW and a solar power
generation capacity of ~3.6 GW (Figure 1) con-
nected to the transmission grid. An additional
~13.4 GW of planned wind projects and nearly
16 GW of planned solar projects with signed
interconnection agreements are expected to
connect to the transmission grid before the
end of 2023. There is also about 650 MW of
residential and commercial rooftop solar in
ERCOT as well.

Date of current version: 19 February 2021
18 ieee power & energy magazine 1540-7977/21©2021IEEE march/april 2021

ERCOT’s generation mix has dramatically changed in northernmost 26 counties, and West Texas as well as the
the past 20 years—from being heavily dominated by coal area along the Gulf Coast (Figure 3). These areas have
and gas-steam generation in the late 1990s to now having an average wind generation capacity factor of about 43%
a substantial share of renewable generation and simple and (with consideration of curtailments due to transmis-
combined cycle generation, as presented in Figure 2. Fur- sion constraints).
thermore, nearly 6,700 MW of coal and gas-steam units However, while the Gulf Coast area is generally more attrac-
were retired in the past four years. tive due to higher energy prices and favorable wind generation
patterns better correlated with ERCOT load peak (Figure 4),
Operational Challenges with High more wind generation has been built in West Texas and the Pan-
Inverter-Based Resource Penetration handle area due to land availability and a higher annual energy
To date, the highest percentage of load served by wind gen- yield. Similar considerations apply to solar projects as well. It
eration in ERCOT is 59.3% at 2:10 a.m. on 2 May 2020, should be noted that the renewable resources in the ERCOT
with a total of 19,426 MW served by wind generation. region are generally far from the load centers where most
Most wind and solar generation projects in ERCOT are conventional synchronous generation is also concentrated.
interconnected at the transmission level (i.e., 69 kV, 138 kV, This results in high power transfers over a long transmission
or 345 kV). The best wind resource potential within the path to deliver renewable power to the load centers (Figure 3).
ERCOT region is in the Panhandle, which consists of the In this environment, to ensure the reliable operation of the
ERCOT grid, adequate voltage
support must be maintained
and associated voltage stability
must be assessed.
Wind and solar resources are
connected to the grid through
inverters. These renewable in-
verter-based resources (IBRs)
have a near-zero marginal cost
and, thus, displace more expen-
sive conventional synchronous
generation in unit commitment
and dispatch. As a consequence,
the decline in system inertia and
the corresponding increase in
the rate of change of frequency
during events must also be as-
sessed. Sufficient system re-
serves and flexibility are needed
to manage variability and uncer-
tainty of renewable generation
during real-time grid operations.
To address these challenges and
efficiently and reliably adapt to
the ever-changing generation
mix, ERCOT relies on its en-
ergy market, ancillary services,
wind and solar forecasting, se-
curity assessment studies, and
tools in real-time operation.
Overview of ERCOT
Market Processes
©SHUTTERSTOCK.COM/GRAL
ERCOT is the sole energy-on-

ly market in the United States,
i.e., there is no capacity mar-
ket. Energy is co-optimized
with ancillary services in the

60,000
57,902
57,001
Cumulative Wind MW Installed Cumulative Wind MW Planned
55,000 Cumulative Solar MW Installed Cumulative Solar MW Planned
49,989
50,000 15,435 15,833
45,000 9,576
40,000 3,633 3,633

35,992 3,633
35,000 1,529
3,633 12,961 13,461
(MW)
30,000 11,805
26,141 5,854
25,000 23,634 2,281
21,766 1,857
1,068
20,000 18,228
16,147 566
15,000
12,898
10,771 11,221 23,860
24,976 24,976 24,976 24,976
10,000 20,698 21,777
15,857 17,662
12,729
5,000 10,698 11,100
0
2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012
(Year)
figure 1. The ERCOT installed and planned generation capacity as of 30 September 2020. The cumulative megawatt
(MW) planned include projects with signed interconnection agreements.
Other Other
Solar 1% Solar 1%
0% 2%
Wind Nuclear
0.3% Nuclear 5%
8% Coal
Gas 16%
CT/IC Coal
5%
29%
Wind
23%
Late 1990s 2019
Gas CC
5% Gas CT/IC Gas CC
7% 35%
Gas Steam Gas Steam

52% 11%
figure 2. The changes in the ERCOT generation mix from the late 1990s to 2019. CT: combustion turbines; IC: internal
combustion engine; CC: combined cycle.

Planned Projects by County
40–250 MW
251–450 MW
451–780 MW
781–1,400 MW
Operational Wind Units
Major Cities
Dallas
Austin
Houston
San Antonio
figure 3. An ERCOT map with operational and planned wind generation resources and major cities illustrating where
main load centers are located.
voluntary financial day-ahead

market and traded in the real- 70,000 12,000
time energy market. The ERCOT
Wind Power Production (MW)
electricity market processes have 60,000 10,000

evolved to incorporate frequent 50,000
8,000
updates on changes in system
Load (MW)
40,000
conditions. This allows effective 6,000
system adjustments to uncertainty 30,000
and power output variability of 4,000
20,000
wind and solar resources over mul-
10,000 2,000
tiple timeframes, from seven days
ahead to real-time operation. 0 0
Figure 5 illustrates ERCOT
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
energy and ancillary services mar- Hour Ending

ket processes, starting from the
Load Coastal Wind West/Panhandle Wind
day ahead and going into real time.
The day-ahead market is a vol-
untary financial market where figure 4. The differences in diurnal wind power production patterns between the
energy and ancillary services for Coastal zone and West/Panhandle zone and the system load on a typical summer day.

Various types of reserves defined and procured as ancillary
services are deployed when needed to maintain frequency
close to the nominal frequency (60 Hz).
the upcoming day are co-optimized. After the day-ahead generators. Declining system inertia leads to an increasing rate
market is cleared, day-ahead reliability unit commitment is of change of frequency during events and an increasing need
carried out to ensure that sufficient generation is commit- for faster frequency response and additional ramping to main-
ted to serving the next day’s load forecast while satisfying tain adequate frequency performance. To address this issue,
reliability criteria. Day-ahead reliability unit commitment is two new ancillary services were introduced: the Fast Frequency
reevaluated every hour based on updated system conditions, Response (FFR) Service and ERCOT Contingency Reserve
load, and renewable resource power production forecasts. Service (ECRS), implemented in March 2020 and June 2024,
This is called hourly reliability unit commitment. respectively. A summary of reserves expected to be procured
Security-constrained economic dispatch is executed every and maintained through the ERCOT ancillary services, includ-
5 min in the operating hour, and dispatch instructions (dis- ing two new ancillary service products, is provided next.
patch basepoint), effective immediately, are sent to all of ✔ Responsive reserve service (RRS): This is the frequen-
the resources. The resources adjust their output to attain the cy containment reserve deployed during low-frequency
basepoint within 5 min. Being able to adjust the system every events. The needed RRS amount is determined based on
5 min in real-time operation significantly reduces the need the largest generation contingency (simultaneous loss of
for system reserves to balance the uncertainty and variability two largest generation units, ~2,805 MW) and anticipated
of renewable generation and load. system inertia conditions. RRS can be provided by genera-
tion resources through traditional governor response, also
Ancillary Services called primary frequency response (PFR), and by load re-
Various types of reserves defined and procured as ancillary ser- sources with under-frequency relays. The recently imple-
vices are deployed when needed to maintain frequency close mented FFR product is also procured as a part of the RRS.
to the nominal frequency (60 Hz). Annually, ERCOT reviews Studies found that, during low-inertia conditions, faster
and revises the methodology for determining ancillary service responding resources, such as load and FFR resources,
requirements. In recent years, ERCOT observed declining sys- are more effective than the PFR from the generators. An
tem inertia due to the decreasing number of online synchronous equivalency ratio was introduced, showing how many
Day 0 Day 1
The hourly reliability unit commitment runs

every hour of the day.
Day- Day-Ahead
Ahead Reliability
Market Unit
for Commitment
Day 1 for Day 1
The hourly reliability unit commitment runs
The day-ahead
every hour of the day.
reliability unit
commitment
solves for the
period from Day- Day-Ahead
00:00 to Ahead Reliability
23:00 for the Market Unit
next day. for the Commitment
Next for the
Day Next Day
figure 5. The ERCOT market processes.

megawatts of PFR generation can be replaced by 1 MW Figure 6 provides more details about the ancillary ser-
of faster responding resources, depending on prevailing vices listed previously and reflects recently introduced
inertia conditions. Introducing this ratio allowed ERCOT changes to the ancillary service set.
to improve efficiency and reduce the overall procurement
costs of RRS, while better aligning procured amounts Interconnection Requirements
with system needs under different inertia conditions. for Generation Resources
✔ Regulation reserve service: This is the frequency res- ERCOT ensures operational security through a strong set
toration reserve deployed every four seconds. The up- of interconnection requirements that apply to generation
regulation and downregulation reserves are procured resources including IBRs. These requirements include, but
separately. The regulation reserve amount is primarily are not limited to the following:
determined based on historic 5-min net-load variability. ✔ Voltage support: This is used to provide leading and
✔ ECRS: This is a new service to be used as a replace- lagging reactive capability with a 0.95 power factor.
ment reserve that can be deployed within 10 min. The capability is determined at the maximum active
ECRS will be implemented in June 2024. power output, and voltage support within this capabil-
✔ Nonspinning reserve service: This is the existing re- ity limit has to be provided continuously, independent
placement reserve that can be deployed within 30 min. of the active power output level.
The amount of nonspinning reserve service is deter- ✔ Frequency support: This provides the PFR with a 5%
mined mainly based on historic hourly net-load forecast maximum droop and a maximum frequency deadband
uncertainty, evaluated based on wind, solar, and load of ±0.017 Hz when frequency-responsive headroom
forecasts 3 h before an operating hour. The risk for net- is available. Capacity reservation is not required un-
load ramps is also considered when determining nons- less the resource offered and was awarded RRS in the
pinning reserve service amounts. day-ahead market. Figure 7 illustrates the frequency
Regulation No Change
FFR
• Triggered at 59.85 Hz and Gives a Full Response in 15 Cycles
• Once Deployed, Sustained for Up to 15 min; Once Recalled,
RRS Restores Within 15 min
PFR
FFR
• PFR-Capable Capacity Reserved on Generators or
Controllable Load
Load Resources on UFR
• 1,150 MW Minimum Must Be Provided by Resources Capable of PFR
PFR Load Resources on UFR
• Triggered at 59.70 Hz and Gives a Full Response in 30 Cycles
• Is Sustained Until Recalled; Once Recalled, Restores Within 3 h
• Beyond the Minimum PFR, Up to 60% of Total RRS Can Come From
Load Resources on UFR or FFR
Generation
ECRS
• Online or Offline Capacity That Can Be Converted to Energy
Within 10 min
• Dispatched by Security Constrained Economic Dispatch
10-min Ramp
Load Resources (UFR Not Required)
Load Resources • Up to 50% of ECRS Capacity Can Come From Load Resources
May or May Not Be on UFR With or Without UFR
• Once Deployed, Must Respond Within 10 min; Restoration Within 3 h
No Protocol Changes
• Proposed Methodology for Nonspin Reserve Service Quantities in
Nonspin
This Framework—Quantities Computed Using 2018 Ancillary
Services Methodology Are Reduced by ECRS Quantities
figure 6. ERCOT ancillary services. The right-hand side illustrates recent changes introduced to the ancillary services
framework. UFR: under-frequency relays.

response of the wind generation resource to low and With the addition of the second provider, new capabilities
high-frequency events. of forecasting for extreme weather were procured from both
✔ Voltage and frequency ride-through capability: This providers and made available to the control room. In addition
is used to maintain the ability to remain connected to to the midterm wind generation forecast, which is delivered
the grid and for providing the necessary support during each hour for the next 168 h, ERCOT also has an intrahour
voltage and frequency events of predefined severity. wind forecast, which is delivered at a 5-min resolution for the
✔ Dispatchability: This is to ensure that resources fol- next 2 h. The averaged performance, namely the mean abso-
low the dispatch instructions for maintaining or ad- lute percentage error, of day-ahead and 1-h-ahead midterm
justing power output in a timely and precise manner. wind forecasting in 2019 was 4.6% and 2.7%, respectively
✔ Ramping: This is used to limit the ramp rate of each (see Figure 8).
wind or solar resource to 20% per minute of its name- In 2017, ERCOT started solar forecasting for solar generation
plate rating (megawatts) when responding to ERCOT with a size greater than 10 MW, connected to the transmission
dispatch instructions. network. The averaged performance of ERCOT’s day-ahead and
✔ Telemetry: This provides numerous telemetry data 1-h-ahead solar power production forecasting in 2019 was 6.55%
points to ERCOT with a temporal resolution of 2–10 s. These and 5.7% mean absolute percentage error, respectively.
data points are critical to operation studies and situ-
ational awareness tools as well as for offline analysis. Operations Analysis and Studies
To ensure reliable system operation in real time under vary-
Renewable Generation Forecasting ing system conditions, the system operator periodically car-
Renewable production potential forecasting is essential to ries out studies and analyses, starting from the day ahead
the integration of large amounts of renewable generation. and going into real time, and uses situational awareness tools
ERCOT acquired its first wind forecast service in 2010 and to monitor system conditions (Figure 9).
added a second in 2017 to provide a centralized prediction
for all renewable generation connected to its transmission Day-Ahead Analysis and Studies
grid. Both of these utilize site-specific meteorological ✔ Generic transmission limits for the day-ahead market:
information, telemetered by wind generation resources, In addition to well-defined tools and processes to man-
to generate wind power production forecasts for each age the steady-state constraints, increasingly stability-
resource. Adding another wind forecasting service pro- related constraints also need to be controlled in opera-
vided ERCOT’s control room with an ability to enhance tions. Generic transmission constraint is a restriction
situational awareness and increased resiliency for the pro- on one or more grouped transmission elements to man-
vision of this critical information. age stability-related limitations. A two-day-ahead
Wind Resource Response to Wind Resource Response to

Low Frequency 13 July 2016 High Frequency 25 August 2015
60.05 180 60.075 140
60.025 178 60.056

130
60 176 60.038
120
59.975 174 60.019
59.95 172 60 110
59.925 170 59.981

100
59.9 168 59.963
90
59.875 166 59.944
59.85 164 59.925 80

13:25 13:28 13:31 13:34 13:37 13:40 16:13 16:16 16:19 16:22 16:25 16:28
Frequency Nominal Frequency MW
figure 7. The frequency response from wind generation resources in ERCOT.

offline study is conducted to determine transfer ment run. This study, therefore, has an updated outlook
limits based on the projected system condition on of the available generation compared to the next-day
all existing generic transmission constraints. The study. The gap study uses the same process as the next-
identified stability limits on generic transmission day study and includes steady-state, contingency, and
constraints are used in the day-ahead market and in voltage stability analyses.
reliability unit commitment processes and are up- ✔ Real-time voltage security assessment: This is
dated in real-time, if necessary, to maintain reliable conducted every 10 min, using real-time system con-
transfers in real-time operation. ditions, to determine the transfer limits of the con-
✔ Next-day study: This study includes steady-state, concerned regions based on steady-state voltage stabil-
tingency, and voltage-stability analyses for the upcom- ity or system strength considerations (whichever is
ing operating day to ensure that ERCOT has sufficient more binding). The determined transfer limits are
generation to reliably serve projected peak load. It does
so while taking into account day-ahead market and re-
liability unit commitment results, applicable system 1-h-Ahead Wind Forecast Performance
Absolute Percentage Error

6
outage information, and transmission line dynamic
5
5.6%
ratings if applicable. Mitigation plans may also be de-
5.3%
5.3%
veloped for any issues that may arise. 4
Mean
4%
3
3.7%
3.6%
3.2%
Real-Time Analysis and Studies 2
2.7%
✔ Gap study: This is similar to the next-day study but car- 1
ried out closer to real time using the most updated infor- 0
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
mation, such as generation patterns for wind and solar, Year
updated based on the latest operating plans submitted
by each resource. The generation input for the gap study figure 8. The annual 1-h-ahead wind power production
is the result of the latest hourly reliability unit commit- forecast performance.
Operating Day-2 Next Day Operating Day
Generic Multihour Study for the Entire Day

Transmission
Constraints Day-Ahead
Day-
Ahead Reliability
Market Unit Next Study the Peak Load Hour
for Commitment Day
Day 1 for Day 1 Study
Study the Peak Load Hour
Gap
Study
Runs Every 10 min
Voltage Stability Assessment
Transient Security Assessment
Inertia Monitoring and Look-Ahead
Reserve Adequacy Monitoring and Look-Ahead
Capacity Adequacy Monitoring and Look-Ahead
Physical Responsive Capability
Runs Every 4 s
figure 9. Operational studies and situational awareness tools.

ERCOT identified the need for a reactive power control tool in
operations to improve the control and coordination of various
reactive devices.
managed through generic transmission constraints year. These requirements are based on historic inertia
enforced in real-time security-constrained eco- conditions from the past two years and vary by month
nomic dispatch. and time of day. In real time, however, the system in-
✔ Real-time transient security assessment (currently ertia may be different from what was expected based
under implementation): Most dynamic stability-re- on historic data. The reserve adequacy tool allows
lated generic transmission constraints are based on operators to verify whether the available frequency-
offline studies that generally include conservative as- responsive capacity, including procured reserves, is
sumptions to account for various potential real-time sufficient based on actual inertia and calculated future
system conditions. ERCOT is planning to implement inertia conditions. The tool uses information from the
the transient security assessment in real-time opera- inertia monitoring tool and, using empirical equations
tion to determine the limits based on the most recent obtained from the series of dynamic studies, calcu-
operating conditions. lates the amount of reserves needed to protect against
the largest generation contingency. The tool then com-
Situational Awareness Tools pares all available frequency-responsive capacity with
✔ Inertia monitoring tool: Since IBRs do not naturally the amount of reserves needed.
contribute to system inertia as the number of these re- In this comparison, the tool also takes into account
sources continues to increase and displace synchro- the prevailing equivalency ratio between faster
nous generators in a power system’s generation mix, responding resources and traditional PFR, based on
the synchronous inertia will inevitably decline. ER- inertia conditions. If the available frequency-respon-
COT identified a critical inertia level that needs to be sive capacity, including the RRS procured in the day-
maintained at all times to minimize the risk of under- ahead market, is insufficient, ERCOT may open a
frequency load shedding after a large generation trip. supplemental ancillary service market and procure
In 2015, ERCOT implemented the real-time inertia additional reserves as needed.
monitoring tool. It continuously calculates the current ✔ Physical responsive capability monitoring tool: This
total inertia contribution of all online synchronous tool is a monitoring tool used in operations as an indi-
generators based on the inertia parameters of indi- cator of overall system “health” in terms of available
vidual units in the network model and on the online frequency-responsive capability. The tool summarizes
status of the units in the energy management system. all of the available frequency-responsive capacity
The tool also calculates future inertia conditions for from online resources. If the available capability is
the next 168 h on a rolling basis. This calculation is below a certain threshold and cannot be restored to
based on the generation unit commitment plans that a higher level over a given time, ERCOT enters into
every generator submits to ERCOT every hour (span- an energy emergency alert, and system operators fol-
ning the next 168 h). The tool then identifies any peri- low procedures and steps to recover the system back to
ods where the expected system inertia is less than the normal conditions with sufficient physical responsive
critical level, in which case ERCOT system operators capability available.
will follow procedures to deploy nonspinning reserve ✔ Capacity adequacy tool: This tool was developed
or start other synchronous generators to increase syn- at ERCOT to assess whether the generation capac-
chronous inertia online. ity is sufficient to serve the forecasted load demand
As of now, ERCOT’s all-time-minimum inertia for the next 1–24 h. It tracks and monitors online
level is still about 30% higher than the determined generation capacity and reserves as well as offline
critical inertia level. This means that ERCOT has generation capacity that can potentially be started
not yet had to deploy any of the above measures to in the future hours, up to 24 h ahead. To account
increase inertia. for the variability and uncertainty of intermittent
✔ Reserve adequacy tool: Another situational aware- resources, the tool also allows users to evaluate the
ness tool developed at ERCOT is the reserve ad- impacts of different levels of load and wind fore-
equacy tool. ERCOT publishes RRS amounts before cast uncertainties on system capacity adequacy.
the start of each year for every hour of the upcoming Thus, operators have a better awareness of the

situation for the future grid operating conditions services may be required as the share of IBRs contin-
and can effectively mitigate anticipated large net- ues to increase. The continuous refinements of ancil-
load ramp events. lary service methodology reflecting changing system
needs is recommended.
Current Challenges and Work Planned ✔ It is recommended that possibilities to supplement
for the Nearest Future diminishing inertial response from synchronous
Increasing numbers of IBRs and declining online syn- generation with the use of emerging technologies
chronous generation lead to lower system strength and are explored.
higher voltage sensitivity. Frequent adjustments of voltage ✔ Granular telemetry from all generation resources is
profiles and reactive power devices are expected due to required to inform situational awareness tools and
the variation of renewable generation and load patterns. studies conducted in operations as well as ex-post
To address this challenge, ERCOT identified the need analysis.
for a reactive power control tool in operations to improve ✔ Conducting several studies and analyses in day-
the control and coordination of various reactive devices, ahead and real-time situations allows maintaining
including generator voltage profile, switchable shunts, reliable system operation. This simultaneously al-
static var compensators, and static synchronous compen- lows for more efficient operation under less con-
sators, for both day-ahead and real-time operations. Cur- servative assumptions compared to predetermined
rently, there is no commercial tool available to meet this limits based on offline studies with worst-case sce-
need, and ERCOT is in the process of developing and nario assumptions.
implementing one. ✔ Real-time situational awareness tools in the control
ERCOT has already implemented a transient secu- room are essential for efficient and reliable operation.
rity assessment tool in operations to assess the system’s Continuously improving existing tools and identifying
dynamic stability on an as-needed basis. However, due to the need for new tools is paramount for adapting to the
the increasing dynamic stability challenges in the evolv- rapidly evolving power system.
ing grid, ERCOT plans to implement a real-time transient
security assessment tool to assess real-time dynamic sta- For Further Reading
bility. Similar to the real-time voltage stability assessment, “Inertia: Basic Concepts and Impacts on the ERCOT Grid,”
the real-time transient stability assessment is expected to ERCOT, Taylor, TX, Apr. 2018. [Online]. Available: http://
run automatically at regular intervals, e.g., every 10 min, to www.ercot.com/content/wcm/key_documents_lists/141324/
determine dynamic stability limits on defined transmission Inertia_Basic_Concepts_Impacts_On_ERCOT_v0.pdf
interfaces. The identified limits will be managed through “2017 Responsive Reserve Service (RRS) study for deter-
generic transmission constraints enforced in security-con- mining 2018 ancillary service RRS requirements,” ERCOT,
strained economic dispatch. Taylor, TX, Sept. 2017. [Online]. Available: http://www
.ercot.com/content/wcm/key_documents_lists/108744/05
Conclusions and Recommendations ._RRS_Study_2017_Methodology_11022017.docx
As more wind and solar generation is added to the system, “Use of generic transmission constraints in ERCOT,”
ERCOT and its market participants are introducing neces- ERCOT, Taylor, TX, July 2020. [Online]. Available: http://
sary changes to the market rules, ancillary services, and www.ercot.com/content/wcm/lists/197392/The_Use_of
operation practices as well as developing new situational _GTCs_in_ERCOT_July_2020.pdf
awareness tools and real-time studies to ensure continued “Nodal protocols and operating guides,” ERCOT,
system reliability. Based on ERCOT’s experience, the fol- Taylor, TX, Nov. 2020. [Online]. Available: http://www
lowing practices are recommended to ensure operational .ercot.com/mktrules/nprotocols/current
security with high IBRs:
✔ Granular unit commitment and economic dis- Biographies
patch must take into account the most up-to-date Julia Matevosyan is with the Electric Reliability Council of
load, renewable forecast, and generation unit sta- Texas, Taylor, Texas, 76574, USA.
tus information. Shun Hsien Huang is with the Electric Reliability Coun-
✔ Essential reliability support needs to be regularly cil of Texas, Taylor, Texas, 76574, USA.
reviewed and revised to account for evolving sys- Pengwei Du is with the Electric Reliability Council of
tem characteristics. While some essential reliability Texas, Taylor, Texas, 76574, USA.
requirements may need to be implemented through Nitika Mago is with the Electric Reliability Council of
interconnection requirements or grid codes, market Texas, Taylor, Texas, 76574, USA.
solutions should also be considered where practical. Rochie Guiyab is with the Electric Reliability Council of
✔ Ancillary service products need to grow with the Texas, Taylor, Texas, 76574, USA.
p&e
evolving generation mix, and faster, more flexible

By Guillermo Bautista Alderete
T
THE CALIFORNIA INDEPENDENT SYSTEM OPERATOR (CAISO) IS ONE
of nine independent system operators (ISOs) in North America. Its primary
responsibility is to ensure the safe and reliable delivery of electricity on the
power grid. CAISO manages the flow of electricity for about 80% of California
and a small part of Nevada, which encompasses all of the investor-owned utility
territories and some municipal utility service areas. The ISO wholesale energy
market is comprised of day-ahead and real-time processes. The energy products
and services traded in its markets allow the organization to meet reliability
needs and the serve load at the least cost. The ISO is responsible for ensuring
fair, nondiscriminatory, and transparent access to the transmission network and
market transactions.
In 2014, CAISO, together with PacificCorp and other balancing areas,
designed and implemented the energy imbalance market (EIM). The EIM
allows participants to buy and sell power close to the time in which electricity
is consumed and gives system operators real-time visibility across neighboring
grids. Figure 1 displays the footprint of the CAISO balancing area and that
of the EIM. About 82% of the load in the Western Interconnection is either
active in or already committed to participating in EIM by spring 2022. This
real-time market improves the balancing of intrahour supply with demand at
a lower cost than could otherwise be achieved by hourly or 15-min scheduling
practices. In addition to the optimized balancing of supply and demand, EIM
manages congestion on the transmission system to maintain grid reliability and
support the integration of renewable resources. The western EIM also makes
Energy
Insecurity Due
to Gas Supply
Availability

Efforts to
Coordinate
Electric and
Gas Systems
of meeting 60% of its electrical supply

needs with renewable energy by 2030
and 100% of them by 2045.
With the rapid transformation to a
cleaner but more variable and energy-
limited generation fleet, CAISO is devel-
oping new policies and practices to sup-
port the unprecedented transformation of
its electric system. This transformation
is rapidly changing the landscape of the
system’s generation mix to meet demand.
Currently, the supply mix of the CAISO
system is composed of generating facili-
ties with different technologies and fuel
sources, namely nuclear, gas, hydro,
solar, wind, and, more recently, batteries.
CAISO also relies on imports from the
©SHUTTERSTOCK.COM/LIGHTSPRING
northwest that are predominantly hydro.

Clean and variable energy production is
growing in the system while more conven-
tional thermal generation is retiring as part
of environmental goals, such as meeting a
once-through-cooling compliance policy,
which results in the retirement, repower-
ing, or remediation of coastal power
excess renewable energy available to participating utilities plants. Figure 2 illustrates an hourly production mix on a typi-
at a low cost rather than curtailing the production of clean cal 2019 summer day. Gas generation accounted for about 32%,
energy. This also leverages the regional and economic followed by renewables with 26%, and imports with 22%. As
diversity of the broader area and allows for more flex- renewable production steeply reduces in the evening, gas and
ibility in scheduling and dispatching generation. Since its hydro generation, together with imports, ramp up to compensate
inception in 2014, the EIM has resulted in gross economic for it.
benefits of more than US$1 billion. In the context of gas
supply availability, the EIM allows for more geographi- Supply Adequacy
cal, economical, and technological diversification in the and Availability
extended market footprint. The CAISO system relies on a bilateral-based mechanism to
secure capacity, unlike some other ISOs that rely on capacity
The Supply Mix in California markets. This resource-adequacy program is administered by
Is Rapidly Evolving CAISO and developed by local regulatory authorities with the
The electric grid is rapidly evolving and transitioning California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC). At the onset
toward a clean and environmentally sustainable electric sys- of this program in 2006, the generation mix of the system was
tem. Grids around the world are working to meet aggressive predominantly conventional generation technologies, such
renewable goals. As a result of California’s SB100 legisla- as nuclear, gas, and hydro resources. Some of these resources
tion, passed in 2018, the state is working toward its goal had a limitation on the energy they could produce due to

environmental regulations and air permits, but they generally This technology needs to provide an equally flexible upward
had reliable and predictable fuel sources that allowed them capacity to match the ramping capability of variable
to produce energy where and when the system needed. With resources. Figure 3 presents how the 3-h evening ramp has
these characteristics, the resource-adequacy program’s focus increased year after year. This ramp exceeded 15,000 MW
was on the overall system-capacity need, which required juris- in 2019. A large portion of this ramp is currently absorbed
dictional load-serving entities to secure the capacity to meet by gas-fired generation. When there is a limitation on gas
up to 115% of their expected peak load needs. availability, the risk of not being able to support this ramp
Over the years and with the transition to achieving envi- increases and poses a reliability concern.
ronmental goals, the generation fleet that CAISO uses to Every year, CAISO conducts its summer loads and
operate the grid has become more diverse and variable. This resources assessment to study the upcoming summer sup-
has required CAISO to refine certain aspects of its resource- ply-and-demand outlook for the CAISO balancing authority
adequacy tariff provisions to ensure it has the flexible capac- area and identify issues that could lead to potentially chal-
ity needed to operate the grid reliably. The flexible resource- lenging operating conditions. This assessment uses a variety
adequacy requirement secures capacity with the needed of inputs from external and internal sources as well as sto-
flexibility to sustain the ramping requirements arising during chastic production-simulation models and more than 2,000
the evening peak when solar production is decreasing. scenarios of forecasted load and renewable generation with
Ramping needs have been growing rapidly in the last different weather conditions.
years as more solar and variable generation come online In recent years, this assessment has included the poten-
in the CAISO system. When aggregated variable-source tial impact of operating restrictions on the Aliso Canyon gas
generations decrease production, other types of resource storage facility. As explained in greater detail in subsequent
technologies will have to ramp up to offset the reduction. sections, a leak in this gas facility had profound implications
on the supply availability of gas-
fired resources in the southern part
of the CAISO system.
Market Operator For the load, this study considers a
Puget Sound CAISO distribution of load patterns that include
Energy Powerex the range of one-in-two, one-in-five, and
EIM Entity
Seattle one-in-10-year peak-demand forecasts.
Active Participant
City Light The forecast accounts for load reduc-
Tacoma Planned EIM Entry 2021 tions from behind-the-meter solar pro-
Power Avista
Planned EIM Entry 2022 duction and energy efficiency programs.
Portland NorthWestern For generation, it considers the expected
General Bonneville Energy
Electric
generation from hydro resources based
Power
Administration Idaho on expected hydro conditions and
PacifiCorp Power
the reliance on imported resources.
The availability of imported energy is
uncertain but a function of contracted
NV PacifiCorp
BANC
Energy
resource-adequacy capacity, the load
in external areas demand, transmis-
Turlock
sion and resource outages, and other
Irrigation
District fuel supply conditions. It also consid-
California Xcel Energy-Colorado ers the variation in the contribution
ISO of renewable resources, retirements or
mothballing of existing units, and new
Arizona Public
Los Angeles Service Public Service generation reaching commercial oper-
Department of Company of ation. This effort assesses CAISO’s
Water and New Mexico
resource adequacy for capacity, ancil-
Power lary services and flexible capacity, and
Salt River
Project Tucson the potential risk for load interruption.
Electric In preparation for the summer, CAISO
Power releases its assessments to start coor-
dinating with other agencies involved
in the sector, including the Western
figure 1. The CAISO and EIM footprint. BANC: Balancing Authority of Northern Electricity Coordinating Council,
California. transmission operators, neighboring

balancing areas, natural gas providers, and the California facility is a key part of the gas system in the Los Angeles
Department of Forestry and Fire Protection. Basin. The leak impacted the overall gas market, including
gas-fired generating plants in that area. Following the leak,
Gas System in California the withdrawal and injection of gas in this storage facility
The gas system in California is defined in two major areas: were largely restricted. Aliso Canyon supplies gas to 17
one in Northern California, covered by Pacific Gas and Elec- natural gas-fired power plants, accounting for more than
tric (PG&E), and one in Southern California with Southern 9,000 MW of generation capacity, while also indirectly
California Gas Company (SoCalGas). These companies sup- impacting more than 40 plants, totaling 20,000 MW in the
ply gas not only to gas-fired generators but also to residen- southern part of the system.
tial and industrial customers. Electric generators are deemed The California Energy Commission, CPUC, Los Ange-
noncore customers, and, when the gas supply is limited, cur- les Department of Water and Power, and CAISO formed
tailments apply to noncore customers first. an interagency task force in consultation with SoCalGas to
The majority of the natural gas in California is supplied assess the risks of the limited supply availability that Aliso
from locations outside of the state, including Canada, the Canyon introduced to the gas and electric markets. Among
U.S. Rocky Mountains, and the U.S. Southwest. California the various risks, this assessed the reliability risks of load
has its gas supplied through the interstate gas pipeline sys- interruption in the electric market.
tem, composed mainly of Kern River, El Paso, Gas Trans-
mission Northwest, Transwestern, Ruby, and Mojave Pipe-
lines. PG&E and SoCalGas deliver gas through the intrastate
pipeline system known as the backbone gas system, which is 40,000
further distributed through local pipelines. Large customers, 35,000
30,000
Supply (MW)
such as some electric generators, may be connected directly 25,000
to the backbone system. 20,000
In addition to some independently owned storage facili- 15,000
10,000
ties, both PG&E and SoCalGas own and manage gas storage
5,000
facilities within their service territory. Such facilities expand 0
the gas capacity to meet the demand that otherwise would
12:00 a.m.
2:00 a.m.
4:00 a.m.
6:00 a.m.
8:00 a.m.
10:00 a.m.
12:00 p.m.
2:00 p.m.
4:00 p.m.
6:00 p.m.
8:00 p.m.
10:00 p.m.
require additional pipeline infrastructure. The SoCalGas
system has four storage facilities interconnected through the
transmission pipeline system, namely Aliso Canyon, Honor
Time
Ranch, La Goleta, and Playa del Rey. PG&E owns three
main gas storage facilities: McDonald Island being the larg- Nuclear Natural Gas Large Hydro
est storage, followed by Pleasant Creek and Los Medanos. Imports Renewables Batteries Coal
Unlike electricity, natural gas moves slowly in the pipe-
lines at rates of no more than 30 mi/h. This requires the use of figure 2. A daily supply profile on a summer day of 2019.
gas from storage facilities to com-
plement the supply from the pipe-
lines to meet expected demand.
28,000
Both PG&E and SoCalGas are
operators for their gas systems. 26,000
Analogous to an electric system,
there is a need to balance the gas 24,000
supply from the pipeline system 22,000 2012
Net Load (MW)
and storage with the demand of

customers. When supply is lim- 20,000
2013
ited to meet all of the expected gas 18,000
demand, gas system operators can 2014
issue curtailments for gas deliv- 16,000 2015
2016
eries, typically starting from the 2017 3-h Ramp
14,000 of 15,639 MW on
large noncore customers, such as Net Load of 2018
5,439 MW on 1 January 2019
electric generators. 12,000 2019
5 May 2019
In October 2015, Aliso Can-
10,000
yon natural gas storage located in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Southern California experienced a
significant gas leak. This storage figure 3. The progression of net load curves for CAISO’s system.

Commitment Costs and Energy Bids With a significant amount of gas-fired generation by gas,
CAISO runs both day-ahead and real-time markets using a gas prices will heavily influence electric prices. Figure 4
cost-minimization problem based on bids submitted by sup- illustrates the system-wide electric price in CAISO in com-
ply and demand. Generating costs include minimum load parison to the prices at the two main hubs in CAISO’s foot-
costs, start-up costs, transition costs, and variable production print. Prices in Southern California are more dynamic and
costs. The markets also use energy reference bids for when directly impact electric prices. The figure displays the strong
market power mitigation triggers. All of these costs rely on correlation between electric prices with gas prices.
fuel costs. Participants can submit bids between the bid floor
and cap for the variable production component while the Aliso Canyon Storage
bids submitted for commitment costs are capped at 125% of and Gas Limitations
the nominal value of estimated costs. Given the storage limitations at Aliso Canyon, CAISO initi-
CAISO averages the natural gas next-day commodity ated an assessment of market mechanisms and other tools
prices published by different providers plus the applicable to minimize the risks associated with managing limited
transportation costs to estimate fuel prices. The three main gas-fired supply in the CAISO electric system. The objec-
gas hubs used for commodity pricing in CAISO’s market are tive was to support reliable operation while minimizing
SoCal Citygate, PG&E Citygate, and Kern River. CAISO’s any adverse impact on the markets and assess how limited
commitment cost estimates used in the real-time market are gas supply affected generating facilities and what new risks
based on these fuel prices. Similarly, reference bids used in could arise under these conditions.
the market power-mitigation process rely on these fuel prices With a scenario of limited gas-fired supply as a result
and include a 10% adder. The 25% headroom on commit- of the need to comply with gas-balancing requirements,
ment costs and 10% adjustments on reference bids serve as CAISO identified four potential adverse market impacts in
headroom to absorb any uncertainties or other actual costs the electric sector.
borne by generators. 1) There could be a mismatch between actual gas de-
For the day-ahead electric market, CAISO uses the most mand and estimated gas flow. The bid window for the
recently available gas commodity prices by 8:30 a.m. Pacific electric market closes at 10 a.m. Pacific Time; market
Prevailing Time before the close and run of the day-ahead solutions are available by no later than 1 p.m. Pacific
market for the next day. Any change in traded gas prices Time. Scheduling coordinators managing generating
afterward, such as those reflected in the intraday or same- facilities will not know the electric schedule of gas-
day strips in gas trading, are not reflected in CAISO’s cost fired plants until then. Based on the electric sched-
estimates. If there are strained market conditions, such as ules, a gas-fired plant can estimate the required gas
the risk of penalties from deviations from a daily balancing burn for the next day. On the gas side, the first cycle
requirement, the traded gas prices during these procurement for a gas nomination, known as the timely nomination
and nomination periods are expected to increase relative to cycle, closes at 11 a.m. Pacific Prevailing Time, which
timely trading. Under this scenario, estimated costs may is before the publishing of the electric market results.
not reflect real-time conditions and could lead to inefficient Thus, the timing between electric and gas markets
real-time commitments and dispatches as well as insuffi- does not allow resources to make gas procurement or
cient cost recovery for dispatched resources. pipeline nominations based on schedules determined
by the electric market. This
creates a risk of the actual gas
demand being different from
Day-Ahead Electric Price (US$/MWh)
70 280 the nominated gas flow.

Average Day-Ahead Electric Price 2) Electric dispatches from CAI-
Gas Price (US$/MMBTu)
60 240
SoCal Citygate PG&E Citygate SO could not be followed due to
50 200
gas availability or constraints.
40 160 As part of the market solutions,
30 120 the CAISO market issues com-
20 80 mitment and dispatches for re-
sources to follow. This allows
10 40
the electric market to meet de-
0 0 mand at minimum costs while
1-Jan-17
1-Feb-17
1-Mar-17
1-Apr-17
1-May-17
1-Jun-17
1-Jul-17
1-Aug-17
1-Sep-17
1-Oct-17
1-Nov-17
1-Dec-17
1-Jan-18
1-Feb-18
1-Mar-18
1-Apr-18
1-May-18
1-Jun-18
1-Jul-18
1-Aug-18
1-Sep-18
1-Oct-18
1-Nov-18
1-Dec-18
1-Jan-19
1-Feb-19
taking into account all of the

system conditions. Dispatches
for gas-fired resources are
supported with the gas supply;
figure 4. Gas and electric prices in CAISO’s system. incremental electric dispatches

CAISO worked closely with other agencies and SoCalGas to
implement market enhancements and tools to efficiently operate
the electric system while helping manage limited gas supply.
will require the corresponding incremental gas pro- involuntary, beginning with (electric generation) demand
curement. If resources cannot follow instructions following the commission-approved procedure.”
because they are unable to procure gas while man- The SoCalGas assessment is consistent with CAISO’s
aging gas deviations within the daily gas balancing experience with the natural gas system in Southern Cali-
limits, there can be a disconnect between electric fornia since the initial Aliso Canyon restrictions. It shows
market dispatches and what is available to meet ac- that the Southern California gas system, given the current
tual demand. This disconnect may cause a balancing limitations on the gas transmission and storage system, is
problem and turn into a reliability condition. insufficient to maintain natural gas reliability to electric-
3) There could be less-efficient commitments and dis- generation customers during high-demand periods. These
patches of gas resources. The CAISO markets commit system-level challenges are exacerbated by the require-
and dispatch resources based on minimum load costs, ment that gas companies must maintain reliable service to
start-up costs, transition costs, and variable operation core customers before serving noncore customers. CAISO
costs. The markets use a daily gas price index to ac- requires close coordination with SoCalGas to ensure that
count for the fuel cost of gas resources. Depending electric-generation resources are dispatched appropri-
on how accurately an index price reflects the real- ately to maintain both gas and electric system reliability.
time gas conditions, the electric market may produce Different winter assessments by the CPUC and SoCalGas
less-efficient commitments. In turn, these suboptimal have indicated that, even though critical pipelines have
instructions may exacerbate the limited supply condi- come back to service, the ability to provide reliable ser-
tion. For instance, using low fuel prices when there are vice to gas customers depends on the ability to withdraw
gas limitations can result in gas resources artificially gas from Aliso Canyon and on no additional outages on
appearing cheaper, and, thus, they can be committed main pipelines.
or dispatched more frequently or to a higher level. In April 2020, the CPUC released the 2020 summer reli-
This leads to more gas usage, further stressing the gas ability assessment for Southern California. Based on the
supply limitation. most recent assessment of the operation of the Aliso Canyon
4) There could be an inability of resources to recover facility and projected conditions, gas supply conditions have
costs. Deviations from not following CAISO instruc- improved following previous years. This is a result of more
tions are settled on real-time prices and expose resourc- gas in storage, not only in Aliso Canyon but also in the other
es to additional costs. Resources also settle based on three storage facilities, and of the return to service of a key
commitment costs, and if they are based on fuel prices pipeline after an outage in 2017. The CPUC revised its Aliso
not reflecting the actual procurement costs, resources Canyon protocol, which provides more flexibility for using
may not sufficiently recover their costs associated with this storage facility to balance the gas system. Although
meeting CAISO’s commitments and dispatches. expected conditions show that the gas balance can be main-
As a result of these assessments, CAISO worked closely tained by using other storage facilities, there is still a risk of
with other agencies and SoCalGas to implement market limited supply.
enhancements and tools to efficiently operate the electric Given these potential risks, CAISO expects these limita-
system while helping manage limited gas supply. Origi- tions to remain a constant fixture over the long term rather
nally, these changes were implemented temporarily, and, than merely being short-term challenges. Accordingly, in
since then, they have been extended annually or, in some October 2019 CAISO sought and received the authority to
cases, b e c o m e p e r m a n e n t f e a t u r e s . These changes permanently implement a market enhancement related to
have been gradually reassessed and enhanced over the last Aliso Canyon. These market features and tools are described
years through five different phases. in the subsequent sections.
The most recent SoCalGas winter assessment con-
cluded that, in the best-case scenario, there will be insuf- Gas Constraints in the Electric Market
ficient supplies to meet a one-in-10-year cold day demand The CAISO market enforces all required system con-
forecast. The SoCalGas assessment goes on to state that straints related to the transmission system, including opera-
“in a one-in-10-year cold day scenario, some level of non- tional limits for thermal and security conditions. As part
core curtailment may be required, either voluntary or of the congestion management embedded in the market

clearing process, resources are required to increase or resources, operators will need to manually manage the
decrease generation. This produces the right market sig- constraint on a 5-min basis, requiring the adjustment of
nals through prices that incentivize resources to follow potentially dozens of generators.
CAISO instructions. Resources that exacerbate conges- Being able to enforce a gas constraint provides CAISO
tion on a constraint are exposed to a negative marginal with an effective tool to accomplish the necessary redispatch
congestion component that reduces the overall locational to limit the gas usage on the electric system when it needs
marginal price of the resource. to avoid further stressing the already-constrained gas system
This price is consistent with the need for the resource while continuing to reliably and efficiently serve the load.
to decrease production. The congestion-management pro- In 2016, CAISO started using a maximum gas constraint
tocol applies regardless of the type of generation technol- in both day-ahead and real-time electric markets. This is
ogy or fuel type and is based on both economical bids and a maximum gas-burn constraint that coordinates the gas
resources’ effectiveness in relieving congestion. This, in limitation with the electric dispatches for generators that
turn, allows the reliable operation of the system while meet- rely on such a limited gas supply. This gas constraint is
ing supply with demand and is possible because the mar- analogous to a transmission constraint. It has an upper limit
ket mechanism has the information to enforce transmission that defines the maximum gas-burn enforcement. The con-
limits. This minimizes the risks of violating or overloading straint has a predefined set of resources subject to the gas
transmission constraints. limitation. This nomogram limits the dispatch of generators
Even when conditions change, such as when there are in the affected areas to comply with maximum gas usage.
transmission outages or a reduction of capacity (which The constraints also limit the CAISO market dispatch of the
result in the need for a different operation of resources), affected generators in the real-time market to a maximum
the market will redispatch resources to comply with the gas usage if there is a limitation that relates to differences
new and reduced operating limit. When certain opera- between the gas scheduled with the gas company and the
tional conditions are not visible to the market mechanism, gas consumed during the operating day due to gas system
there can be a disconnect between the market instructions imbalance limitations.
and the actual operating condition of the system, which, The gas constraint definition accounts for the different
if not addressed, can lead to or exacerbate a reliability generators’ efficiencies through the heat rates. This allows
condition. For this reason, system operators rely on a the electric system operator to attain more efficient dis-
variety of tools and visualizations to know actual system patches by first reducing the least-efficient genera-
conditions and adjust as needed. When a condition in the tors in terms of gas usage. This is information that the
system cannot be addressed through the market, operators market already uses in the determination of generators’
have tools to adjust for increases or decreases in genera- energy costs.
tion throughout the system. It is less efficient, but it is a Analogous to a transmission constraint, the enforcement
mechanism of last resort. of the gas limitation is equivalent to congestion management.
When Aliso Canyon restrictions took effect, they effec- The constraint is priced in the electric market and results
tively limited the amount of gas supply available to elec- in price signals to generators that are part of the restriction
tric generators. On one hand, if the electric system has definition. These price signals are consistent and incentivize
no visibility on these supply restrictions, there are risks generators’ decremental dispatches.
of issuing operating instructions that cannot be followed, When the market enforces a gas constraint concurrent
which could lead to an electric reliability condition. On the with the enforcement of all transmission constraints, a nat-
other hand, if these restrictions are not followed, it could ural interaction between electric and gas restrictions can
jeopardize the gas restriction and potentially lead to a gas occur. Resources that are part of the gas limitation can also
reliability condition. In the absence of an explicit con- be effective for transmission congestion management. In
straint in the electric market to limit electric generation to some instances, the management of transmission constraints
support limited gas supply, CAISO grid operators would will require certain resources to increase production while,
need to resort to manual dispatches on potentially all gen- at the same time, they may be part of the gas constraint
erators that receive service from SoCalGas to reduce their that requires limiting or decreasing production. Under such
production and be within the gas limit without regards competing generation movements, the market will effi-
to the impact on the electric operation or transmission ciently determine the most optimal dispatch that complies
constraints. This imposed additional costs on the system with both constraint limitations. This also has a secondary
and was not as efficient as an explicit market mechanism. effect that, to comply with the gas limitation, congestion
Furthermore, CAISO seeks to utilize a market constraint on the electric transmission system can sometimes increase.
to manage the gas constraint instead of using manual In some cases, this creates power flows from Northern to
dispatches to alleviate an untenable situation for elec- Southern California, which can congest certain transmission
tric operators. Without an explicit constraint modeled elements in between and result in congestion that otherwise
in the market that could drive for an optimal dispatch of would not occur.

Effectively, resources inside the region of the gas con- consistent with the limitations observed on the gas system.
straint will decrease production, which is the intended The general process to apply a gas constraint in the electric
outcome to impose a gas limitation. Another effect of the market includes the following steps:
gas constraint is that it will naturally limit the system- 1) In coordination with the affected gas company, CAISO esti-
supply availability and cause higher energy prices in the mates and sets hourly limits to the gas burn by genera-
overall system. This has the effect of requiring generation tors in the impacted region. In some cases, the limita-
from the rest of the system to increase production. All tion is set as a fixed hourly limit. In others, it can be set
of these effects are a result of an efficient dispatch that as a daily quota. In this latter instance, CAISO creates
properly prices the additional limitations imposed in the an hourly profile that meets the daily limit with a shape
electric market. The maximum gas constraint produces based on gross demand patterns, enforcing lower limits
efficient prices for affected generators because if the in the middle of the day, when the load is low, and im-
maximum gas constraint is binding, the price decreases posing the highest limits for peak hours, when the load
for these resources. This pricing logic is the same for how is highest. CAISO is currently expanding the options
a generator behind a transmission constraint is priced to shape the hourly limitations based on a historical gas
lower to reflect the congestion cost associated with dis- burn or using net load patterns. Figure 5 illustrates the
patching that supply. projected gas burn in May 2020 based on CAISO’s en-
Under certain conditions, it may not be feasible to com- ergy schedules from the day-ahead process.
ply with the enforced limitation on a given constraint in 2) CAISO verifies with the impacted gas company
CAISO’s market. Generally, infeasibility occurs when there whether these hourly limits address the gas limitation
is an insufficient supply or short-term ramping capability and do not further worsen the gas system constraint.
to be utilized in the management of the constraint. For 3) Based on the specifics of the condition, CAISO may
such cases, CAISO provisions allow for constraints to be enforce the gas constraints in both the day-ahead and
relaxed up to the point needed. This infeasibility is short the real-time markets as needed to ensure that the dis-
term in nature and set at administrative prices defined above patches and commitments from the CAISO market
any economical bid value. do not exceed the maximum gas burn in the specified
With the participation of virtual bids in the day-ahead region. Since conditions can change rapidly, if CAISO
market, the current rules utilize prices with the gas-con- becomes aware of the need for a gas constraint after
straint effect to settle only physical gas-fired generators that the day-ahead market run, it may enforce the con-
are within the gas constraint. Virtual bids or congestion rev- straint in only the real-time market run since it can
enue rights do not settle on those prices to eliminate the pos- still help manage and coordinate generation with gas
sibility of any adverse impact. For instance, a virtual trader conditions in the impacted area. Depending on the
could take a position with a location exposed to the gas-con- commitments derived from the day-ahead market,
straint price and an offset position at another location unaf- when gas constraints are enforced only in real time,
fected by the gas constraint to profit from the gas-constraint the market may have reduced flexibility to fully com-
binding between the day-ahead and real-time markets. ply with the gas limitation, such as the case where all
units in the impacted region are already at their mini-
Use of Gas Constraints mum operating points, and temporal constraint may
CAISO’s markets have the functionality to enforce gas con- prevent turning them offline.
straints. CAISO enforces gas con-
straints in the day-ahead market,
the real-time market, or both to
14
limit the gas burn in specific ar-
eas previously defined by CAISO Coastal East of Moreno Valley Inland
12
as deemed necessa r y. T hese Los Angeles Basin San Diego Area
Gas Burn (MMSCFH)
10
constraints come in the form of
potential risks of curtailments or 8
as requests for conservation to
6
noncore customers from the gas
company. CAISO enforces gas 4
constraints only after a full as-
sessment of gas and electric con- 2
ditions and in coordination with 0
the impacted gas company. This 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
ensures that limitations imposed
by the constraint in the market are figure 5. The gas usage estimated with the day-ahead solution.

4) If CAISO enforced a gas constraint in the day-ahead to ensure generators have the market mechanism to reflect
market and it subsequently learns from the gas com- the changing gas conditions in their market bids and costs.
pany that the limitation is lifted, the company will no Some of them have been required to redesign entire portions
longer enforce the constraint in the real-time market of market functionality in CAISO’s markets. This will also
but still settle the day-ahead market with the impact allow resources to sufficiently recover their costs under gas-
of the constraint. restricted conditions.
5) Similarly, CAISO may proactively enforce gas con-
straints if it anticipates that large imbalances between Final Remarks
gas schedules and the gas consumed could compro- The transition toward a decarbonized grid presents unique
mise electric or gas system reliability. challenges in the management and operation of electric sys-
6) CAISO has the flexibility to adjust the hourly limita- tems. The resource mix is quickly evolving with growing
tions of the gas constraints to no longer enforce these penetrations of variable generation resources, such as the
limitations as conditions change or if it determines addition of more renewable resources and the electrification
that the enforcement of the constraint adversely im- of transportation. This type of generation introduces large
pacts the market. ramping characteristics that conventional generation, such as
Figure 6 illustrates the number of days in which the elec- gas-fired resources, will need to help absorb. Gas resources
tric market enforced the gas constraint across the different still represent a significant share of supply in CAISO’s sys-
markets. Overall, the frequency of enforcing gas constraints tem, and efficient dispatch has direct implications on the
has been very low as expected since this only happens when overall market performance and pricing. In recent years,
limited gas supply conditions arise. electric-gas coordination has become critical to ensure reli-
The effectiveness of enforcing a gas constraint in the market ability in both the gas and electric systems when gas supply
to limit gas use in the system greatly depends on how accurate may be restricted in specific regions of the system. CAISO’s
the limit estimates are and on how timely they are enforced. market includes maximum gas-usage constraints in the mar-
As part of the overall electric-gas coordination improvement ket clearing process concurrently with transmission conges-
with Aliso Canyon, CAISO and the impacted gas company tion management. This achieves efficient generation dispatch
have close coordination to learn about gas and electric system by sending the right price signals to gas-fired resources. As
conditions. As part of the day-ahead process, CAISO gener- the grid continues to evolve with more and different types
ates and posts the expected gas usages calculated in the two- of generation resources, other operational challenges may
days-in-advance market solution. This happens two days in come into place. The electric system will need to have new
advance of the trading date and provides the first opportunity and enhanced market mechanisms to properly manage and
to resources and gas companies to learn about the projected price such conditions.
gas usage from the gas-fired generators in the CAISO system.
Based on that projection, gas companies study gas conditions For Further Reading
to assess if such a level of gas usage can pose a challenge, and “Stakeholder initiative for Aliso Canyon gas–electric
they assess mitigating actions that can go back to ISO as maxi- coordination,” Caiso.com. [Online]. Available: https://
mum gas quotas are enforced in the corresponding markets. stakeholdercenter.caiso.com/StakeholderInitiatives/Aliso
Since the first effort to mitigate risk related to Aliso Can- -Canyon-gas-electric-coordination
yon restrictions, CAISO has undertaken other initiatives California Public Utilities Commission. Accessed May
2020. [Online]. Available: www.cpuc.ca.gov
“2020 summer load and resources assessment,” CAISO,
Folsom, CA, May 15, 2020. [Online]. Available: http://www
30
.caiso.com/Documents/2020SummerLoadsandResources
25 Assessment.pdf
Number of Days
20 “Summer 2020 Southern California Reliability Assess-

15 ment,” California Public Utilities Commission, San Fran-
cisco, Apr. 15, 2020. Available at https://www.cpuc.ca.gov/
10
uploadedFiles/CPUCWebsite/Content / News_Room /
5 NewsUpdates/2020/Summer2020-ReliabilityAssessment_
0 Final.pdf
2016 2017 2018 2019
Year
Biography
Day Ahead Predispatch Dispatch Guillermo Bautista Alderete is with the California In-
dependent System Operator, Folsom, California, 95630,
figure 6. The number of days with gas constraints en- USA.
p&e
forced in the electric market.

The Impact
of Renewables
on Operational
Security By Ivan M. Dudurych
Operating Power
Systems That Have
Extremely High
Penetrations of
Nonsynchronous
Renewable Sources
F
FOR DECADES, ELECTRICITY TRANSMIS-
sion systems were planned to operate within
the scope of active power transfers that, by their
nature, were fairly well defined and limited in num-
ber, size, and direction. However, in recent years, this
situation has been dramatically changing in front of our
eyes as a result of two main developments. The first con-
cerns new types of renewable power generation (i.e., wind,
solar, tidal wave, and so on) and their increasing share of the
generation portfolio. The second relates to the introduction AS
TO
CK
/J EM
C OM
CK.
ST O
TTER
©SHU
march/april 2021 1540-7977/21©2021IEEE ieee power & energy magazine 37

A large interconnected power transmission system
is probably the single most complex engineering device
to be created by mankind.
and evolution of electricity markets. These factors contrib- ✔ Complexity: Additional complexity is introduced into
ute to fundamental changes in generation patterns and power the system configuration and operation through the
transfers in ways that were not anticipated. necessity of solving special problems, such as har-
This article focuses on the impacts of renewables on monics, subsynchronous resonances, interactions with
operational security. Since renewable generation is inher- other control systems, and the performance of special
ently intermittent due to the countless combinations of protection systems.
loads, weather, and electricity market conditions, the variety Therefore, it is critical to implement additional measures
of generation patterns and transfers is virtually unlimited. to ensure the security of a power system under all condi-
Therefore, base case and contingency case scenarios may tions, especially when a high level of renewable and other
significantly vary on a minute-to-minute basis in terms of unconventional generation is integrated. In recognition of
the following: that fact, the European Network of Transmission System
✔ online generation portfolios Operators for Electricity (ENTSO-e) included a require-
✔ power flows ment in “System Operation Guideline on Dynamic Stability
✔ voltage profiles Monitoring and Assessment” (European Commission regu-
✔ parameters of power system dynamics. lation 2017/1485). According to Article 38, “each TSO shall
Thus, to adequately support the operational security of a perform a dynamic stability assessment at least once a year
power system, offline analyses and studies should be com- to identify stability limits and possible stability problems in
plemented by online, close-to-real-time evaluations. While its transmission system. All TSOs of each synchronous area
attempting to cover all possible scenarios, offline studies shall coordinate the dynamic stability assessments, which
produce estimated security limits that can be extremely con- shall cover all or parts of the synchronous area.” However,
servative for one setting and insufficient for others. Trans- the pace of penetration of renewables and other new technol-
mission system operators (TSOs) whose networks have a ogies into power systems is such that the minimum require-
high penetration of renewable generation face several tech- ment set by the regulation is insufficient, especially when
nical challenges, including the following: saturation levels reach 70–80% (i.e., 70–80% of the total
✔ Variability: The output of most types of renewable generation fleet in a synchronous zone is nonconventional).
generation changes in time frames measured from One response to these challenges can be to use online, “real-
seconds to hours. time” dynamic security assessment technology.
✔ Uncertainty: Variable generation is less predictable The technology includes three main components. The
than conventional generation. first is a digital model of a power system that represents the
✔ Location: Renewable sources of energy are often lo- real network at selected points in time; this includes the net-
cated in remote areas that have small or no local loads, work topology, operating conditions, and all other relevant
and they can even be situated offshore (e.g., wind and factors. The second is a system that, utilizing the real-time
wave generation). This requires long transmission digital model, runs millions of simulations on a digital
paths to deliver power to load centers. model of a power system (contingency analyses). The third
✔ Nonsynchronicity: Renewable generation normally is an analytical tool that produces system security and stabil-
uses convertor-based technologies to couple with the ity assessments based on the simulations. These assessments
grid. As a consequence, it does not inherently provide can be made for any selected point in time—the present and
an inertial contribution, which is crucial for synchro- the future—and they will be used by system operators to
nous power system stability. maintain operational security.
✔ Service capabilities: There is a lack of the traditional In the following, we will answer these questions:
system service capabilities that conventional genera- ✔ What is the operational security of a power transmis-
tors normally have, such as sion system?
• sufficient voltage and frequency regulation ✔ How is it affected by significant penetrations of re-
• an operational (rotating) reserve newable and nonconventional generation?
• adequate fault ride-through (e.g., the slow active ✔ How does online dynamic security assessment help
power recovery of a wind generator following a manage ever-increasing levels of renewable and non-
transmission fault clearance). conventional generation in transmission systems?

Power system safety means that risks to life and property
associated with generation, transmission, and distribution
are satisfactorily mitigated.
The answers will be complemented by the experience that operational states are modeled by three sets of equa-
TSOs have gained in the single interconnected synchronous tions, one differential and two algebraic. The differen-
system of Ireland and Northern Ireland, which connects to tial set represents the dynamic behavior of a system. The
the United Kingdom through 500-MW high-voltage (HV) first algebraic set consists of equality constraints, which
dc in the north and 500-MW HVdc in the south. As of May refer to the generation–load system balance. The second
2018, the system’s generation fleet had some 9,500 MW set contains inequality constraints corresponding to the
of conventional resources, 4,500 MW of wind resources, operational limits of a system. These limits include power
a peak demand of 6,500 MW, and a minimum demand of transfer caps, voltage upper and lower operating restric-
2,500 MW (see “First DSA Stakeholder Workshop” in the tions, frequency lower and upper operating bounds, and
“For Further Reading” section). The relatively small size of other controls that may be imposed to ensure operational
the island’s synchronous system versus the increasing pen- security. The differences between transmission states are
etration of intermittent renewables creates a “large-scale determined by the validity of the constraints of sets of
renewable energy penetration laboratory.” Insights from algebraic equations.
this “laboratory” will be useful for larger systems (such as
Scandinavia’s) and eventually for the European continental The Normal State
synchronous system to prepare for the levels of intermittent In this state, all constraints are satisfied, which means that
renewable generation penetration seen in Ireland. the balance between the generation and the load (plus losses)
is met, there is no overloaded equipment, and voltages and
Power Transmission System Operational frequencies are within normal operational limits. Also, a sys-
Security and Its Components tem’s reserve margins are sufficient, and a system can with-
A large interconnected power transmission system is proba- stand any of the credible contingencies so that it will remain
bly the single most complex engineering device to be created within its operational security bounds and be brought back
by mankind. In many parts of the world, power transmission to normal operation following remedial actions. The set of
systems operate for many decades, continuously supplying credible contingencies is defined by and used for the assess-
electrical power to millions of customers. The goal of power ment of power system operational security. For example, one
system operation is not only to reliably supply power but to credible contingency concerns the trip of a large generator.
do so safely and securely. Power system safety means that If such a trip causes a system frequency to deviate within the
risks to life and property associated with generation, trans- security limits and if the system frequency returns to normal
mission, and distribution are satisfactorily mitigated through operational limits after a remedial action (e.g., activating a
proper design, installation, maintenance, and organizational
measures. On the other hand, the security of the power sys-
tem means that the risk of customer supply interruptions is
adequately mitigated by proper planning, design, installation,
maintenance, and operation. The latter component refers to
operational security, which is the ability to retain a normal Normal State
state or return to such a state as soon as possible following a
contingency. The goal of managing operational security is to
keep a system in its normal state 99.99% of the time. Except Restorative
(Black Start)
for the normal state, there are four others that the power sys- Alert State
tem could experience or transition through if system security
has been compromised and if exceptional external events
(e.g., extreme weather conditions) have taken place. Figure 1 Blackout Emergency
represents the possible power transmission system states. (Red Alert)
System Not Intact
System Intact
Power Transmission System States
In any modern energy management/supervisory control
and data acquisition system, power transmission network figure 1. Power transmission system states.

rotating reserve), the system is considered to be in a normal supervisory control and data acquisition, state estimators,
state in terms of its frequency security. and other online system analysis and monitoring tools). In
this state, a red alert is sent to system participants. A system
The Alert State defense plan includes the automatic disconnection of part of
When a system’s security level is weakened and the prob- the load (load shedding) in case more than one big generator
ability of a disturbance increases, a credible contingency trips, the projected operational active power reserve is not
would cause the system to reach a state where some net- been activated, or both.
work equipment would be overloaded or voltages at key
bus bars or system frequencies would exceed the limits. In The Blackout State
this state, all constraints are satisfied, but there are no suf- A system can move to the blackout state from the emer-
ficient reserve margins to make sure that parameters will gency state if no appropriate corrective action is taken, and
be satisfied when a severe contingency occurs. Therefore, it can move from the alert state to the blackout state when a
preventive actions can be taken to restore the system to severe disturbance occurs. In the blackout state, equality and
its normal state. The ENTSO-e Operational Security Code inequality constraints are violated. Many generators may
defines the deficiency as being 20% or more of the fast lose synchronism, leading to cascading transmission system
frequency and primary frequency reserves for 30 min or component outages. A system may split into islands, and sig-
longer and says that at least one of the credible contingen- nificant parts of the transmission network may shut down.
cies can lead to an operational limit violation even after Control actions, such as load shedding and system separa-
the effects of remedial actions. In this state, an amber alert tion, are used for saving as much of the network as possible
is sent to system participants. from a widespread blackout. ENTSO-e defines this state as
a loss of more than 50% of the load in a TSO’s responsibil-
The Emergency State ity area and as the total absence of voltage in an island for
A system can move from an alert state to an emergency state at least 3 min. A blue alert is sent to system participants,
if a severe contingency occurs before any preventive action a black-start restoration plan immediately is triggered, and
is taken. In this state, some inequality constraints will be the system enters the restorative, or black-start, state. A res-
violated, which means that certain network components toration plan provides steps to restart the system following
are overloaded or that voltages at key bus bars or system a blackout. Such steps include activating a black-start gen-
frequencies are outside their limits. Nevertheless, the sys- erator, sequentially energizing a black-start path, gradually
tem remains intact and can be restored to its normal state picking up the load, creating frequency islands, synchroniz-
or at least to its alert state if appropriate corrective actions ing the islands, and restoring the load.
are taken. ENTSO-e adds that an emergency state can be
declared if at least one measure of the system defense plan is The Restorative (Black-Start) State
activated and if there is a complete loss of system monitoring In this state, an operator performs control actions to recon-
and control tools and facilities (energy management system/ nect facilities and restore the system load. These actions are
performed according to the black-start restoration plan to
gradually bring frequency, voltage, and other parameters
within operational security limits. A system can reach the
Operational Security normal state or the alert state, depending on conditions.
Operational Security Definitions and Criteria

Steady State Dynamic
Operational security can be defined in terms of steady-state
Short Circuit Synchronous (Rotor
and dynamic security criteria. Steady-state criteria are also
Current Level Angle Stability) called static limits and refer to thermal, short circuit current,
voltage, and frequency bounds. Active power and ramping
Thermal Nonsynchronous
(Fault Ride-Through) reserves are included. Dynamic criteria, on the other hand,
are also known as stability limits and refer to transient sta-
Voltage Voltage Stability
bility (the rotor angle for a synchronous plant and the fault
Frequency Frequency Stability ride-through for a nonsynchronous plant), voltage stability,
and frequency stability. We also include oscillatory stabil-
Reserves Oscillatory Stability
ity, which describes the ability of a power system to damp
Ramping oscillations. It deals with small-signal stability and cases of
Stability Limits
transient and frequency stability, where disturbances could
Static Limits
result in unstable oscillations of active powers, voltages, and
frequencies. A proposed structure for operational security
figure 2. Operational security components. components is shown in Figure 2.

Power system stability can be assessed by considering its an established set of security criteria, the scenario is consid-
various forms, which include the following: ered secure. If at least one security criterion is violated, the
✔ Steady-state stability: This is the ability of a system scenario is considered unsecure, and corrective measures
to arrive at a safe steady state without disconnecting will need to be taken. A version of a set of operational secu-
customers following the outage of one (N–1) or more rity criteria is proposed as follows:
(N–k) generator, transmission line, transformer, and ✔ Thermal criterion: Transmission lines, cables, and
load components. This includes the following: transformers must be loaded at less than 100% of their
• Thermal constraints: These involve the requirement nominal thermal ratings in base case conditions and
to maintain power flows in the elements of a system, at less than 110% in N–1 contingency conditions. For
below their thermal ratings in all N–1 contingencies transformers, which have a greater short-term load ca-
and credible N–k contingencies; these ratings can be pacity, 130% may be acceptable.
variable, e.g., seasonal or so-called dynamic, where- ✔ Voltage stability criterion: Voltage stability must be
by they change more frequently (e.g., every hour) de- maintained in base-case conditions and all studied
pending on the load and weather conditions. contingency conditions. Steady-state voltage levels
• Steady-state voltage stability: The is the ability of a at all HV buses within the transmission system (e.g.,
system to maintain secure voltage levels and voltage 110 kV and higher) must be within limits: 0.95–1.1 per
gradients during all N–1 contingencies and credible unit in base case conditions and 0.9–1.12 per unit in
N–k contingencies. N–1 contingency conditions.
✔ Transient stability: This concerns the ability of a sys- ✔ Synchronous plant transient stability criterion: The
tem to keep its components connected following large maximum rotor angles of synchronous generators
disturbances, such as faults in the transmission system must be within limits to stay in synchronism. This
that are cleared by protection, sudden trips of large corresponds to a requirement that the maximum angle
generators, the disconnection of large loads, and so separation of any two synchronous generators in one
forth. Transient stability further includes island must be less than 360º.
• Synchronous plant stability: This describes this ✔ Frequency stability criterion: In the event of tripping
ability of a system to maintain its synchronism (ro- one generator or a three-phase fault with a forced out-
tor angle stability). age of an element (transmission line or cable), the fre-
• Nonsynchronous plant stability: This is the abil- quency deviation must be lower than 1 Hz when the
ity of a system to keep other sources of generation duration of the frequency deviation is longer than 0.5 s.
connected. It is also called fault ride-through ca- ✔ Oscillatory stability criterion: The oscillation damp-
pability. ing coefficient can be assessed through small-signal
✔ Oscillatory stability: This is the ability of a system analysis and as an additional outcome of the time do-
to quickly damp out the power and frequency oscil- main simulation analysis. The damping factor and the
lations that can occur in the power generation. Oscil- exponential decay rate of an oscillation following an
lations can be triggered after small and large distur- event are related, and the larger the damping coeffi-
bances that cause variations in the load, generation cient is, the higher the damping factor will be. The
(especially wind, which has intrinsic variability), au- damping coefficient must be greater than 0.05.
tomatic control device settings, and so on. Oscillatory ✔ Additional criteria:
stability includes the following: • System nonsynchronous penetration (SNSP) level:
• Small signal stability: This is the ability of a sys- This concept is valid for a synchronous system as
tem to maintain the synchronism of its synchronous a whole, and it was developed in parallel with the
plants and keep its nonsynchronous plants connect- “All Island TSO Facilitation of Renewables Stud-
ed following small disturbances. ies” (see Eirgrid 2010 in the “For Further Reading”
• Control mode stability: This describes the ability of section). The objective of the SNSP metric is to
a system to dampen oscillations related to turbines have an index that, at a high level, captures a range
and their controls. of operational issues. It shows a percentage of the
✔ Frequency stability: This is the ability of a system to nonsynchronous generation (including net imports
maintain its frequency within safe limits and to via the HVdc interconnectors, if any) in the total
return to the permitted frequency range following generation in a synchronous power system. HVdc
disturbances. interconnectors are included since, when they are
Each of the operational security components can be importing power, they displace generation located
assessed by a set of security criteria applied to analyze the in the system that would otherwise be operating.
results of simulations based on a power system model and a At a constant demand, an increase in nonsynchro-
scenario containing particular conditions and disturbances. nous generation would equate to an increase in the
If the modeled system performance parameters are within SNSP. The maximum level of the SNSP can be

Existing transmission and distribution networks
were designed using planning criteria based on a limited
number of power flow patterns.
established based on the comprehensive analysis of tem separation (e.g., following a severe frequency in-
the operational security of the synchronous system cident). Monitoring system inertia from synchronous
and revised in line with improving the flexibility of generation ensures that operators always maintain a
the system components (mainly generators’ ability minimum number of conventional generating units
to provide inertial and fast frequency response). At synchronized to the power system. At present, the
present, the maximum SNSP limit for the synchro- minimum level of inertia for the Ireland and North-
nous system in Ireland and Northern Ireland is set ern Ireland system is 23,000 MW (see “Operational
as 65% (see “Operational Constraints Update” in Constraints Update” in the “For Further Reading”
the “For Further Reading” section). The maximum section). It can be provided by a minimum number of
SNSP is maintained by the curtailment of nonsyn- conventional generating units to maintain
chronous renewable generation. — enough inertia to support frequency control and
• Rate of change of frequency (RoCoF): This is the stability
measure of the frequency through time following the — sufficient synchronous torque to maintain the sys-
sudden disconnection of a generator or an intercon- tem strength and transient stability
nector. The most likely time for the RoCoF to exceed — reactive power support to manage the voltage con-
its limit occurs during the initial moments after an trol and stability; for that purpose, units should
event. To this end, the RoCoF is derived from the be selected in voltage-critical parts of the system.
power system swing equation and can be calculated • Active power operational reserve: This is a classi-
as the observed change in the system power mul- cal requirement for a rotating reserve that can be
tiplied by the nominal frequency and divided by complemented by new technologies (e.g., batteries).
twice the postevent system inertia. At present, the • Available megawatt ramping: This is an assessment
minimum and maximum RoCoF are monitored. The of the total available ramping capability of an online
minimum RoCoF could occur due to the trip of a plant and an offline plant across various time hori-
large generator or importing interconnector, and the zons (e.g., 3 h, 8 h, and so on).
maximum RoCoF could result from the trip of an
exporting interconnector. Impact of an Extremely High
• System inertia: This criterion is valid for a synchro- Penetration of Renewable Sources
nous system as a whole, but it can be used for part of on Operational Security
a larger synchronous system that is planned to oper-
ate as a separate synchronous system during a sys- The Effects of Resource Variability
Renewable resource variability has a profound impact on
operational security. Figure 3 displays the percentage of
nonsynchronous generation (mostly wind) on the island of
70 Ireland. The SNSP is shown in the percentage of the total
60 generation for April–June 2019. It is seen that such genera-
50 tion is extremely volatile and changes randomly from almost
40 zero to 65%. This means that the scheduling of the conven-
(%)
30
tional plant will be significantly different from day to day
and hour to hour, causing the plant to cycle and even stop
20
and start much more often than during the past. More fre-
10 quent cycling and operation outside the plant’s most efficient
0 range (which is normally near the plant’s full rated output
11 April
21 April
11 May
21 May
31 May
10 June
20 June
30 June
1 April
1 May
minus the reserve provision) reduces efficiency and leads to

increased wear, and thus it can reduce reliability. It is worth
mentioning that Europe is working to improve the flexibility
figure 3. The percentage of the SNSP in Ireland’s total of existing and new gas and steam turbines and extend the
generation in April–June 2019. (Source: Eirgrid.) equipment’s lifecycle to meet the requirements of grids that

have high levels of renewables. One example is the European to a reduction in the transient stability of the machine to
Union Flexturbine project (2016–2018). a disturbance that perturbs the rotor angle. That is, as the
Existing transmission and distribution networks were machine moves to the new operating point, the forces trying
designed using planning criteria based on a limited number to resynchronize it to that operating point will be weaker.
of power flow patterns. These patterns were derived from the Similarly, if the maximum electromagnetic power of the
fundamental paradigm of unidirectional power flow from large machine decreases (see the orange curve in Figure 4), it has
generators through the transmission system to the distribution the effect of decreasing the synchronizing power and results
system. The latter has been considered “passive” and was in a reduction in the transient stability of the machine.
designed to convey electricity from bulk transmission system Now, consider what initially happens when only a small
supply points to loads. With the advent of renewable and other portion of the synchronous generation is replaced by con-
distributed generation, this is no longer the case. Transmis- verter-based renewables. If the remaining synchronous
sion and distribution systems now experience multidirectional generators are less loaded than normal, their synchronizing
power flows, depending on the amount of instant renewable torque increases. This improves the transient stability of the
generation in different parts of the system. The power flow system. However, a further increase of renewables requires
magnitude can vary, and so can its direction. When wind gen- a progressive decommitting of the conventional units. The
eration is low, power flows from the transmission system to the equivalent power angle characteristic will mirror the orange
distribution system, while during periods of high wind gen- curve in Figure 4, with operating at point C. The maximum
eration, energy may flow in the opposite direction, from the electromagnetic power of the synchronous machine will be
distribution system to the transmission system. reduced because it will be more difficult to “push” power
It is well known that conventional power stations have been from the remaining synchronous machines to the loads, due
built close to load centers. In contrast, renewable generation is to the increased reactance of the now longer paths and the
typically located far from load centers. Therefore, for example, poorer voltage support from the now prevailing nonsyn-
if there is a lot of wind generation, power flows can reverse and chronous generation. As discussed previously, having less
reach significant values that were not originally anticipated for electromagnetic power will cause a reduction of the syn-
the transmission circuits. Such circuits can be highly loaded, chronizing torque, and at very high renewable penetration
and they can overload if there are outages in parallel circuits. levels, the transient stability deteriorates rapidly because
Therefore, thermal security must be monitored in real time to the remaining synchronous units are forced to be highly
avoid cascading outages due to overload conditions. loaded. Note, however, that recent advances in converter-
based grid connection applications based on insulated gate
Effect of Renewables on Transient Stability bipolar transistor technology will enable engineers to coun-
As defined in the “Operational Security Definitions and teract these phenomena.
Criteria” section, transient stability has two components: The “All Island TSO Facilitation of Renewables Study”
synchronous plant rotor angle stability (as a set of synchro- (see Eirgrid 2010 in the “For Further Reading” section)
nous machines connected to the system) and nonsynchronous estimated the reduction of the critical clearing time (the
plant fault ride-through performance (as a set of converter- maximum time allowed for protection to clear a three-phase
based energy sources connected to the system). To qualita- fault at the terminals of a synchronous generator before the
tively demonstrate how rotor angle stability is affected by a
significant penetration of renewables, we will use the power
angle characteristic of a synchronous machine, as illustrated
in Figure 4.
Increased Loading
The electromagnetic power of the machine changes sinu-
soidally with the rotor angle. In a steady state, the electro-
magnetic power of the machine is balanced by the mechan- B Maximum Electromagnetic Power
ical power of the turbine (operating point A in Figure 4).
Power
During a disturbance (power unbalance), the rotor angle A C

changes as the rotor speed deviates from the synchronous
speed. As a measure of rotor angle stability, we can use the
Normal Loading
concept of “synchronizing torque.” It shows how much the
rotor angle changes for the same variation in the power from
the steady-state operating point of the machine. A higher
synchronizing torque gives more stability to the synchro- Rotor Angle
nous plant because it encourages synchronous machines to
spin together at the same frequency. As the machine gets figure 4. A power angle characteristic with normal and
more loaded (the operating point moves from A to B), the increased loading (operating points A and B) and a reduced
synchronizing torque diminishes. This decrease contributes power angle characteristic (operating point C).

generator starts slipping poles) with an increasing penetra- security (i.e., rotor angle stability) in real time will be even
tion of wind generation. Based on this estimation and the more critical with higher levels of renewable penetration.
fact that clearance time is inversely related to synchronizing To investigate how the transient security of nonsynchronous
power, the latter can be presented as in Figure 5. It is seen plants (the ability to ride through a three-phase fault) evolves
from the figure that the rotor angle stability of the system with increasing renewable generation, consider how three-
slightly improves until the wind penetration increases by up phase fault characteristics evolve. The most economical way of
to 50%. Then, it starts declining, and it quickly deteriorates connecting renewable sources to a synchronous system is via
at wind penetration levels of 80% and higher. Therefore, power electronic converters. This has two main implications:
monitoring the remaining synchronous plants’ transient the mechanical system inertia is increasingly depleted when
renewable penetration increases, and the short circuit current
contribution from renewable sources is limited to their maxi-
mum load current. The first implication will affect a system’s
frequency security; the second causes voltage dips associated
with faults in the transmission system to propagate more widely
Synchronizing Power
within a system that has reduced short circuit levels. This has a
direct impact on the fault ride-through performance of nonsyn-
chronous sources of generation. The bigger part of the system
sees a voltage dip, and a larger proportion of the nonsynchro-
nous generation can trip on undervoltage protection.
Effect of Renewables on Voltage Stability

0 20 40 60 80 100 In the early days, renewable generators did not have any volt-
Nonsynchronous Plant Penetration (%) age and reactive power control capability. Soon, as renewable
nonsynchronous generators displaced conventional ones, it
figure 5. The synchronizing power versus nonsynchronous was recognized that conventional generators’ voltage con-
plant penetration level (derived from the critical clearance trol capabilities were being depleted. Grid codes began to be
time studies in “All Island TSO Facilitation of Renewables”; updated to introduce at least some conventional generation-
see Eirgrid 2010 in the “For Further Reading” section). like functionality into a nonsynchronous generation portfolio.
For example, the Irish grid code requires that all transmis-
sion-connected wind power systems be able to control voltage
V and/or reactive power at their terminals. The best existing
A technology for this task involves connecting renewables to the
B
grid via a fully rated converter. This enables modulating
the grid-side, three-phase voltage according to the required
reactive power. However, most distribution-connected
renewable sources are still fixed-power-factor machines that
do not regulate voltage. This means that voltage regulation
P
(a)
45,000
V
40,000
A′
Inertia (MW)
35,000
B′
30,000
25,000
P
20,000
(b) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Wind Generation (%)
figure 6. The idealized power voltage characteristic of a
transmission corridor between two parts of an ac power figure 7. System inertia reduction as the renewable pen-
system with (a) a low penetration and (b) high penetration etration rises in the single synchronous power system of
of renewables. Ireland and Northern Ireland (Source: Eirgrid).

becomes increasingly difficult in a system with a high penetra- mechanically decoupled. With the progressive replacement
tion of renewables. In areas with significant renewable genera- of conventional generation with nonsynchronous renewable
tion, voltage collapses become more probable. generation (Figure 7), the available system inertia decreases,
Consider the ideal power voltage characteristics of a trans- meaning that if a power unbalance occurs, the frequency
mission corridor between two parts of a system, with the deviation for the same unbalance will be bigger in a system
receiving part represented by the load in the form of imped- that has less available inertia (Figure 8). To an extent, the
ance. This characteristic is described in Figure 6(a). In a issue can be alleviated by the introduction of fast frequency
properly designed ac power system, where all generation is response mechanisms (some of which are called synthetic
being conducted by synchronous machines, the distance from inertia), but the genuine inertia provided by a synchronous
the area of normal operation (point A) to the site of instabil- plant can be fully replicated only by a converter-based plant
ity (point B), the “nose” of the power voltage characteristic is if the power imbalance on the system is directly assessed
large enough to accommodate possible contingencies, such as and compensated in real time. Curve C in Figure 8 corre-
outages in parallel circuits. Historically, the thermal conven- sponds to the activation of an underfrequency load shedding
tional generation portfolio was planned to be placed as close scheme. This is the system’s integrity defense mechanism
as possible to load centers; thus, large amounts of electricity designed to automatically disconnect a percentage of the
were not designed to travel long distances. At high levels of load. This is a last defense, and it is not accepted for routine
renewable penetration, when a significant part of the thermal operation in modern society.
portfolio is displaced, power needs to travel farther because
renewables are normally placed away from load centers. Real-Time Assessment of
Consider the same transmission corridor for a system Operational Security
where the conventional generation near the load center is Assessing the operational system security of a power system
scheduled to be offline so that it can be replaced by distant becomes compulsory for TSOs that integrate large amounts
renewable generation. The power transfer would change of renewables. Such assessments can be performed by using
directions, and its absolute value would increase. Thus, the online dynamic security assessment technology: software that
power-voltage characteristic would change due to the addi- takes snapshots of power system conditions, performs secu-
tional impedance associated with importing electricity from rity evaluations (including the determination of stability lim-
remote areas, as in Figure 6(b). Operating point A now will its) in near real time and for future time frames (from hours
be closer to instability point B because of the greater imped- to days), and provides warnings about, and remedial measures
ance and the increased transfer. for, abnormal situations. An example of an online dynamic
security assessment system can be found in the article “Safety
Effect of Renewables on Frequency Stability in Numbers” in the “For Further Reading” section.
The main effect of renewable generation on frequency sta-
bility is related to the fact that renewable generation provides For Further Reading
little inertia to a system because it is partially or completely Eirgrid. All Island TSO Facilitation of Renewables Studies.
Dublin: Eirgrid, 2010.
I. M. Dudurych, “On-line Assessment of Secure Level of
50.1 Wind on the Irish Power System,” in Proc. 2010 IEEE PES
49.9 General Meeting, Providence, RI, July 25–29, 2010, pp. 1-7.
49.7 doi: 10.1109/PES.2010.5588059.
49.5 I. M. Dudurych, A. Rogers, R. Aherne, L. Wang, F.
Frequency (Hz)
49.3 Howell, and X. Lin, “Safety in numbers,” IEEE Power

a
49.1 & Energy Mag., pp. 62–70, Mar.-Apr. 2012. doi: 10.1109/
MPE.2011.2178283.
48.9
b ENTSO-e. in Proc. 1st DSA Stakeholder Workshop, Brus-
48.7
sels, May 23, 2018. [Online]. Available: https://docstore.entsoe
48.5 .eu/Documents/Events/2018/180523_DSA_SH_Workshop
c
48.3 -Joint_presentation_with_conclusions.pdf
48.1 Eirgrid, “Operational constraints update version
0 10 20 30 40 50
1.80,” July 31, 2020 [Online]. Available: https://www
Time (s)
.eirgridgroup.com/site-files/library/EirGrid/Operational
figure 8. Frequency deviations due to the sudden trip of ConstraintsUpdateVersion1_96_July_2020.pdf
a large generator for (a) a traditional generation portfolio,
(b) a portfolio with a large nonsynchronous generation Biography
penetration, and (c) a portfolio with a significant nonsyn- Ivan M. Dudurych is with the Military Technological Col-
chronous generation penetration. lege, Muscat, 111, Oman. p&e

T
THE DANISH GOVERNMENT HAS SET VERY
ambitious binding targets regarding decarboniza-
tion. By 2030, carbon dioxide emissions must be
reduced by 70% compared to the 1990 level. This
can be achieved primarily through a predomi-
nantly renewables-based electricity system and the
electrification of energy demand.
In 2019, Denmark covered 50% of its elec-
tricity demand primarily through wind and, to
a lesser extent, solar energy. The large increase
in the share of renewable energy production
in meeting the country’s electricity demand
is illustrated in Figure 1. In 2009, only 20%
of the demand was covered by wind and solar,
whereas 10 years later this figure stands at
50%. The electrification of the transportation
sector will accelerate through the wide-scale
adoption of electric vehicles (EVs).
To reach the 70% target, it is estimated that
1.5 million cars, corresponding to 50% of all cur-
rent cars in Denmark, must be electric or hybrid-
electric by 2030. In the heating sector, 70% of
natural-gas boilers and 95% of oil-fi red boilers
used for individual heating must be replaced with
renewables-based options. As a result, it is esti-
mated that 210,000 heat pumps must be installed
by 2030. These developments will lead to the
Energy Security
Through
Demand-Side
Flexibility The Case of Denmark


doubling of electricity demand from 35 to is the need for coordination between the transmission and
70 TWh by that year. distribution systems. Another is the heterogeneity of the
As a result, the Danish power system of the technical characteristics of these new resources that can
future is expected to be characterized by large result in various barriers in their integration in power sys-
shares of intermittent renewable sources and tem operation. Moreover, various reports and projects have
increased energy demand. These developments shown that the financial benefit to DER owners from offer-
lead to significant challenges. The gradual ing flexibility to the power system is not sufficient for their
phaseout of conventional power plants results engagement. This means that motives that are not purely
in lower rotational inertia and more volatile financial must be found to convince owners to make their
frequency dynamics. Additionally, renewable flexibility accessible and/or use it for the benefit of the power
generation is less predictable compared to the system. To overcome this, coordinated efforts to raise con-
energy produced by conventional power plants, sumer awareness and engagement are required. The emer-
leading to an increase in the system’s balanc- gence of energy communities, the use of automation, reward
ing needs. Since these power plants have tradi- systems, user-friendly application programming interfaces,
tionally offered the bulk of power system flex- and mobile applications along with governmental informa-
ibility and the required ancillary services, new tion campaigns can contribute to engaging asset owners in
sources of flexibility are needed. utilizing their flexibility.
Demand-side management and the flexibility To enhance the security of supply, DERs and demand-
of distributed energy resources (DERs), such as side management must provide power system services
EVs, stationary batteries, and heat pumps, can within the reliability, accuracy, quality, and response time
be used to maintain the current high level of criteria set by the system operator. Therefore, the aggrega-
©SHUTTERSTOCK.COM/VLADGRIN
security of supply, even in a power system that tors of those resources, which act as an interface to the sys-
is dominated by volatile renewable production. tem and are responsible for service delivery, must ensure that
Recent technological advances and cost reduc- flexible resources meet those requirements. As presented
tions in information and communication infra- in the following section, a considerable research effort in
structure, sensors, and power electronics have Denmark has focused on investigating control strategies,
made DER control more economic and reli- monitoring techniques, communication issues, and aggrega-
able. Commercial entities, called aggregators, tion and optimization models. As a result of those efforts,
manage and control large numbers of DERs or many technical issues related to DER controllability have
larger flexible loads to create new streams of been resolved, and the capability of DERs to offer power
revenue by participating in the energy markets. DER charac- system services has been demonstrated. However, the lack
teristics make them suitable for providing a variety of power of standardization in terms of prequalification, monitoring,
system services and participating in various energy markets, and validation for small and diverse resources is hindering
such as the day-ahead, intraday, balancing, and ancillary their potential.
services markets. An often overlooked aspect is that the functionalities of
The Danish project EcoGrid 2.0 demonstrated how the aggregators and not the individual resources should also
demand-side flexibility can be used concurrently on differ- be prequalified, especially under extreme scenarios, i.e.,
ent system levels by managing 800 flexible consumers who information technology/communication failures, particu-
offered services on both distribution and transmission lev- larly warm or cold weather conditions, and so on. It is often
els. However, the distributed nature and the large number of the case that the same types of flexible units participate in
these resources compared to the traditional, highly central- power markets of different and, in many cases, neighboring
ized structure of power systems pose several new challenges countries under different terms. This negatively affects the
in power system operation. business opportunities of aggregators who manage interna-
While these new sources of flexibility can benefit the tional portfolios and decreases the efficiency of the utiliza-
system and increase the security of supply, their mass inte- tion of flexible resources on a regional or European level. To
gration requires careful consideration of many issues. One this end, there are many efforts toward standardization in
By Jacob Østergaard, Charalampos Ziras,

Henrik W. Bindner, Jalal Kazempour,
Mattia Marinelli, Peter Markussen,
Signe Horn Rosted, and Jørgen S. Christensen
the regulation of European balancing markets and toward the energy supply of customers and causing a significant
the harmonization of monitoring and validation of services reduction in the customers’ quality of service. As a result
offered by flexible resources. of those DSO actions, aggregators will not be able to offer
The large increase in electricity demand and the utiliza- the contracted services to the TSO, putting the whole sys-
tion of demand-side flexibility on a system level may also tem at risk. In other words, the absence of an operational
have some unintended consequences on the distribution framework may lead to both interruption of supply at the
system. First, the expected large numbers of new loads due distribution level and insufficient service delivery at the sys-
to the electrification of demand will stress distribution net- tem level. As we will show next, a substantial part of Danish
works, and costly reinforcements will be required over the research effort has been directed to address such DER sys-
next decade. The efficient use of the flexibility and control- tem integration problems.
lability of these new loads on a distribution level can elimi-
nate or postpone the need for these reinforcements, with an Danish Research Efforts on Demand-Side
estimated socioeconomic benefit of US$3.2 billion in Den- Flexibility in the Past Decade
mark alone by 2030. This benefit increases to US$4.8 bil- Denmark is a front runner in the green transition and has
lion if reinforcements of the transmission system are also long recognized the importance that research on demand-
considered. Second, the coordinated DER response (which side flexibility plays in the integration of large shares of vol-
is installed at low or medium voltage levels) for offering sys- atile renewable production. The vital role of research activi-
tem services may lead to the overloading of lines or trans- ties in the Danish energy system is reflected in the country’s
formers or to unacceptable voltage levels. For example, very leading position in smart grid-related research in the Euro-
low spot prices at specific hours of the day may synchronize pean Union (EU). In this section, we provide an overview of
consumption and result in congestion on certain low-voltage Danish research activities regarding demand-side flexibility.
feeders. The same could happen from the activation of bal- Energiforskning.dk is a database where all Danish
ancing power that is offered by DERs or by the coordinated research, development, and demonstration funding pro-
DER response to a large frequency deviation when such grams within energy and climate are registered. As of April
units are used as frequency-reserve providers. 2020, 251 projects were listed under the “Smart Grid and
DER participation in the energy markets creates a Systems” category. Of those, 166 were started after 2010,
need for cooperation between distribution system opera- had a total budget greater than US$235,000 each, and were
tors (DSOs) and the transmission system operator (TSO) funded by the four major programs: the Energy Technology
to avoid jeopardizing the safe operation of the power sys- Development and Demonstration Program, Innovation Fund
tem. On one hand, the TSO needs the flexibility and fast Denmark, ForskEl, and Green Labs DK. In our assessment,
response of DERs. On the other hand, the utilization of this only nationally funded projects were considered.
flexibility may cause operational problems to DSOs due to A large number of those projects have dealt with various
load synchronization. aspects of integrating flexibility and smart grid solutions in
If an appropriate TSO-DSO coordination framework to the electricity sector. We have used four categories to clas-
manage these challenges during the participation of DERs in sify these projects:
the energy markets does not exist, then energy security may ✔ flexibility—component level
be compromised. If congestion at the distribution network ✔ flexibility—aggregation level
occurs, the DSO may resort to load curtailment, disrupting ✔ system integration
✔ market design and business models.
The first category refers to the investigation of issues
60
related to demand-side flexibility on a component level,
Share of Electricity Supply (%)
Wind i.e., the control, monitoring, and modeling of flexible

50 Solar loads. The second category refers to issues related to the
40 aggregation and control of large numbers of demand-side
flexible resources. The third category refers to projects that
30
have dealt with how flexibility and smart grid solutions can
20 be integrated into the power system, following a system-
10
level approach. The last category looks into novel market
mechanisms, the redesign of the electricity markets, and
0 business models.
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
A significant number of projects did not fall into one of

20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Year these categories, i.e., high-voltage direct current systems, dis-

trict heating, gas networks, or storage technology improve-
figure 1. The evolution of wind and solar energy produc- ment, and are outside the scope of our analysis. The total bud-
tion in Denmark over the last decade. get of each project has been distributed equally throughout

its duration. Additionally, we have mapped the contribution investigation of the safe and efficient system integration
of each project to the four categories, depending on its focus. of DERs is greatly strengthened by demonstrations in
The total funding per category and year is presented in real environments and networks. This leads to a need for
Figure 2. While all categories experienced a substantial larger experimental setups, involving DERs and distri-
increase in funding in the first years of the decade, their bution networks, the participation of DERs in the whole-
evolution in the subsequent years has not been the same. sale markets, and the investigation of mechanisms that
System integration and markets/business models are the two ensure not only the reliable provision of services on a
categories with an almost-continuous increase, whereas the system level but also the secure operation of distribu-
funding for the components and aggregation categories has tion networks.
been declining since 2016. There is a continuous decrease in For this reason, projects dealing with system integration
the budget of projects related to flexibility components and tend to have larger budgets. A scatter plot of the projects’
aggregation, which dropped from a combined share of 60% starting year against their budget is displayed in Figure 3.
in 2010 to 30% in 2019. This difference was compensated by Only six projects exceeded a total budget of US$6 million,
an increase in the share of projects related to system integra- and all of them focused primarily on system integration. The
tion and market design.
In the early 2010s, concepts and ideas related to the uti-
lization of DER flexibility were relatively new. Most of the
30
research work was devoted to various aspects of modeling,
control, and the monitoring of flexible loads, with a focus 25
on EVs and thermal loads. The goal was to demonstrate that
demand response could be a reliable provider of flexibility. US$ (millions)
20
This was done by determining the characteristics and influ- 15

ence of the operational constraints of flexible units so that they
could be used for balancing purposes and lead to an increase 10
of energy security in the power system. Thus, it is natural that 5
earlier projects focused more on technical problems and under-
standing the capabilities of demand-side flexibility as a service 0
provider rather than system-integration issues.
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Over the years, early-stage technical problems related Year
to the control of DER flexibility in power systems have
largely been solved. The relevant technology has improved, Components System Integration
Aggregation Markets
and many commercial solutions are now available, offering
advanced monitoring, control, and management capabilities,
both on individual and aggregated levels. The funded proj- figure 2. The project funding per category and year of
ects and research in the field of smart grids and flexibility nationally funded Danish projects related to demand-side
in general have shown that the main challenges associated flexibility.
with the wide-scale utilization of
DER flexibility are technical sys-
tem integration and energy market
issues as well as viable business 25
models for end users, aggregators,
EnergyLab
and system operators. 20
iPower
Nordhavn
The system integration of
EcoGrid 2.0
US$ (millions)
demand-side flexibility covers

15
many issues, mainly associated Cities
with the increasing penetration System Services
10 From Small-Scale DERs
of DERs in the power system FED
and the safe utilization of flex-
5
ibility. Central to these prob-
lems is the secure operation of
0
distribution networks because 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
it is at this level where DERs Year
are installed, and it is through
the distribution network that figure 3. A scatter plot of the project budgets and starting years of nationally funded
services will be provided. The Danish projects related to demand-side flexibility.

three largest projects during the past decade were iPower, ✔ bilateral agreements
EcoGrid 2.0, and EnergyLab Nordhavn. In iPower, flexibility ✔ local flexibility markets.
modeling was combined with a coherent market approach at These mechanisms should not be seen as mutually exclu-
the system and distribution level based on well-defined, flex- sive. Instead, more than one mechanism can coexist because
ibility-based services. This was further developed, refined, each of them has different characteristics, addresses vary-
and demonstrated in EcoGrid 2.0, where a large number of ing problems, and has its own limitations. In the following
flexible units were controlled to provide services at either the section, we describe the characteristics of each mechanism,
system or distribution level, based on an optimal bidding strat- with a focus on a Danish application perspective. We assess
egy for the aggregators. In EnergyLab Nordhavn, the coordi- the mechanisms based on four criteria:
nated operation of electricity and district heating systems was ✔ effectiveness of congestion management: how effec-
investigated to exploit cross-sector flexibility, and integrated tive each mechanism is in preventing and alleviating
multidomain markets were assessed. congestion
An important function of research projects is that they ✔ ease of implementation: how easy each mechanism is
can provide valuable learnings for system operators. These to implement on a technical level
could refer to operational strategies, new market mecha- ✔ market compatibility: how easy it is to integrate each
nisms, and the provision of novel system services, among mechanism into the current power market structure
others. This knowledge can provide insight and valuable ✔ impact on system balancing: the impact that each
experience regarding the direction that power markets and mechanism has on the function of demand-side flex-
system operation should or should not take. For example, ibility as a balancing source of renewable production
EcoGrid 2.0 revealed the real-life challenges associated with and consumption at a system level.
the use of commonly agreed upon baselines in the provi- These mechanisms can be implemented on transmission,
sion of DSO services in a local flexibility market and pointed distribution, and feeder levels. By feeder, we refer to the
toward the direction of explicit operational limits as a more low-voltage branch departing from a 10/0.4-kV distribution
viable solution. transformer, and distribution refers to voltage levels below
Pilot projects are also particularly important tools for sys- 50–60 kV. For this reason, their effectiveness in conges-
tem operators because they allow collaboration and knowl- tion management is assessed separately for each level. The
edge sharing between system operators and market partici- results are presented in Table 1.
pants by testing new business models and ideas. Energinet, ToU tariffs are probably the oldest and simplest way,
the Danish TSO, brings the experience from research to both in terms of implementation and market compatibil-
operation with the use of such pilot projects, where small- ity, to shift consumption away from peak hours. Such tar-
scale participation of new technologies or changes in mar- iffs were only recently introduced in Denmark. In their
ket regulation are tested in real-time operation together conception, those tariffs were used by integrated system
with market participants. The obtained experience is used operators to reduce peaks and shift consumption to off-
for the fast market implementation of new technologies as peak periods. Nowadays, ToU tariffs are set by DSOs such
well as for the identification and, subsequently, reduction that peak consumption is reduced to minimize the risk of
of possible regulatory barriers. In the following section, we the overloading of lines or transformers or of unaccept-
focus on different system integration mechanisms that have able voltage levels. They are the same over relatively large
been proposed in various research projects and are currently geographical areas (usually the same per DSO) and change
being investigated in Denmark to facilitate the utilization of infrequently over the year. Such rigid tariffs cannot allevi-
demand-side flexibility. ate transmission-level congestion, which is usually caused
by hard-to-predict events (e.g., faults, market actions, or
Facilitating the Use of Demand-Side large variations in renewable production from the fore-
Flexibility in the Power System casted values).
As discussed in the previous section, a substantial number The same is also true on a distribution and feeder level.
of research projects and demonstrations have proven the Such inflexible tariffs cannot cope with the different topolo-
capabilities of DER and demand-side management to offer gies and load compositions over the distribution network or
power system services. Recently, the focus has been shifting with the high shares of renewables that lead to unpredict-
toward the investigation of mechanisms that can unlock this able load patterns of flexible demand, which follows highly
flexibility so that it can be safely and efficiently integrated volatile market prices. Furthermore, ToU tariffs cannot
into both system operation and markets. To this end, several cope with the possible congestion that may occur because
mechanisms have been proposed and are currently investi- of the activation of balancing power or ancillary services,
gated in Denmark, such as which can happen at any point in time. Such tariffs can also
✔ time of use (ToU) tariffs have an impact on the use of demand-side flexibility for
✔ dynamic tariffs system-balancing purposes because they do not adapt to the
✔ a finer geographical granularity of power markets state of the system, and their inflexible nature may lead to

cases where much-needed flexibility is too expensive due to applied on a distribution or feeder level to be effective in
tariff costs. alleviating congestion at those voltage levels. This change
It must be mentioned that ToU tariffs are calculated by would require a complete restructuring of power markets
the DSO to induce the necessary motivation for consumers to and system operation, whereas the implementation of
shift consumption away from peak hours. This DSO-driven nodal pricing on a feeder level would add immense com-
calculation does not consider the effect of ToU tariffs on the plexity. Nodal pricing is not compliant with the current
use of flexibility, including the aggregators’ economic per- legislation and regulations that govern the operation of
formance in the wholesale markets, which may deteriorate. DSOs in Denmark.
The appropriate balance between the financial burden on Bilateral agreements are “limited grid access” agree-
the various uses of flexibility in the wholesale markets and ments between system operators and consumers. These
the avoidance of distribution network operational problems agreements allow the DSO to decrease the load of a con-
via network pricing can be more easily achieved through a sumer in the event or prospect of congestion by granting
coherent market-based solution. the DSO direct controllability over the flexible asset. In
The disadvantages of ToU tariffs can be partially alle- exchange, consumers receive compensation in the form of
viated by the use of dynamic tariffs, which are calculated reduced or waived connection fees. Such agreements have
at finer time resolutions, e.g., daily, and can be much more been established in Denmark for industrial customers, for
granular geographically. Thus, they can be more effective in instance, large electric boilers where both the connection
preventing congestion at the distribution level. Their imple- fees and the impact on the distribution network are substan-
mentation is significantly more complicated than simple tial. The new initiatives, “limited grid access” and “tempo-
ToU tariffs because advanced techniques are required to rary limited grid access,” aim at introducing reduced tariffs
calculate their optimal values. Similar to ToU tariffs, this for customers connected at the transmission network who
mechanism cannot avoid the possible congestion at the dis- agree to act as interruptible loads.
tribution level that occurs due to the activation of balancing Bilateral agreements are effective in alleviating conges-
or ancillary services, and it is very challenging to implement tion at both transmission and distribution levels, have rela-
on a feeder level. tively low regulatory or implementation barriers, and are not
It should be noted that the effectiveness of dynamic tariffs difficult to be integrated into a power system. However, such
on congestion management can be significantly improved by a solution has scalability limitations. DSO bilateral agree-
increasing the geographical and temporal granularity, e.g., ments would be impractical at an individual DER level due
by changing those tariffs hourly and per feeder. However, to complexity, high costs, privacy, and user comfort issues.
this comes at the expense of technical complexity and regu- For these reasons, DSOs are directed toward market-based
latory obstacles (e.g., fairness). solutions through the EU Clean Energy Package, which
Another relevant mechanism that has been proposed states that “DSOs shall procure flexibility services in accor-
is a finer geographical granularity of power markets. This dance with transparent, nondiscriminatory and market-
could be done by moving from a zonal pricing system based procedures.”
(Denmark has two bidding zones) to a nodal pricing system. Market-based solutions are sought after for congestion
Such a change can be effective in alleviating transmission- alleviation at a transmission level as well, mainly due to the
level congestion. However, nodal pricing would need to be high renewable power infeed, as described next. Bilateral
table 1. An assessment of the different mechanisms for unlocking flexibility

in renewables-based power systems with flexible demand.
Criterion Effectiveness on Ease of Market Impact on System
Mechanism Congestion Management Implementation Compatibility Balancing
ToU Tariffs Low (T, D, F) High (T, D, F) High (T, D, F) Negative
Dynamic Tariffs Low (T) Medium (T, D) Medium (T, D, F) Negative
Medium (D, F) Low (F)
Finer Geographical High (T, D, F) Medium (T) Medium (T) Neutral
Granularity Low (D, F) Low (D, F)
Bilateral Agreements High (T, D, F) Medium (T, D) High (T, D, F) Negative
Low (F)
Local Flexibility High (T, D, F) Medium (T, D, F) High (T, D, F) Neutral
Markets
Key: T: transmission; D: distribution; F: feeder.

agreements might limit the potential of using demand-side While all of the aforementioned mechanisms can coex-
flexibility for system-balancing purposes. If system opera- ist, some are more attractive depending on the characteris-
tors can limit the grid access of flexible resources when tics of a particular power system and the regulatory frame-
flexibility is needed on a system level, the alleviation of work. Research and pilot projects can provide valuable
congestion may be achieved at the expense of flexibility uti- insights and real-life experiences and learnings, guiding
lization for system balancing. However, limited grid access all of the relevant stakeholders toward the most appropri-
also results in significant savings for both asset owners and ate and beneficial solutions.
system operators (due to reduced network upgrade costs), so
a cost-benefit analysis is necessary to determine if an unlim- Energy Security and Marketplaces for
ited grid access results in socioeconomic benefits higher Flexibility Procurement: Some Real-Life
than the required connection fees. Experience from Denmark
Local flexibility markets are envisioned to operate in par-
The mechanisms presented in the previous section intend
allel to the existing power markets, with system operators to facilitate the use of demand-side flexibility and safely
being able to procure flexibility at specified locations of the
integrate DERs and demand-side management in modern
network, both at transmission and distribution levels. Such power systems. Since the early 1990s unbundling, power
markets are more compatible with the EU Clean Energy system operation has been becoming more market based. As
Package, regarding the market-based procurement of flex- a result, the opportunities for exploiting DER flexibility and
ibility services. demand-side management are continuously expanding. This
The Lolland project tests how a local flexibility mar- leads to more revenue streams for the owners of those assets,
ket can solve congestion at a transmission level on the increased competition and operational cost reductions, more
island of Lolland, which often experiences congestion business opportunities for actors such as aggregators, and
due to very large amounts of renewable power produc- multiple benefits to the overall system operation.
tion. The project will allow the TSO to acquire balanc- Flexibility in Denmark, and particularly demand-side
ing power on an individual transformer basis, in contrast flexibility, is primarily procured and activated by the Danish
to current practice where balancing power is offered per TSO, Energinet, in a national and Nordic balancing market.
bidding zone. However, this trend is changing by establishing additional
The Danish EcoGrid 2.0 designed and demonstrated a local marketplaces for flexibility procurement in two directions:
flexibility market on the island of Bornholm. In this market, 1) downstream marketplaces, such as localized flexibil-
DSOs can acquire flexibility services by DER aggregators in a ity markets as well as local energy communities, and 2)
market-based environment. These services can increase DSO upstream marketplaces, such as regional (e.g., Nordic and
reliability, provide flexibility in case of planned maintenance
Pan-European) markets. This upcoming trend is illustrated
or faults, and resolve potential conflicts between the safe oper-
in Figure 4, including an example for each market.
ation of the distribution network and the provision of services As examples for downstream markets, two energy com-
at a system level by DERs. Since local flexibility markets canmunities in Denmark were recently demonstrated: the
operate seamlessly in parallel to the existing markets, their Energy Collective project in Bofællesskabet Svalin and
operational integration is relatively easy, whereas, by provid-
the EnergyLab Nordhavn project in the Nordhavn area of
ing a market platform for localized market procurement, the Copenhagen. Further development of energy communities
potential use of demand-side flexibility for system balancing is expected to be initiated in Denmark in the coming years.
is not negatively affected. Additionally, EcoGrid 2.0 designed and demonstrated a
local DSO-level flexibility mar-
ket, which will be described later.
As examples of upstream mar-
kets, the Nordic Balancing Model
European is the foundation for continued
Market Nordic cooperation and a market
Regional
Market for manual frequency-restoration
National e n t reserve and automatic frequency-
pm
Localized
Market D evelo
rea m restoration reserve services. The
Market Upst
Community annual socioeconomic benefits of
Market Nordic cooperation are estimated
ent
e v e lopm to be around €200 million and
D
n stream
Do w going to be modernized to ensure
a safe transition to a new way of
figure 4. The existing and upcoming marketplaces for demand-side flexibility pro- operating the Nordic power sys-
curement in Denmark. tem. It will be compliant with

and able to join European-level balancing energy exchange patterns, grid data, and field testing for transcontinental
markets, i.e., the Manually Activated Reserves Initiative replicability. A core part of the research activity focuses
(MARI) and the Platform for the International Coordina- on how EVs with commercial bidirectional chargers can be
tion of Automated Frequency Restoration and Stable Sys- used to provide frequency support to the system. Twenty-one
tem Operation (PICASSO). It is expected that the technical vehicles used by the municipality of Bornholm, paired with
prerequisites for joining the MARI and PICASSO platforms 21 10-kW bidirectional chargers operated by a commercial
will be fulfilled by early 2023, allowing the Nordic manual aggregator, are offering frequency containment reserve for
frequency-restoration reserve market to join the MARI dur- normal operation by bidding in the Danish ancillary ser-
ing the second half of 2023. This will provide several new vices market. Vehicles are driven every day for their normal
business opportunities for flexibility providers in the Nordic use but can still provide frequency reserves for more than
area. In parallel, several Internet of Things, artificial intel- 14 h/day.
ligence, and blockchain platforms, e.g., “Flex Platform,” are Figure 6 presents a sample of the aggregated response
developing in Denmark, intending to precisely model the from the vehicles following a certain frequency profile.
flexibility of each demand-side asset, unlock its flexibility, The average latency between requested and provided
bring it to the existing and upcoming markets, and offer var- power is around 6 s, and the charger-vehicle pairs are
ious types of flexibility services on an aggregated asset level. capable of following the desired set point. However, the
The island of Bornholm has been used in several of the effect of such latencies on power system stability should
projects as a field testbed (Figure 5). Bornholm is a Dan- be carefully investigated and potentially update the ser-
ish island that has been a European frontrunner in the green vice specifications for ancillary services provided by
transition. The population of the 588-km2 island is approxi- demand response. It also emphasizes the necessity of
mately 40,000, and the electricity and district heating gener- enhancing the performance of flexible demand-side units
ation on the island is based on 100% renewable sources from and their control infrastructure. In most cases, commer-
wind, sun, and biomass. The island acts as a laboratory for cial chargers are not designed for offering fast-frequency
the testing of new energy technologies, electricity markets, control. Their capabilities may need to be adjusted and
and operational concepts. the monitoring and control infrastructure further devel-
One of these projects is the real-life demonstration of oped under the system operator’s requirements, espe-
the Across Continents Electric Vehicle Services project that cially given the progressive reduction of system inertia
investigates the technoeconomic system benefits of large- that may require very small delays in the provision of
scale EV integration in Bornholm, augmented by real usage frequency reserves.
figure 5. The living lab of Bornholm island, Denmark. This figure is a snapshot, showing the instantaneous level of total
wind, solar, and biomass-based productions, total demand, and import/export level at 10:21 a.m. on 7 December 2020.
(Source: PowerLabDK, https://bornholm.powerlab.dk/; used with permission.)

On the economic side, the provision of primary fre- operates in parallel to the existing markets. The demonstra-
quency control is attractive, but network tariffs/taxes and tions involved 800 flexible residential customers with con-
hardware performance (mainly losses) may negatively affect trollable heating loads on the island of Bornholm.
the business case. Particular emphasis is given to battery The developed local flexibility market in the EcoGrid 2.0
degradation, which is a topic of concern for vehicle owners. project was designed such that DSOs can acquire flexibility
Measurements on the vehicles’ health are ongoing, and early services from aggregators in a market-based environment.
results show limited degradation despite a rather intense The potential use of flexibility from the DSO side could
duty cycle for the provision of the service. be to reduce consumption during periods of exceptionally
EcoGrid 2.0 was a large and pivotal project in the sys- high demand. Another use of aggregator flexibility could be
tem integration of demand-side flexibility use on both dis- avoidance of the disconnection of customers during periods
tribution and transmission levels. It proposed, implemented, of planned maintenance of the distribution network.
and tested a local flexibility market for the procurement of A particularly attractive feature of such a market is that
DSO services. Such a local flexibility market can be easily potential conflicts from the use of flexibility at both DSO
integrated into power markets and system operation, as it and TSO levels can be resolved without the need for explicit
DSO-TSO coordination. For example, in the case of over-
loading distribution network components due to the aggre-
gator activation of flexibility at the TSO level, the DSO
Frequency (Hz)
50.06 can activate acquired services and alleviate the congestion.

50.04
50.02
These services have been offered by aggregators, and poten-
50 tial DSO service activations are incorporated into the aggre-
49.98 gator’s operational planning so that the consequences on the
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 delivery of other services to the TSO will be to the aggrega-
Time (min) tor’s knowledge.
(a) EcoGrid 2.0 operated the developed market with two
60 competing aggregators. These two aggregators virtually
40
participated in the Danish balancing market while, at the
Power (kW)
20
0 same time, offering DSO services through the local flexibil-
–20
–40 ity market. One of the main goals of the project was the pro-
–60
–80 vision of DSO flexibility at low aggregation levels, even at a
–100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 low-voltage level. The results from a series of tests, typically
Time (min) involving around 100 households, are illustrated in Figure 7.
Although relying on a proven technology with limited func-
Requested Power Provided Power
tionality and flexible loads could not be metered separately
(b) (each house was equipped with one smart meter, measuring
the total net demand), DSO load-reduction services could be
figure 6. The provision of frequency containment reserve delivered with appropriate accuracy.
for normal operation from 21 EVs located on the island of
Bornholm. (Data courtesy of NUVVE.) Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Flexibility is becoming more abundant in power systems as
more DERs are being installed and technological barriers are
gradually eliminated. Numerous research projects and expe-
Delivered Load Reduction (kW)
200 riences from power market participation have demonstrated

that flexible resources can offer power system services while
150
meeting the technical requirements of system operators.
100
However, it is challenging to unlock this large potential and
use it to enhance the energy security of the power system.
50 Demand-side flexibility needs to be utilized on multiple
market levels to fully realize its potential and broaden the
0 spectrum of commercial opportunities for asset owners
0 50 100 150 200
Requested Load Reduction (kW)
and aggregators. There are currently many parallel devel-
opments that lead to an emerging multilayered landscape.
figure 7. The requested versus delivered flexibility from Energy communities are promoted by several stakehold-
households with heat pumps or direct electric heating on ers, including the EU, as a means of the democratization
the island of Bornholm. Each point represents a response of energy procurement, which empowers and engages end
from an average of 100 households. users. Denmark is very active in this field, with several

projects investigating such consumer-centric decentralized can fulfill their role, operate in parallel, and not jeopardize
electricity market structures. At the same time, local flex- the secure operation of the system and on how these develop-
ibility markets are advocated as an efficient market-based ments can be facilitated by a future digital energy architec-
approach in procuring flexibility at finer geographical gran- ture with open interfaces.
ularities. Denmark is very engaged in those developments Future research projects at Danish and EU levels should
as well with large projects, such as EcoGrid 2.0 and Lolland include DSOs and TSOs, as well as aggregators and asset
Local Market. owners, in large-scale demonstrations that resemble real oper-
With the current low energy prices and high equipment ations as closely as possible. Such projects can provide valu-
costs due to the lack of standardization, the resulting small able insights and learnings, point out regulatory or technical
payments per flexible resource make it challenging to estab- challenges that require particular consideration, and provide a
lish viable business models except for perhaps a few cases, way forward to make attractive business cases for all actors.
such as the provision of frequency reserves. Standardization
is widely recognized as a key requirement for improving the For Further Reading
economic attractiveness of flexibility procurement. A coor- “Powering Denmark’s green transition,” The Danish Gov-
dinated effort on a European level is underway to harmonize ernment’s Climate Partnerships, 2020. [Online]. Available:
TSO practices, regarding the monitoring, validation, and https://www.danskenergi.dk/the-climate-partnership-the-
standardization of communication. The recently proposed energy-and-utilities-sector
platform, Equigy, can act as a common and standardized P. Pinson, L. Mitridati, C. Ordoudis, and J. Østergaard,
interface among TSOs, aggregators, and DERs to facilitate ”Towards fully renewable energy systems: Experience and
the prequalification, provision, and validation of ancillary trends in Denmark,” CSEE J. Power Energy Syst., vol. 3,
services. The Danish TSO, Energinet, represents Denmark no. 1, pp. 26–35, 2017. doi: 10.17775/CSEEJPES.2017.0005.
in this effort to utilize digitalization and blockchain tech- “Danish research projects within smart grids 2010–2019,”
nologies to lift the barriers for the mass integration of DERs Zenodo, June 16, 2020. doi: 10.5281/zenodo.3866327
in power system operation. FinGrid, Energinet, Statnett and Svenska Kraftnät, “Lo-
DSOs are expected to play a pivotal role in this transition cal Flexibility Projects in the Nordics,” 2020. [Online]. Avail-
to a DER-dominated power system. The substantial increase able: https://energinet.dk/-/media/F3F4B2A805014164A5F
in electricity demand and the amount of flexible demand that 9FB8F5107176B.pdf
follows the volatile power market prices pose a threat in the C. Heinrich, C. Ziras, A. L. A. Syrri, and H. W. Bindner,
security of the supply of end-users unless costly grid reinforce- ”EcoGrid 2.0: A large-scale field trial of a local flexibility
ments are undertaken. Demand-side flexibility can turn this market,” Appl. Energy, vol. 261, 2020, Art. no. 114399. doi:
challenge into an opportunity by creating new value streams, 10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.114399.
given that the appropriate framework is in place. The Danish A. Zecchino, A. M. Prostejovsky, C. Ziras, and M.
DSOs and TSO have established a market and operation col- Marinelli, ”Large-scale provision of frequency control via
laboration committee to discuss such future challenges and V2G: The Bornholm Power System Case,” Electric power
how to develop operational and market-based solutions. System Res., vol. 170, pp. 25–34, May 2019. doi: 10.1016/j.
This is unique internationally and has proven to be effi- epsr.2018.12.027.
cient with common proposals for a future tariff structure
and the establishment of a pilot project on a local flexibility Biographies
market. The Danish Energy Authorities have also started Jacob Østergaard is with the Technical University of Den-
the Marked Model 3.0 initiative, which focuses on 1) ensur- mark, Kongens Lyngby, 2800, Denmark.
ing power system security via market-based solutions, 2) Charalampos Ziras is with the Technical University of
enhancing flexibility via active customers and new actors, Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, 2800, Denmark.
and 3) developing the role of DSOs in the market. As part of Henrik W. Bindner is with the Technical University of
the initiative, the Danish market design for local flexibility Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, 2800, Denmark.
will be developed. Jalal Kazempour is with the Technical University of
In this new landscape, flexibility must be utilized concur- Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, 2800, Denmark.
rently in different contexts, including the traditional electric- Mattia Marinelli is with the Technical University of
ity markets, emerging local communities, local flexibility Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, 2800, Denmark.
markets, and regional/European marketplaces. As a result, Peter Markussen is with Energinet, Fredericia, 7000,
the need for research focused on system integration, market Denmark.
mechanisms, and actor coordination is more relevant than Signe Horn Rosted is with Energinet, Fredericia, 7000,
ever. There are open research questions regarding DSO-TSO Denmark.
coordination and which mechanisms are more appropriate Jørgen S. Christensen is with Danish Energy, Frederiks-
for the efficient and secure integration of DERs. Other open berg C, 1900, Denmark.
p&e
questions exist on how the aforementioned new marketplaces

A Vision
to Enhance
Transmission
Security
The Case of Switzerland’s
Power System
I
IT IS HARD TO IMAGINE LIFE WITHOUT ELEC- Electric power systems have been undergoing massive
tricity. Electrical energy is constantly consumed to allow changes over the last few decades. This includes the integra-
humanity to carry out diverse activities ranging from charg- tion of high levels of small-scale energy resources in distri-
ing mobile phones to controlling the flow of vehicles and bution grids, the electrification of transportation and heat-
pedestrians with traffic lights. Due to its widespread usage ing/cooling sectors, higher volatility due to uncertain power
and significance, some people take the availability of in-feed from renewable energy generation, the international-
electric power for granted and expect that the lights will ization of energy markets, and increasing public opposition
always turn on when they turn on the switch. Neverthe- to grid expansion, just to name a few. These changes make it
less, when illuminating our rooms, we need to appreciate increasingly challenging to maintain the security of supply
that an extensive power system infrastructure is in place in the power system.
to securely generate, transport, and distribute electrical Power system security is defined as the ability of the sys-
energy to our homes. tem to withstand sudden disturbances or unanticipated loss
By Evangelos Vrettos, Marc Hohmann,

and Marek Zima

©SHUTTERSTOCK.COM/STEFANO EMBER
of system elements and is closely related to system adequacy, operators, and we provide examples of recent relevant
reliability, and integrity. This article is concerned with secu- initiatives at Swissgrid.
rity issues in the operation of the high-voltage transmission
grid originating from environmental or transmission con- Security Challenges and Today’s
straints and focuses on the case of Switzerland. Specifi- Transmission System Operator
cally, we focus on steady-state insecurity, namely violations Operational Philosophy
in transmission line flows or bus voltage limits following Power system security is one of the key responsibilities of
a component contingency, without considering dynamic TSOs. This article elaborates on how system security is
aspects such as maintaining synchronism and system stabil- addressed in the planning and operational procedures in
ity following the disturbance. Switzerland. Despite the Swiss focus, the principles of the
First, we describe today’s operational philosophy operational philosophy outlined here apply to several other
of Swissgrid, the Swiss transmission system operator European TSOs as well.
(TSO), which is also commonly applied by other Euro-
pean TSOs. Next, we identify potential risks of this The Unique Characteristics
operational philosophy, which we exemplify through dis- of the Swiss Power System
cussion of recent grid events in the Swiss power system The Swiss transmission system is very strongly intercon-
and link to observed trends in system operation. Finally, nected with its neighboring countries. There are, in fact, 41
we argue that a new operational paradigm is needed to cross-border transmission lines compared to about 160 lines
mitigate such risks in the transmission grid of the future. that both start and end within Switzerland.
This new philosophy relies on data analytics and deci- The Swiss transmission system evolved organically by
sion support systems (DSSs) to assist the work of system following the residential and commercial activity patterns

as well as the natural energy sources. Thus, the consumption by annual seasonality, short-term volatility, the availability of
centers are located in the north, together with run-of-river timely and accurate information/data from other stakeholders,
hydropower plants and nuclear stations, whereas the storage and limited enforceability or intervention possibilities. These
and pumped-storage plants (in other words, the more flex- challenges are addressed in a set of procedures spanning vari-
ible power plants) are in the Alps in the south. The stron- ous geographical ranges and time scales.
gest transmission path runs from the north to the south, or ✔ Day-ahead regional (cross-border) coordinated oper-
rather southeast, from where it extends to Italy. Historical ational planning: To capture the effect of various parts
flows naturally followed the structure of the transmission of the interconnected system on other parts, TSOs of
lines, with the cross-border exchange joining in domi- continental Europe exchange their data for the coming
nantly with the imports from France and Germany and day and carry out a coordinated security assessment.
exports toward Italy. If they recognize a risk, which can be mitigated only
The Swiss power system features another characteris- by an action in another country, they place the corre-
tic that is not common in most other continental European sponding request. First, topological measures (e.g., re-
systems: the subtransmission system and some distribution configuring busbars in a substation) are checked, and
systems do not have a radial structure but are rather strongly if the computed effect is not sufficient, a preventive
meshed and connected to transmission nodes in several loca- redispatch (or, more precisely expressed, countertrad-
tions. Thus, they accommodate part of the power flows in ing) is triggered among TSOs. Alternatively, trans-
parallel to the transmission lines. mission capacities between the countries are restricted
The installed production capacity exceeds 20 GW, with for the trading activities of the following day.
the peak consumption being approximately 11.5 GW, so the ✔ Day-ahead operational planning in Switzerland: The
traditional adequacy assessment does not reveal the weak- data from the stakeholders are collected first, includ-
ness of the system, which is the energy scarcity in particu- ing expected power plant schedules, consumption
lar months due to the seasonality in water inflows. This is forecasts, and planned cross-border exchanges. An
caused by the utilization of water in the reservoirs of hydro- N−1 security assessment in the form of contingency
power plants during winter, which only start to refill again screening is applied for the expected deterministic
in the summer when snow in the Alps melts. scenario. In the case of congestions in the production
Switzerland has adopted a self-scheduling market design, regions, congestion warnings are issued to the produc-
with the vast majority of transactions taking place “over-the- ers. Some topological measures may be applied. No
counter” on a typically bilateral basis between the market redispatch actions take place as further trading activi-
participants. Only a small portion of transactions are “vis- ties may take place in the intraday market.
ible” in the power exchange. There is no explicit connec- ✔ Intraday and real-time operation: Switzerland is not
tion between transactions and the underlying physical assets. included in the electricity market coupling of the Eu-
All technical constraints of the power plants are embedded ropean Union member states. Thus, the Swiss system
into the transactions or bids. Although electricity transac- is occasionally subjected to a sudden change of the
tions have to respect the net transfer capacities among coun- transmission flows with minimal previous awareness.
tries, the transmission constraints on the level of individual Also, stakeholders within Switzerland may change
transmission lines are not explicitly included in the market their positions and actions communicated in the day-
activities—the assumption of a “copper plate” is applied. ahead market on very short notice due to a variety
If congestion in network elements occurs as a result of the of reasons. Therefore, a rolling security assessment
market activities, it is the responsibility of the TSO to apply forecast is carried out every 15 min for the period of
remedial actions to mitigate them. the subsequent 4 h. Operators may then decide which
From an organizational point of view, the Swiss electric- countermeasures to employ and in which sequence
ity landscape is quite fragmented for a system with an annual (preventive, corrective) to guarantee security. Again,
consumption of about 65 TWh. There are about 80 power typically topological measures are applied first, when
plant companies, even though they often have similar share- available, which are mostly determined by operators
holders, and more than 600 distribution system operators based on experience or simulation-based methodolo-
(DSOs). About 100 balance responsible parties group con- gies. If no suitable topological measure is available,
sumers and producers for scheduling and electricity transit redispatch is employed within Switzerland or if no
purposes. Switzerland is surrounded by member countries of national redispatch measure is available, cross-border
the European Union subjected to its legislation, which is not redispatch with the neighboring TSOs is applied.
directly adopted by Switzerland.
The Maintenance of Transmission Assets
Operation and Operational Planning The maintenance of transmission assets naturally takes
The factors described in the previous section imply that the place in the summer months as environmental conditions are
operation of the Swiss transmission system is strongly affected most favorable at that time, especially in the Alps, and the

In general, a comprehensive medium-term energy security planning
process is needed, which includes planned grid and power plant
outages, hydro storage levels, and market conditions.
electricity demand is lowest in summer, not necessitating the consumers is mostly via the 220-kV level, up to 85% of
availability of all power plants. imported power comes in via the 380-kV level during win-
The process follows a bottom-up approach: transmission tertime. Since the transformation capacity between the
assets are grouped according to region, with the regional 380- and 220-kV level was limited, the risk of premature
manager submitting the maintenance requests for approval. depletion of the hydro storage dams (most of them are con-
The requests are checked by the operational planning team nected to the 220-kV network) followed by a lack of energy
in order of submission, applying rough assumptions about supply increased. The problem was amplified due to the
the expected system conditions as the future system state is rather high energy prices at the beginning of the winter,
not accurately known or forecasted. This means there is also which resulted in many Swiss hydro storage power plants
little information about the assumed availability of possible often exporting energy. An illustration of the problem
corrective actions. related to the limited production resources in the 220-kV
Power plants similarly announce their maintenance network is given in Figure 1.
schedules on an individual basis. Their unavailability is con- To mitigate these problems, a temporary connection of
sidered for the system security assessment, but the TSO has the transformer in Laufenburg that allowed transformation
only an advisory role in rescheduling, with the only excep- between the 380- and 220-kV networks was carried out,
tion being the power plants contracted for black start and and a reserve transformer was commissioned in Tierfehd,
islanding operation capability. as depicted in Figure 2. Moreover, topological measures in
Note that data exchange with DSOs takes place only to Werben and Bürs increased the import on the 220-kV level
a limited extent in the planning stage. Thus, when mainte- from Austria via the Rhine valley. The outcome of these
nance takes place in the distribution grid, the transmission measures was to increase the net transfer capacity to France,
system may be affected in real time without the detailed Germany, and Austria during peak times. To allow for a
awareness on the side of the TSO. higher import to cover the domestic consumption in Swit-
zerland, monthly export products (cross-border capacity) to
Historical Grid Events neighboring countries were made unavailable during winter.
in the Swiss System The measures taken by Swissgrid, together with the unusu-
Although today’s operational philosophy has been largely ally mild, rainy winter weather and the recommissioning
successful in maintaining the security of the power supply, of block 2 of the Beznau nuclear power plant on 23 and
some recent grid events have demonstrated growing poten- 24 December 2015, helped improve the grid situation from
tial risks due to the evolution of the changes to which the the Christmas holidays 2015–2016 onwards.
system is subjected. This section discusses several recent This event demonstrated the challenges in maintaining
events and attempts to identify relevant aspects of the opera- the overall adequacy and security of supply in an electric-
tional philosophy that could be improved to better handle ity system with unbundled production and grid operation.
such situations in the future. Swissgrid is responsible for maintaining network secu-
rity, but no entity in Switzerland is in charge of ensuring
The Winter 2015–2016 Situation the overall security of supply. In general, a comprehensive
A problematic supply and grid situation was identified in medium-term energy security planning process is needed,
December 2015 due to a combination of circumstances. Dry which includes planned grid and power plant outages, hydro
weather conditions during summer and autumn led to lower storage levels, and market conditions.
power generation from run-of-river plants. The filling lev-
els of hydro storage plants published by the Swiss Office Grid Security Violation on 20 May 2019
of Energy were below the long-term annual average. More- Due to attractive market conditions, there was an unusu-
over, nuclear power reactors Beznau 1 and 2 on the 220-kV ally high generation of electrical power in Switzerland (up
level were out of operation, totaling 720 MW of missing to 12 GW) on 20 May 2019 as well as a high net export to
power in-feed. neighboring countries (up to 4.5 GW). In particular, there
The missing base production from run-of-river and was high planned export to Germany (up to 4 GW export,
nuclear plants had to be compensated by imports and produc- whereas Switzerland typically imports from Germany), very
tion from hydro storage plants. While the supply of Swiss low export to Italy (1.3 GW, which is quite uncommon), and

import from France (600 MW). This export situation to the overloading a 220-kV network element and multiple N−1
north, unusual in comparison to the past, is potentially prob- violations on the 220-kV level of the transmission grid.
lematic for the Swiss transmission grid and might result in The following aspects were identified as the main causes
congestion because production has to be transported to the of this event:
north via the 220-kV grid within Switzerland. ✔ the uncommon export situation and high energy
On top of this unusual export pattern, the concurrence production in Switzerland together with short-term
of several other factors led to a security violation. In the changes in power production schedules
distribution grid, several outages planned by a DSO were ✔ the effect of topological changes in the distribution
executed, and these were not known to the TSO. In the same grid on the transmission grid as well as the effect of
region of the distribution grid, transit flows from the trans- topological measures in the transmission grid on the
mission grid through the distribution grid caused the overload allocation in the lower-voltage grids.
loading of a distribution line and the need for an unplanned Whereas the first point is mostly related to the expansion
outage of the affected line, of which the TSO was not planning of the Swiss power grid, the second one is related to
aware. These topological changes in the distribution grid today’s operational philosophy. Specifically, the congestion
due to the execution of planned outages and actions to forecast tool was unable to predict the violations of transmis-
avoid overloading the line, which were unexpected for the sion grid elements in time because the subtransmission and dis-
TSO, required topological measures (transformer phase tribution networks are not included in the model. Therefore, the
shifts) in the transmission grid. These, in turn, led to load main lesson from this grid event is the importance of having an
redistribution. Furthermore, there were short-term produc- operational philosophy that considers the subtransmission and
tion increases planned and communicated only shortly distribution networks (or at least important networked parts of
before real time. The combination of these factors led to them) both in outage planning and real-time operations.
Germany,
France, Austria
Nuclear Storage
Power Plants Power Plants
Import/ Import/
Leibstadt Gösgen
Export Export Imports Supply Exports
MW MW
t t GL 1 75–85% 5% 80–90%
Base Load Peak
380-kV Grid Energy
Nuclear Storage
Power Plants Power Plants
Mühleberg Beznau 1/ GL 1
Beznau 2
MW MW
t t GL 1 15–5% 95% 10–20%
Base Load Peak Energy
220-kV Grid
Run-of-River Storage GL 2
Power Plant Power Plants
MW MW MW
t t GL 3– 7
Base Load Peak Energy
Distribution Grid
Transformation Power Plants
figure 1. An illustration of the cause of the winter 2015–2016 situation with most of the load, but only limited power pro-
duction and import, in the 220-kV grid. Import was mainly via the 380-kV level, but the transformation capacity between
the 380- and 220-kV levels was limited.

Minimum Production Product economical to alternative measures, such as reducing the
in Winter 2019–2020 net transfer capacity to Austria, Germany, and France (i.e.,
Following the plan for phasing out nuclear power in Swit- to incentivize Swiss power plants to increase production) or
zerland, the Mühleberg nuclear power plant was decommis- resorting to many shorter-term national and/or international
sioned in November 2019. The decommissioning coincided redispatch calls closer to real-time operation.
with limited controllability and capacity limitations for the This is a relevant example of real-world situations where
Bassecourt transformer and delays in the commissioning new measures against grid insecurity must be devised by
of a new transformer in Mühleberg. As a consequence, and system operators in a short amount of time. Despite the
assuming that the missing power was to be compensated by measure’s success, this event demonstrated the value of an
additional import from the north, i.e., by increasing the net integrated approach for outage planning and the selection
transfer capacity to Austria, Germany, and France, some net- of remedial actions, which can include the design of new or
work elements in Western Switzerland (especially the trans- customized products such as longer-term minimum power
former in Bassecourt) were expected to be overloaded during production products. TSOs would benefit from a new opera-
the low consumption period between Christmas 2019 and tional paradigm, including such an integrated planning and
New Year 2020. operation approach.
To guarantee grid security in the region between Bassec-
ourt, Mühleberg, and Chamoson, Swissgrid agreed upon COVID-19 Lockdown in March–April 2020
a minimum level of production with selected power plants As a measure against the spread of COVID-19, the Swiss
in Western Switzerland from 20 December 2019 to 6 Janu- Federal Council ordered the closing of stores and public ven-
ary 2020. Specifically, the selected power plants agreed ues starting 16 March 2020. Neighboring European coun-
to cumulatively produce a minimum of 200 MW at off- tries took similar measures around the same point in time.
peak times and 400 MW at peak times. This longer-term As a consequence, the domestic energy consumption dur-
preventive measure was shown to be preferable and more ing weekdays and the energy flows in and across the Swiss
any
rm Lines
Ge
Substations
1 St. Gallen
France
Zürich
2
Austria
Bern 3
Chur
France
France
Genève
Lugano
Italy
Italy
Italy
Italy
figure 2. The measures applied to relieve the stressed grid situation in winter 2015–2016. Location 1: a temporary con-
nection of the transformer in Laufenburg to allow for transformation between the 380- and 220-kV networks. Location
2: the topological measures to increase the import on the 220-kV level from Austria via the Rhine Valley. Location 3: the
commissioning of a reserve transformer in Tierfehd.

network decreased significantly. Figure 3 illustrates the determined by the operators based on experience or com-
country-wise aggregated load profile right before and after puted using simulation-based approaches. Due to the
the lockdown, where the sudden reduction in consumption is advantages of optimization-based methods, such methods
apparent. The subsequent higher injection of reactive power are being investigated by some TSOs for determining the
from distribution grids (because feeder cables are capacitive best remedial actions. Optimization models are mostly
at light loading conditions) and the lower inductive absorp- based on dc network models as they target avoiding line
tion of reactive power in transmission lines increased the risk overloadings. Nevertheless, the COVID-19 situation
of local overvoltages. To mitigate this risk, additional reactive showed the significance of an operational philosophy
power reserves were activated. Also, topological measures allowing system operators to implement preventive mea-
(e.g., line switching and transformer tapping) were imple- sures to circumvent voltage violations in addition to typi-
mented to decrease or redistribute reactive power flows. cal curative measures. To efficiently and systematically
As mentioned in the “Operation and Operational Plan- compute preventive measures against voltage violations,
ning” section, preventive remedial actions are typically optimization models that can handle ac network models
would be required together with the associated computa-
tional and algorithmic innovations.
1
Overall Trends in System Operation
0.9 The previous analysis of recent grid events revealed specific
to Peak Load in March 2019
aspects of system operation that would benefit from a new

0.8
operational philosophy. To evaluate the need for a new oper-
Load Relative
0.7 ational paradigm, one can also observe the overall trends in
system operation in recent years. In this section, we pres-
0.6
ent a simple analysis of the historical remedial actions in
0.5 the Swiss transmission system taken against N−1 or voltage
security violations. The remedial actions include topologi-
0.4
cal measures to optimize either power flows or voltage pro-
0.3 files as well as generation redispatch. Furthermore, we dis-
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 tinguish between two types of redispatch actions: national
Hour of the Week, Starting Sunday 00:00 and international redispatch. National redispatch actions
Average Consumption in March 2019 are on Swiss power plants in response to internal issues
Week Before Lockdown in the Swiss transmission grid. On the other hand, inter-
First Week of Lockdown national redispatch actions implemented by Swiss power
Second Week of Lockdown plants are part of an international coordinated redispatch
effort to resolve problems in either the Swiss or neighboring
figure 3. The impact of the lockdown measures on Swiss power grids.
electrical consumption. Figure 4 displays the annual number of topological mea-
sures from 2015 to 2019 that were implemented either to
optimize the power flows and relieve congestions or to opti-
mize the voltage profile across the grid. A linear increasing
2,000
Load Flow Optimization
trend is visible in both cases.
Number of Topological Measures
1,800
Voltage Optimization Figure 5 demonstrates the trend in redispatched energy
1,600 from 2014 to 2019. Besides the total energy values, we
Total
1,400 present the breakdown into Swiss and international
1,200 redispatches as well as generation decrease and increase
1,000 actions. Even though it is hard to identify clear patterns
800 for the various combinations, there is a general increas-
600 ing trend for the total redispatched energy. A clearer trend
400
exists in the frequency of redispatch actions, which is
quantified by the number of days when at least one redis-
200
patch action was carried out (Figure 6). Furthermore, it is
0
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 relevant to mention that the majority of redispatch actions
Year was international (79% in terms of redispatch duration).
This observation underlines the significance of TSO–TSO
figure 4. The trend in topological measures as remedial coordination as part of today’s operational procedures, as
actions. explained previously.

Finally, there have been several recent grid situations analytics can be applied to evaluate the effectiveness of his-
where avoiding N−1 violations by applying separated busbar torical remedial actions. A possible approach would start
operations in several substations would lead to a low degree with assessing the accuracy of the congestion forecast tool
of connectivity in the transmission grid. In the worst case and proceed with analyzing and classifying historical grid
after a busbar operation, if a substation is connected to the snapshots. More precisely, for each grid snapshot with secu-
rest of the grid with only one transmission line, the unex- rity violations, the goal would be to determine the root cause
pected tripping of this line (e.g., a lightning strike) would such as 1) no congestion warning was issued due to poor
cause the loss of the substation and the interruption of supply forecast quality of generation and/or load; 2) congestion
in the underlying distribution grid. was correctly predicted, but the selected remedial action
To summarize, the number of remedial actions against turned out to be inefficient; and 3) congestion was correctly
N−1 or voltage violations has been increasing over the last predicted, but there was no available remedial action to
years, which increases the burden on the system operators in mitigate the insecurity event. This analysis can help a TSO
the control room. As mentioned earlier, remedial actions are
mostly determined based on experience and rules of thumb
derived from simulation-based approaches. We believe that 300
system operation would benefit from a DSS that provides the
operators with suggested remedial actions against N−1 and
Redispatched Energy (GWh)

250
voltage violations. More importantly, the DSS could effi-
ciently account for possible undesired side effects of actions 200
against one problem (e.g., N−1 violation) on other opera-
tional criteria (e.g., voltage profiles and degree of transmis- 150
sion network connectivity).
100
Vision for a New Operational Paradigm
The analysis of recent grid events and trends in system 50
operation demonstrate that improvements in the cur-
0
rent operational philosophy, or even a new philosophy, 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
are needed to ensure power system security in an ever- Year
changing environment. In this section, we discuss ele-
ments that shall have a central role in a new successful CH-Decrease CH-Total
operational paradigm. CH-Increase International-Total
International-Decrease Total
International-Increase
Analytics and Visualization
Secure power system operation requires taking fast and
effective actions under critical grid conditions. Typically, figure 5. The trend in redispatched energy due to reme-
many alarms are displayed on the large monitor of a TSO dial actions. CH: Swiss national.
control center in case of a grid event. In some cases, the
system operators must visually process this information
and identify the most important alarms. Analytics and
80
artificial intelligence applied to real-time monitoring data CH
can help classify the alarms into first priority (for exam- 70
International
With Redispatch Actions
ple, alarms associated with the root cause of an event) and 60 Total
second priority (for example, alarms activated as a con-
Number of Days
50
sequence of other alarms). Such methods, in combination
with modern visualization approaches that, for example, 40
display the alarms according to their assigned priorities, 30
can help the operators obtain valuable insights into the
ongoing grid conditions and increase their reaction speed. 20
Moreover, algorithms running on monitoring data could 10
help predict imminent grid events and provide recom-
0
mendations of remedial actions to the operator to further 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
reduce the reaction time. Year
Automated ex-post data analytics can help identify the
root causes of past events of grid insecurity, learn from figure 6. The trend in the number of days per year when
them, and better prepare for the future. For example, ex-post redispatch actions were implemented.

decide where to devote more resources to improve energy Currently, Swissgrid is working on such ex-post analyt-
security, for instance, by upgrading the congestion forecast ics, and here we present some preliminary results from the
tool or by investing in a DSS for the optimization of reme- assessment of the net load forecast. As part of the intraday
dial actions. congestion forecast process, a tool generates predictions
of the aggregate net load in the Swiss system as well as
of the net load at each transmission bus. Specifically, the
Forecast Error for bus-level forecasts are obtained based on the aggregate
System-Level Active Power Injection forecast with the usage of predetermined load allocation
11
Normalized
RMSE (%)
10 factors. The predictions are updated every hour and have

9 a forecast horizon in the range of 8–24 h, depending on the
8 time of the day.
1 3 5 7 9 11 Figure 7 displays the normalized root-mean-square
Forecast Horizon (h)
error (RMSE) of the predicted net active power load for six
(a) increasing forecast horizons. The errors are computed for
Forecast Error for the period from January to April 2020. In Figure 7, (a) is
Node-Level Power Injection: 25% Quantile for the aggregate net load, whereas (b) and (c) correspond
11
Normalized
RMSE (%)
10
to bus-level predictions. Specifically, Figure 7(b) shows the
9 RMSE’s 25% quantile, and Figure 7(c) plots the median
8 value, both computed across all buses. Although the error
1 3 5 7 9 11
generally increases with the forecast horizon, the differ-
Forecast Horizon (h)
ences are rather small, and this trend is less pronounced
(b)
for bus-level predictions. In contrast to the relatively low
Forecast Error for errors for the aggregate net load, the median of the bus-level
Node-Level Active Power Injection: Median
35 RMSEs is unexpectedly high, mostly due to shifts and/or
Normalized
RMSE (%)
34 biases in the predicted time series for some of the buses.

33 This may be partly because of a significant amount of pro-
32 duction resources in and/or a meshed topology of the under-
1 3 5 7 9 11
Forecast Horizon (h) lying lower-voltage grids.
(c) Furthermore, Figure 8 illustrates the ratio of RMSE for
forecasts obtained with a 1-h lead time over those with a 7-h
figure 7. The dependence of prediction quality of net ac- lead time. The smaller the ratio, the better the relative perfor-
tive power load on the forecast horizon. mance of 1-h-ahead forecasts. While, for most transmission
Ratio Between RMSE of 1-h-Ahead

Forecast With That of 7-h-Ahead Forecast (Active Power)
1.017
47° 30′ N
0.906
Horizon 1 h: Higher Error

47° N Horizon 1 h: Lower Error
Latitude
46° 30′ N
46° N
50 km
20 mi
6° E 7° E 8° E 9° E 10° E
Longitude
figure 8. The geographical distribution and classification of transmission buses with regards to the relative accuracy of
1-h-ahead and 7-h-ahead forecasts.

buses, the 1-h-ahead forecasts are better (orange circles in activities closer to real time within the ones in the planning
the figure), there are also several buses with 7-h-ahead fore- phase (indicated with black arrows in Figure 10).
casts with higher accuracy than the 1-h-ahead ones. Future Within this general vision, we specifically propose an
investigations can focus on tracing the cause of these imper- approach to integrate the maintenance scheduling (outage
fections and improve the performance by either optimizing planning) and congestion management (congestion fore-
the load allocation factors applied in the forecast model or cast, security analysis, and remedial actions) phases of the
switching to a new forecasting approach. activity chain. Today, Swissgrid’s operational planning team
By splitting the data set into the periods before and receives maintenance plans from transmission asset owners
after the lockdown in Switzerland as a measure against (ownership of Swissgrid), generation asset owners, distribu-
the COVID-19 pandemic, we can analyze the effect of the tion asset owners (only to a limited extent), and transmission
lockdown on the forecast quality. As seen in Figure 9, the assets of neighboring TSOs. Information comes through
RMSEs are significantly lower in the prelockdown period,
especially for longer prediction horizons. This can be partly
attributed to the fact that the forecasts have a strong season-
ality component, which resulted in an overestimation of the 15
net load demand in the weeks right after the lockdown. 14 Before Lockdown
13 After Lockdown
Normalized RMSE (%)

DSSs 12
The second key aspect of the future operational philosophy 11
is an extensive usage of DSSs to assist the personnel involved 10
in core TSO tasks in decision making. As detailed in Figure 10, 9
the four core TSO activities to ensure system security 8
are 1) grid reinforcement and expansion, 2) maintenance 7
scheduling for transmission assets, 3) congestion manage-
6
ment, and 4) control actions in real-time system operation.
5
Today, these four activities typically follow a chronological 1 3 5 7 9 11
sequence and interact in a mostly unidirectional way from Forecast Horizon (h)
left to right, as depicted with the gray arrows in the figure.
We believe that higher effectiveness across the entire activ- figure 9. The effect of anti-COVID-19 lockdown mea-
ity chain can be achieved if the degree of bidirectional infor- sures (applied 16 March 2020) on the intraday congestion
mation flow increases, namely if there is the consideration of forecast error.
Portal
Goal: Network Security
Grid Expansion Maintenance Planning Congestion Management System Operation
10 Years Ahead, One Year Ahead, One Year Ahead, Real Time
Updated Every Updated Monthly One Week Ahead,
Four Years and Weekly One Day Ahead, Intraday
figure 10. Strengthening the links among the core TSO activities will enhance network security with a focus on mainte-
nance planning and congestion management. (This image has been designed using resources from Flaticon.com.)

different communication channels ranging from dedicated actions, and so on) and various nonlinearities, especially if
platforms to emails and phone calls. It then is the task of an ac power flow model is used to capture voltage violations.
the operational planning team to verify the feasibility of the Moreover, it is a large-scale problem due to the hundreds or
received maintenance schedules based on the congestion thousands of buses and transmission lines and the consider-
forecast and security analysis (at various time scales: year ation of many contingency scenarios. Further, as revealed
ahead, week ahead, and day ahead). by the analysis of some historical grid events, it is some-
In case of anticipated N or N−1 violations, three types times important to include models for the distribution grid
of measures are investigated: topological actions, generation in the study, which further increases the problem size. Such
limiting and redispatch, and maintenance rescheduling. In a large-scale, mixed-integer, nonlinear, and nonconvex opti-
the latter case, coordination with the respective asset owner mization problem is practically impossible to solve to full
is required until an alternative solution is found, and then optimality in a reasonable amount of time and with realistic
security analysis needs to be repeated to check the mea- computational resources. Nevertheless, for practical applica-
sure’s effectiveness. This iterative process is the result of tions, a good feasible solution that satisfies time and compu-
the sequential coupling between maintenance planning and tational constraints would be sufficient.
congestion management. Notably, if anticipated congestion Various methods have been proposed in the scientific lit-
can be avoided by either a real-time topological action or erature to optimize the maintenance scheduling of power grid
by rescheduling the maintenance of a grid asset, the former generation and transmission assets (in a separated, sequential,
is often preferred due to the complexity in maintenance or joint manner). The methods to solve the resulting mixed-
rescheduling among several asset owners and their mainte- integer program can be generally classified into mathemati-
nance service providers. cal programming, heuristic approaches, and combinations
To improve operational efficiency and security of supply, of these. Early mathematical programming approaches were
we envision an integrated approach to optimize the mainte- based on dynamic programming that, however, turned out
nance schedules of a control area’s transmission grid assets not to be scalable due to the curse of dimensionality. More
while considering possible congested network elements in recent approaches rely on branch and bound-based mixed-
system operation as well as the maintenance needs of gener- integer program models often enhanced with decomposition
ation and distribution grid assets. A comprehensive mainte- techniques (mostly Bender’s decomposition or Lagrang-
nance scheduling tool would comprise maintenance periods ian relaxation). Such approaches typically use a linearized
as decision variables for four types of assets: 1) transmis- dc power flow model, thus resulting in mixed-integer linear
sion assets of the control area, 2) DSO assets, 3) generation programs. A large variety of heuristics has been applied in
assets, and 4) transmission assets of neighboring control the maintenance scheduling problem, including genetic algo-
areas. Since the specific maintenance requirements of points rithms, particle swarm optimization, simulated annealing,
2)–4) are not known to the TSO of the given control area, cuckoo searches, electro search algorithms, and so on.
we propose that DSOs, generation companies, and neighbor- We believe that a hybrid approach is needed to efficiently
ing TSOs submit a list of preferred maintenance windows tackle this problem at scale, which combines elements from
as well as blocking periods when no maintenance work is mathematical optimization, heuristic optimization, artificial
possible for their assets. intelligence, and customized approximations based on oper-
As indicated in Figure 10, the submission of preferences ational experience. An example of a hybrid approach would
can be enabled by a portal that all involved parties can be applying first a heuristic to provide a set of initial fea-
access. The best maintenance window for each asset is then sible solutions and then using these to initialize branch and
determined while ensuring network security in case of con- bound-based algorithms executed in parallel to obtain local
tingencies and satisfying the submitted preferences as much optima in the neighborhood of the initial feasible solutions.
as possible. In this way, the TSO’s operational planning team Such an approach would combine the strength of heuristics
automatically obtains a maintenance schedule that mini- in efficiently exploring a vast and nonconvex search space
mizes the need for remedial actions against grid insecurity. with the guarantee of mathematical programming to return
This is a pragmatic approach placed halfway between today’s locally optimal solutions.
industrial practice where generation and distribution asset Another possibility would be to use heuristics for the
owners submit fixed maintenance schedules to the TSO and discrete variables and mathematical programming for the
idealized academic approaches where generation and trans- continuous ones, which could be done either in two steps
mission assets with distinct ownerships are co-optimized. or iteratively. For instance, one could use heuristic opti-
Figure 11 presents an illustration of the envisioned approach mization until the discrete variables converge and then
for integrated maintenance scheduling and congestion man- switch to gradient-based optimization for the remaining
agement and contrasts it with today’s practice. continuous variables. Alternatively, one could decompose
From a mathematical point of view, this is a complex the problem into an outer loop optimizing over the inte-
optimization problem due to the presence of integer deci- ger maintenance decisions (solved with heuristics) and an
sion variables (maintenance schedules, topological remedial inner loop optimizing over remedial actions [basically, a

Generation
Current Approach Envisioned Approach Maintenance
Generation
Maintenance
march/april 2021
Preferences Final Schedule
Fixed Windows Integrated Maintenance Planning

and Congestion Management
Aggregation Distribution Transmission Distribution
Transmission
of Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance Optimization Maintenance
Maintenance Preferences of Maintenance Preferences
Windows
Final Windows Final
Schedule Schedule
Fixed Windows Fixed Windows
Schedule
Maintenance Adjustments Maintenance Fitness
Schedules
Decisions Evaluation
Congestion Management SCOPF for Congestion Management
Contingency Master Problem

List SCOPF With Selected Contingencies
No
Violation? Approximate Iterative Probabilistic
Yes Topological Base-Case Solution Potentially Binding

Actions Contingencies
Slave Problems
Post-Contingency Security Analysis
Remedial Actions List
Yes Contingency Network

Solved?
Filtering Compression
Redispatch
No
• Fixed Maintenance Windows Approved or Not • Maintenance Windows Optimized Considering Preferences/Constraints
• If Not Approved, Coordinate With Asset Owners • Optimal Selection of Remedial Actions Against Contingencies
and Repeat • Tradeoff Between Remedial Actions and Maintenance Rescheduling
ieee power & energy magazine

figure 11. Today’s approach and future vision for coordination between maintenance scheduling and congestion management. (This image has been designed using
resources from Flaticon.com.)
67
security-constrained optimal power flow (SCOPF) solved effect of topological actions to the level of network connec-
with mathematical programming]. tivity. In response, we presented two key aspects of a new
Customized approximations aim at reducing the size operational paradigm that would help enhance system secu-
and/or complexity of the optimization problem by incor- rity, namely data analytics and DSSs.
porating operational experience and knowledge about the Specifically, we outlined an integrated approach for the
system. Ideally, an industrial-grade DSS for integrated traditionally time-separated activities of outage planning and
maintenance scheduling and congestion management congestion management. The approach enables a combined
would combine multiple approaches that have shown good consideration of the maintenance needs of transmission, dis-
performance in the literature, such as contingency filter- tribution, and generation assets in the planning phase while
ing, network compression, and adaptive linearization. The increasing the margin for preventive interventions against
first two are typically implemented simultaneously, where contingencies closer to real-time operation. To realize the
contingency filtering selects the contingencies that are envisioned approach, methodological innovations in the field
expected to be binding at the optimal solution, and net- of SCOPF are needed, including hybrid approaches combin-
work compression reduces the size of each postcontingency ing ideas from mathematical and heuristic optimization.
network. Adaptive linearization could be employed to sim-
plify the power flow equations of selected lines in formu- Acknowledgments
lations that use an ac network model. For instance, lines The authors would like to thank the following Swissgrid col-
with frequent N−1 violations or voltage violations at the leagues who provided valuable input for the preparation of
terminal buses are modeled with ac power flow equations, this article: Christophe Dunand, Stéphane Gerbex, Adam
whereas a dc model could be used for lines that hardly ever Kai, Rosmarie Joss, Thomas Reinthaler, Bastian Schwark,
experience violations. Andrin Siegenthaler, Michael Wasmer, Christian Welti, and
Needless to say, the approach presented here can be Franziska Zuber.
extended in various ways to account for additional issues
identified from the analysis of historical grid events. For For Further Reading
example, constraints on the degree of network connectivity “System operation guideline (SOGL),” ENTSO-E, Brussels,
could be modeled in the “SCOPF for Congestion Manage- Belgium, 2017. [Online]. Available: https://www.entsoe.eu/
ment” module of Figure 11 to avoid creating weak grid links network_codes/sys-ops/
due to remedial actions. Also, customized measures, such “Analysis of the grid security violation on 20 May 2019
as the minimum production product discussed earlier in the available,” Swissgrid, 2019. [Online]. Available: https://www
“Historical Grid Events in the Swiss System” section, can .swissgrid.ch/en/home/newsroom/newsfeed/20190923-01
be obtained as the outcome of such an optimization-based .html
approach by introducing the appropriate modeling variables. “Planning for winter: Winter situation 2015-16,” Swiss-
Finally, this approach could provide the basis for a more com- grid, 2016. [Online]. Available: https://www.swissgrid.ch/
pressive (possibly probabilistic) medium-term energy secu- en/home/operation/regulation/winter-planning.html
rity planning process that integrates outage planning, conges- P. C. López, R. Sadikovic, H. Pinto, and F. Magnago,
tion management, and adequacy planning with consideration “Swiss TSO experience with an AC security-constrained
of storage levels of hydro dams and market conditions. optimal power flow application for real-time security man-
agement,” in Proc. IEEE Eindhoven PowerTech, 2015, pp.
Summary 1–6. doi: 10.1109/PTC.2015.7232442.
In this article, we have addressed the challenging task of A. Froger et al., “Maintenance scheduling in the electric-
maintaining power system security from the perspective ity industry: A literature review,” Eur. J. Oper. Res., vol. 251,
of the Swiss power system. We started with a review of the no. 3, pp. 695–706, 2016. doi: 10.1016/j.ejor.2015.08.045.
distinctive characteristics of the Swiss electricity grid and F. Capitanescu, “Critical review of recent advances and
an explanation of today’s practices for maintenance schedul- further developments needed in AC optimal power flow,”
ing, operational planning, and real-time system operation. Electric Power Syst. Res., vol. 136, pp. 57–68, July 2016.
Despite the success of these practices, we argue that enhance- doi: 10.1016/j.epsr.2016.02.008.
ments or even a new operational paradigm are needed in
the future to cope with the constantly changing boundary Biographies
conditions of the power grid. Based on a few recent grid Evangelos Vrettos is with Swissgrid Ltd., Aarau, 5001,
events and historical trends in power system operation, we Switzerland.
identified aspects of particular importance. These include Marc Hohmann is with Swissgrid Ltd., Aarau, 5001,
representation of subtransmission and distribution grids in Switzerland.
planning and operation, better coordination of maintenance Marek Zima is with Swissgrid Ltd., Aarau, 5001,
scheduling across different power system assets, preventive Switzerland.
p&e
measures against voltage violations, and consideration of the

By Noritaka Ohashi,
Kazuki Terashima,
and Makoto Tanaka
E
ELECTRIC ENERGY SYSTEMS
throughout the world are now accommo-
dating a growing number of renewable
resources in addition to conventional gen-
eration. When responding to new intercon-
nection service requests, minimizing the
total cost of the power system, particularly
generation and transmission, is important.
Also, the maintenance of a large number
of existing power system facilities is neces-
sary, including older facilities, to take the
best advantage of their capabilities.
©SHUTTERSTOCK.COM/FANDIJKI
A Novel Approach
to Transmission
Bottleneck
Management
in Japan
An N−1 Intertrip Scheme

Such a scheme would be particularly relevant in systems with—
or that expect—high renewable penetration not only in Japan but
also in many other countries/regions.
To this end, the Organization for Cross-Regional Coordina- from flexible resources to areas that need flexibility may
tion of Transmission Operators (OCCTO) in Japan has defined increase under normal conditions, improving the normal
the desired future evolution of the power system network as 1) condition operational security level. Such a scheme would be
ensuring the appropriate reliability, 2) providing the smooth particularly relevant in systems with—or that expect—high
use of the power system with a reasonable cost, and 3) ensur- renewable penetration not only in Japan but also in many
ing the soundness of power system facilities. OCCTO thus other countries/regions.
commenced studies toward the Japanese version of connect On the other hand, the N−1 intertrip scheme requires
and manage, specifically N−1 intertrip and nonfirm access to advanced control systems that can instantaneously locate
improve the efficiency of power system facilities. The phrase a failure and automatically curtail generator output to a
“connect and manage” is also used, for example, in the United specific, effective level, and such instantaneous control
Kingdom, where the Office of Gas and Electricity Markets must be evaluated appropriately for its influence on the
introduced a scheme in 2010 to provide earlier grid intercon- reliability of the entire network. Thus, its application
nection to new and existing generation projects. requires careful design and highly reliable control sys-
In this article, we focus on the N−1 intertrip scheme, tem implementation.
one measure in the Japanese connect and manage scheme, to This article outlines the expected effects of the N−1 intertrip
increase operational capacity by intertripping/curtailing gen- scheme as well as the evaluation of the reliability required for
erators instantaneously using a relay system in the event of a its application and highlights relevant points to consider when
single contingency. The N−1 intertrip approach can mitigate determining the location and scale of application.
transmission congestion and improve energy security.
In general, transmission congestion may decrease the An Outline of Japanese Connect
operational security level. This is because flexible resources and Manage
might be isolated from areas that need flexibility due to the
upper limit of operational capacity. If operational capacity is Overview of OCCTO
expanded by the implementation of the N−1 intertrip scheme OCCTO was established in April 2015 as a government-autho-
and transmission bottlenecks are eliminated, the supply rized organization that all electricity companies must join. The
(MW)
Operational Capacity Increased
by the Application of
the N –1 Intertrip Scheme
Operational
Capacity
ATC
Assumed Power Flow
Nonfirm Access
Maximum Power Facilitates the Use of ATC in
Flow (Assumed) the System
Probabilistic Evaluation of Power Flow

Contributes to Improving the Accuracy of the Assumed Maximum Power Flow
figure 1. An overview of the Japanese version of connect and manage. ATC: available transmission capacity.

OCCTO’s goals and objectives are to maintain a stable electric- and when the system runs short of ATC, generation inter-
ity supply and enhance the efficiency of supply systems as much connection is granted only after the corresponding network
as possible. To achieve these objectives, OCCTO undertakes the upgrades are completed.
role of conducting studies by its advisory committee, from an Also, the present cost allocation rule requires network
expert perspective, which is formulating regulations and codes, upgrade expenses to be borne based on the beneficiaries-
developing long-term policies and cross-regional network devel- pay principle that states that specific generators near a direct
opment plans, and studying network access application. connection attachment facility need to pay these upgrade
costs. In contrast, the network upgrade costs associated with
The Japanese Version of Connect and Manage a bulk power system could be allocated to all network users
In the Japanese version of connect and manage, as illustrated and not just the specific generators near the connection.
in Figure 1, studies are being implemented to introduce the Under the access rule in Japan, the N−1 intertrip scheme
probabilistic evaluation of power flow and nonfirm access in is expected to address new interconnection service requests
addition to the N−1 intertrip scheme. The probabilistic evalu- and minimize any increases in electricity costs.
ation of power flow is an effort to increase the available trans-
mission capacity (ATC) through the evaluation of a power The Basic Concept of the
system based on the assumption of actual power flow, which N−1 Intertrip Scheme
can be made by an evaluation of variable renewable energy
output and generation probability according to demand con- Power System Development for
ditions. Nonfirm access is the concept of generator connec- Generation Network Access
tion without a network facility upgrade, in which new genera- The N−1 criterion for all N−1 credible contingencies is the
tors under normal conditions agree to curtail their output if basic concept for power system development of transmission
there is congestion. and transformation systems (7 kV or higher) with generation
network access. This concept, which is one of the typical
Network Access Rule technical standards related to facility security and power
In Japan, a new generator wanting to connect to a power system stabilization, remains the same even after the appli-
system is provided with a transmission capacity in the cation of the N−1 intertrip scheme.
order of their application as a general rule (i.e., a first-come, The N−1 intertrip is a mechanism to expand operational
first-served queue). Transmission and distribution utility capacity by instantaneously intertripping (or curtailing;
companies are obliged to provide network access under the hereafter, intertripping includes curtailing) a generator using
Electricity Business Act in Japan. Accordingly, the capacity a relay system in the event of a single contingency. Figure 2
of the power system is secured in the order of application, illustrates the concept of the N−1 intertrip scheme.
No Contingency N–1 Contingency No Contingency N–1 Contingency
Line A Line A
Line A 100 MW/Circuit
100 MW/Circuit
100 MW/Circuit × One Circuit
Line A × Two Circuits
× One Circuit
100 MW/Circuit ATC 200 MW
× Two Circuits
100 ATC 100 MW 200
100 100 Trip Signal
(Curtailment)
Relay
100 0
100 100 100 100 100
New New Trip
Existing New Existing Existing Existing (Curtailed)
G G
G G G G G
Cannot Connect to the Grid Possible to Connect to
(Reinforcement Is Needed) the Grid
(a) (b)
figure 2. An overview of the N−1 intertrip scheme. (a) Present operation and (b) applying N−1 intertrip scheme.
G: generation plant.

The operational capacity is the upper limit of power that ✔ a generator that has a capacity exceeding the allow-
can flow under normal conditions, and it ensures stable power able intertripping amount, which is set to ensure sup-
transmission even in the event of a single contingency. If the ply reliability
thermal capacity per line is 100 MW, the operational capacity ✔ a generator that has difficulty in restarting generation,
of a parallel two-line transmission system used to be set at with such a difficulty requiring a considerable period
100 MW considering a single contingency (short-term over- for reinterconnection and output increase to its previ-
load may be allowed in some cases). The N−1 intertrip scheme ous dispatch level
is designed to allow a 200 MW power flow (i.e., operational ✔ a must-run generator necessary to maintain system
capacity is set at 200 MW) under normal conditions on the reliability.
premise that power flow is limited to the thermal capacity per
one line (100 MW) by intertripping either an existing or new Applicable Power Systems
generator instantaneously in the event of a single contingency. Concerning the power system to which the N−1 intertrip
Figure 2 depicts an example where the new generator is sub- scheme is applied, there are concerns that are associated with
ject to intertripping. the application of the scheme to a bulk power system, including
Effective power system development can be achieved the following:
through an increase in operational capacity by the N−1 inter- ✔ A large intertripping amount is required, resulting in
trip scheme and the resulting decrease in network facility a significant reduction in supply capacity and a large
upgrades. On the other hand, a generator needs to be tripped decline in frequency.
in the event of a single contingency, requiring consideration ✔ The number of generators under control by intertrip-
to be paid to the impact on securing supply–demand balance. ping becomes extensive, resulting in a great number of
For this reason, if the impact of N−1 intertripping on reli- targets and an overly complex system.
ability is small, power system development should be imple- ✔ A significant impact is expected if intertripping fails
mented based on the application of the N−1 intertrip scheme. to operate as intended.
However, a network facility upgrade should be implemented These concerns are prominently visible in a bulk power
when intertripping has a major impact on reliability under system constituting a loop system. The concept of the appli-
generator scenarios such as cation of the N−1 intertrip scheme to power the system is
detailed in Table 1.
table 1. The concept for applying the N−1 intertrip
scheme to a power system. Intertripping Amount Allowable From
a Supply Reliability Standpoint
Transmission Power System Since a radial bulk power system may have a large inter-
(7 kV or Higher) Concept of Application
tripping amount under the N−1 intertrip scheme and its reli-
Bulk power system Loop Carefully determine for ability is affected significantly in terms of frequency and
(top two voltages) each system based on
the features of the loop reserve margin, it is necessary to set the allowable intertrip-
system1 ping amount in advance.
Radial Apply as a rule2
Power systems excluding bulk Apply as a rule2,3 table 3. An example of the allowable intertripping
power system amount for each facility subject to the N−1 intertrip
1 scheme (indicated in red).
Apply the N−1 intertrip scheme to loop systems that are
considered capable of being controlled simply. Intertripping Intertripping
2
Exclude the cases where the intertripping amount exceeds Amount Limit Amount
the allowable amount per failure of the facility subject to Necessary Limit Taking
the N−1 intertrip scheme. to Keep the Into Account
3
Exclude the cases where simple control is difficult because Frequency the Reserve
the system constitutes the loop system with a bulk power System Within Normal Margin of
system. Scale Variation Each Area
Area (MW)1 (MW)2 (MW)3
Area with large 56,530 400 2,550
table 2. The normal frequency variation range. system scale
Area Frequency Area with small 5,210 500 250
Hokkaido 50 ± 0.3 Hz system scale
1
Maximum power demand in 2018
Eastern Honsyu 50 ± 0.2 Hz 2
Normal frequency variation (low side): –0.2 Hz (–0.3 Hz
Western Honsyu 60 ± 0.2 Hz for Hokkaido and Okinawa)
3
Calculated based on the demand (2017 supply plan) of
Okinawa 60 ± 0.3 Hz each area during the light load period

In terms of frequency, the intertripping amount was set to Accordingly, the allowable intertripping amount for each
be within the normal frequency variation range (see Table 2) to facility subject to the N−1 intertrip scheme is, in principle, set
moderate the frequency variation immediately after failure in to be an amount within the normal frequency variation range
consideration of the frequency of a single contingency in power or an amount determined by considering the reserve margin of
system facilities. The frequency of transmission line failures is each utility supply area, whichever is smaller (see Table 3). If an
nearly 30 times greater than generation failures in Japan. On the intertripping amount exceeds the specified allowable amount,
other hand, in terms of reserve margin, when a large-capacity the transmission and distribution utility company in each supply
thermal power plant is intertripped in the event of a single con- area needs to carefully determine an appropriate intertripping
tingency, it takes time for reinterconnection, raising concerns amount considering its impact on the power system frequency,
about a shortage of the reserve margin. Thus, it is also necessary the failure frequency of the facility subject to the N−1 intertrip
to consider the reserve margin of each utility supply area. scheme, and other factors.
Transmission Line A
200 MW/CCT × Two Lines
400 MW
Relay System
Trip Signal
250 MW
L G Generator
Offered to N –1 Settlement for
50 MW 200 MW Intertrip Scheme many generation
entities is required.
Subject to
N –1 Intertrip
Scheme
The generator becomes able to access G G G G G

the network without a network upgrade by
intertripping generators that connect to
a higher voltage transmission line. Beneficiaries (New Generators)
(a)
How to Estimate
Actual Fuel Cost Transmission
How to Collect
and Start-Up Cost and Distribution
Each Payment
Companies
Demand
Induction of
Total Losses
Payment Payment
Owner of Intertripping Generator Beneficiaries

(Existing Generator) (New Generator)
(b)
figure 3. The mechanism of the N−1 intertrip scheme to separate the target of intertrip from the payment.

The Generators Subject to the an instantaneous response is required in the case of a
N−1 Intertrip Scheme transmission contingency. In particular, if the intertrip-
All generators newly connected to the transmission ping amount, which is necessary to respond to a single
power system (7 kV or higher) will be permitted contingency in the transmission power system (7 kV or
network access under the condition of implement- higher), is to be provided by the relatively small-scale
ing the N−1 inter trip scheme, except in cases where generators connected to the distribution power system
a network facility upgrade is necessar y, including (6.6 kV) (hereinafter called distribution generators), it
cases in which will be necessary to intertrip an enormous number of
✔ the generator, for example, a must-run generator nec- distribution generators, and the N−1 intertrip system will
essary to maintain system reliability, cannot partici- become more complex.
pate in the N−1 intertrip scheme From the viewpoint of system reliability and certainty,
✔ the power flow exceeds facility capacity as a result of it is undesirable to intertrip distribution generators. But
the connection of a new generator considering that many renewable energy generators
✔ a network facility upgrade is economically more in Japan are small scale and connected to distribution
advantageous than installing N−1 intertrip scheme systems, it is necessary to utilize the effect of the N−1
equipment (excluding the opportunity cost of loss intertrip scheme in the connection of distribution gen-
caused by the N−1 intertrip scheme). erators and to pursue control of these assets. Thus, we
The N−1 intertrip scheme requires the construction need to establish a mechanism that a generator subject
of a highly reliable dedicated system because the relay to the N−1 intertrip is not simply selected from newly
system is used instead of a network facility upgrade, and connected generators but from the most appropriate
Planned Outage Period for Maintenance

Immediately After N –1 Failure
(Including Continuation of N –1 Failure Period)
Ex-Ante Power Operational Capacity
Flow Is Large (With N –1 Intertrip Scheme)
D
Curtailment of C
Curtail All Generator Outputs
All Generator Facility Subject to N –1
B
Outputs Subject Capacity A Intertrip Scheme
to the N –1 Per
Intertrip Single Line Same as on the Left
Scheme Is
Required
Before After
Adjustment Adjustment
Ex-Ante Power Operational Capacity (With N –1 Intertrip Scheme)

Flow Is Small
Curtail on Last-In, First-Out Curtail on Pro Rata Basis
Basis Among Generator Among Generator Outputs
Outputs Subject to the N –1 Subject to the
Facility D Intertrip Scheme N –1 Intertrip Scheme
Capacity C D
B B C
Per A A B
Single Line A
Before After After

Adjustment Adjustment Adjustment
Generator Connected Within Operational Capacity (Not Subject to N –1 Intertrip Scheme)

Generator Subject to N –1 Intertrip Scheme (Prior Application)
figure 4. The operation during first-step application.

generators from the viewpoint of power system impacts Since there is a great demand from generation entities
and economic aspects. Moreover, generators should bear for early connection, the first step in the application of the
the opportunity cost of loss associated with this measure N−1 intertrip scheme started in October 2018. In the first
based on the degree of benefit they receive during nor- step, new generators seeking grid connection under the
mal operation. To this end, OCCTO is studying how to N−1 intertrip scheme were designated as generators sub-
calculate the opportunity cost of production losses and a ject to intertrip control, i.e., the target generator of inter-
mechanism for settlement (Figure 3). trip and opportunity loss cost payer is the same entity.
Substation
1L 2L
Transmission Line
Substation
1 2 Communication
Substation Overload Device (Sending)
Detector
3 –1 Communication Route
(Microwave, OP Wire)
Transmission Line
Relay Point
(If Needed)
3 –2
Communication Route
(Microwave, OP Wire)
Generation Station
Circuit Signal for Trip or Output Decrease
Breaker
5 4 Communication
Controlling
Device (Receiving)
G G Device
Generators
1
Overload Detector
• Detect Overload in the Event of a N –1 Failure
• Send a Trip or Output Decrease Signal According to the Amount of Overload
2
Communication Device
• Transfer Signal Generated by 1
3
Communication Route
4
Communication Device
• Receive Signal and Transfer to the Controlling Device (Owned by the Transmission and Distribution Utility Company)
5
Controlling Device
• Conduct Operation Based on the Received Signal (Owned by the Generator Owner)
* Precise Configuration Such as the Number of Communication Routes and the Way of
Communication Should Be Decided Based on the Grid Condition Subject to the N –1 Intertrip Scheme
figure 5. The system configuration of the N−1 intertrip scheme. OP: optical fiber.

Operational Procedures for the respond after the occurrence of a failure in the short time
First-Step Application of the available. During the scheduled outage period (including a
N−1 Intertrip Scheme continuation of the N−1 failure period), curtailment on a
pro rata basis is introduced from the viewpoint of equal
Operation Method for the N−1 use (Figure 4).
Intertrip Scheme
When there are multiple generators subject to the N−1 inter- Overview of the N−1 Intertrip Scheme
trip scheme within the same power system, they are tripped System Configuration
on a last-in, first-out basis, in conformity with the power flow The basic system configuration of the N−1 intertrip scheme
condition. This is necessary for generators to immediately is depicted in Figure 5.
table 4. A demonstration case study of a possible N−1 intertrip application amount.
Available Operational Available

Capacity Capacity Capacity
Before the After the After the
Application Application Application Increase
Electrical Operational Ex-Ante of the N−1 of the N−1 of the N−1 Amount
Wire Capacity Power Flow Intertrip Intertrip Intertrip and Increase
Point Voltage Type (Single Line) Value Scheme (1) Scheme Scheme (2) Rate (2) - (1) Description
Point A 77 kV ACSR 130 130 0 200 70 +70 —
410 (100) (+54%)
Point B 275 kV TACSR 1,000 930 70 1,270 270 +200 Operational

610 (770) (770 + 500) (+20%) capacity after
the application
of the N−1
intertrip scheme
depends on its
upper control
limit
Point C 77 kV ACSR 130 100 0 200 100 +100 Available
410 (100) (+77%) capacity before
the application
of the N−1
intertrip scheme
depends on
Point F
Point D 154 kV TACSR 440 400 0 680 110 +110 Available
410 (340) (+25%) capacity
depends on
Point F
Point E 77 kV ACSR 170 100 0 260 160 +160 Available
610 (130) (+94%) capacity before
the application
of the N−1
intertrip scheme
depends on
Point F
Point F 275 kV TACSR 1,000 1,000 0 1,270 0 0 Operational
610 (770) (770 + 500) capacity after
the application
of the N−1
intertrip scheme
depends on its
upper control
limit
Total flow of Ex-ante After the After the +540 —
system H power flow intercon- intercon- (+28%)
1930 nection of nection of
the new the new
generator generator
2000 2,540
ACSR: aluminum conductors steel reinforced; TACSR: thermal-resistant aluminum conductors steel reinforced.

Overload Detector The assumptions in the case study analysis are as follows:
The overload detector has a specification that enables it to ✔ The N−1 intertrip scheme is applied to the bulk power sys-
minimize the number of intertripping generators by inter- tem, which is radial, considering the impact on reliability.
tripping an appropriate amount of power output based on ✔ The maximum intertripping amount by the N−1 in-
the extent of overload. The number of systems for overload tertrip scheme allowed for a single transmission line
detection is determined by the degree of importance of the is 500 MW.
target facility (e.g., a bulk power system needs two systems, ✔ The operational capacity is doubled by the N−1 inter-
a regular use plus a spare). trip scheme.
✔ All generators are eligible for the N−1 intertrip scheme.
Communication Device and Communication Route ✔ The available capacity is calculated assuming that inter-
The telecommunication system and number of routes of the com- connection is made from the lower to the upper system.
munication lines are determined by the degree of importance of The actual applicability of the N−1 intertrip scheme and
the target facility (e.g., bulk power system) and the installation additional available capacity, which are calculated by the
environment (e.g., mountain area, remote area, and so on). transmission and distribution utility companies in each area,
can be found on each company’s website (Table 5).
Controlling Device
The control device receives data from the overload detector Future Work
and needs to be able to ensure reliable control. Since the con- In this article, we reviewed the application of the N−1 inter-
trolling devices belong to the generation entities, the main- trip scheme in Japan. The initiatives brought about through
tenance (including expenses) of the devices falls under their the Japanese version of connect and manage were estab-
responsibility. lished as rules after the consensus of concerned parties and
deliberation by the Cross-Regional System Development
A Demonstration Case Study for the Committee, an advisory committee of the OCCTO. Future
N−1 Intertrip Scheme work includes the following.
Table 4 displays the result of a demonstration case study
made for the power system illustrated in Figure 6 to examine The Application of the N−1 Intertrip
the effect of the N−1 intertrip scheme. Operational capac- Scheme to Distribution Generators
ity is expanded by the implementation of the N−1 intertrip With the start of the first-step application of the N−1 inter-
scheme, and transmission bottlenecks are eliminated. trip scheme, it becomes possible for new transmission-level
Loop Bulk Power System
500 kV 500 kV 500 kV

2,540 ← 1,930 System H
275 kV
930 →1,270 1,000 → 1,270
Point B Point F
275 kV
400 → 510 100 → 260
500
200←130 400 400 270
154 kV 77 kV
77 kV 400 →510
100 → 260
200 ←130 Point D 154 kV
Point A Point E
300 10
77 kV
100 160
70 130 Point C 100 → 200
Legend
100 : Existing Generator 100 : New Generator (After Application of N –1 Intertrip Scheme)
Numbers in Red: Power Flow After Application of the N –1 Intertrip Scheme
figure 6. A demonstration case study of the effect of N−1 intertrip scheme (i.e., a simulated system).

table 5. An example of additional available capacity with the N−1 intertrip scheme.
Available Additional
Installed Capacity Available
Thermal Without Availability Capacity
Capacity the N−1 of the with the
Number (100% × Operational Intertrip N−1 N−1 Intertrip
Transmission Transmission Voltage of Number Capacity Constraint Scheme Intertrip Scheme
Number Name (kV) Circuits of Circuits) (MW) Factor (MW) Scheme (MW)
1 A 500 2 6,580 3,290 Thermal 2,283 Not —
capacity available
2 B 500 2 13,162 6,581 Thermal 5,737 Not —
capacity available
3 C 275 2 1,532 880 Thermal 568 Available 651
capacity
4 D 275 2 612 612 Thermal 284 Not —
capacity available
5 E 275 2 1,236 648 Thermal 334 Available 587
capacity
6 F 66 2 64 36 Thermal 0 Available 27
capacity
7 G 66 2 102 58 Thermal 0 Available 43
capacity
8 H 66 2 208 109 Thermal 0 Available 98
capacity
generators to connect to power systems without network For Further Reading

facility upgrades, and this offers a great benefit, but there still “Delivering our environmental future: Annual statement,”
is an issue concerning network access by distribution genera- National Grid Electricity Transmission, Warwick, 2015.
tors as previously described. To realize the full application of Accessed Nov. 6, 2020. [Online]. Available: https://www
the N−1 intertrip scheme, it is necessary to accurately calculate .nationalgrid.com/uk/electricity-transmission/document/
the opportunity cost of production losses caused by the N−1 129751/download
scheme as well as establish a cost settlement system involv- “On the concept of first-step application of N−1 Inter-trip
ing many generators based on the degree of their benefit. In scheme in the development of power system facility planning
response to this, OCCTO is studying a system that will be (Network Code, Article 55) (in Japanese),” The Organization
acceptable to both the target generator of the N−1 intertrip and for Cross-Regional Coordination of Transmission Operators,
the cost bearers. OCCTO plans to put it into application within Tokyo, Japan, 2018. [Online]. Available: https://www.occto
the 2022 fiscal year. .or.jp/access/oshirase/2018/files/181001_n-1densei.pdf
“Business plan FY 2019 of OCCTO,” The Organization
The Introduction of Nonfirm Access for Cross-Regional Coordination of Transmission Opera-
The shortage of ATC in bulk power systems caused by the tors, Tokyo, Japan, 2019. [Online]. Available: https://
increase in the amount of generation interconnection by the www.occto.or.jp/en/about_occto/articles/files/Business_
N−1 intertrip scheme results in an increase in the need for Plan_FY2019.pdf
network upgrades. Under the present cost allocation system
in Japan, upgrades may lead to inefficient power system Biographies
development and an increase in electricity costs. There- Noritaka Ohashi is with the Organization for Cross-Re-
fore, OCCTO will adopt a system by which the need for a gional Coordination of Transmission Operators, Tokyo, 135-
network upgrade is appropriately determined by using an 0061, Japan.
evaluation of a cost–benefit analysis as well as comprehen- Kazuki Terashima is with the Organization for Cross-
sively taking into account the cost-effectiveness and feasi- Regional Coordination of Transmission Operators, Tokyo,
bility of mitigation measures. At the same time, OCCTO 135-0061, Japan.
is studying nonfirm access as a new generation intercon- Makoto Tanaka is with the National Graduate Institute
nection mechanism for the power system when network for Policy Studies, Tokyo, 106-8677, Japan.
p&e
upgrades are inappropriate.

©SHUTTERSTOCK.COM/SERGIOSH
The Fragile Grid

The Physics and Economics of Security
Services in Low-Carbon Power Systems
W
WORLDWIDE, THERE ARE UNSTOPPABLE FORCES one of the highest instantaneous renewable energy penetra-
toward low-carbon power systems that can support the fight tions in the world, with 75% projected by 2025.
against climate change and help solve the security of supply Due to changes in the physical characteristics of the sys-
issues in many countries. Low-carbon grids are likely to be tem and in the supply- and demand-side resources connected
characterized by substantial renewable energy sources, both to it, low-carbon grids might be more intrinsically fragile
centralized and distributed, combined with intelligent and and, therefore, both less secure and less resilient. The sys-
dynamic demand-side technology and multisector electrifi- tem’s new physics has a profound impact on its economics
cation (including heating, transport, and future fuels). In this too—in the requirements for security services and in the
context, successfully resolving the “affordability-sustain- technical, commercial, regulatory, and policy measures to
ability-reliability” energy trilemma is crucial for paving the procure such services. These aspects are thoroughly dis-
way to low-carbon energy futures. cussed in the rest of this article.
When looking at the “reliability” pillar of the trilemma, it
becomes apparent that these transformations are of unprece- Low-Carbon Grids: Technical
dented scale and pose significant threats to operational secu- Challenges and Mitigation Options
rity. Many of these are currently being experienced in the Several technical challenges are being experienced in sys-
Australian National Electricity Market (NEM), which has tems that are increasingly operating with large shares of
By Pierluigi Mancarella and Farhad Billimoria


renewables and inverter-based resources (IBRs). In particu- faster and/or larger reserves might not be readily available, or
lar, frequency control and balancing challenges are promi- the market or regulatory setup may be unsuitable to provide
nent in systems that are weakly interconnected, connected the right incentives in the short term.
to other grids via high-voltage direct current links, or even
completely isolated, such as Australia’s system. Other chal- Variability, Uncertainty, Visibility, and Flexibility
lenges, generally associated with voltage sensitivity and sta- Systems dominated by renewable energy sources, particu-
bility, are more typical of systems where resources and load larly wind and solar, feature a much higher degree of opera-
centers are linked by long, relatively low-density networks, tional variability and uncertainty (due to forecast errors) over
which, again, is a widespread situation in Australia. Next various time scales, from seconds and minutes (impacting
we discuss some of the major technical challenges of low- regulation and load-following reserves) to hours (potentially
carbon operation with real-case studies from Australia. requiring new types of flexibility and ramping reserves).
This situation is further compounded by the fact that many
Frequency Control and Inertia distributed energy resources (DERs) embedded in distribu-
Frequency control is inherently more challenging in an envi- tion networks are not visible at the system level.
ronment with more variable and asynchronous resources. First This means that the demand side, whose forecasting
of all, lower system inertia means that the system frequency has historically been quite accurate, becomes more dif-
becomes much more sensitive to active power disturbances. ficult. Moreover, new forms of uncertainty are being wit-
In particular, large disturbances associated with contingen- nessed, including “commercial contingencies” through self-
cies may lead to very high initial rates of change of frequency curtailment by generators within dispatch periods in response
(ROCOF) and to undesired minimum (nadir) or maximum to low or negative prices and lack of visibility on the curtail-
(zenith) frequency values at time scales too fast for conven- ment of DERs.
tional primary or even emergency responses to alleviate. All of these issues call for more active power flex-
For example, Figure 1 illustrates how the system response’s ibility and new flexibility service providers. Conventional
dynamic characteristics change with inertia levels while the resources are also starting to respond to new requirements.
quasi-steady-state frequency level does not. The latter only For example, in Australia, coal power plants are investing in
depends on the available primary frequency response (PFR), making themselves more flexible so that they can cycle on
which was assumed to be the same in the two cases. In the and off during the middle of the day (due to, for example,
case of the South Australian blackout in 2016, when South low prices resulting from large amounts of solar generation).
Australia islanded from the rest of the grid and less than However, there is a system risk to this as well, once again
40% of available generation was synchronous, the estimated illustrating the complexity of the energy trilemma. This is
ROCOF was about –6 Hz/s. With that rate of frequency drop, the time when such generators might be most needed to pro-
“under-frequency load-shedding” schemes were not able vide inertia as well as system strength.
to intervene. Also, with increasingly larger shares of loads
interfaced via power electronics, the frequency damping by System Strength and Local Stability Challenges
load will inherently reduce dramatically, again, calling for In addition to the issue of decreasing inertia, grids with
both faster and larger amounts of frequency response. Such fewer synchronous generators and more IBRs are also
weaker and more susceptible to
voltage disturbances. In particu-
lar, the increased voltage sensitiv-
50 ity to reactive (as well as active)
Same Quasi-Steady-State
49.9 Lower power d ist u rba nces a nd t he
Frequency Value
Inertia decreasing availability of short
49.8
Higher circuit current means that volt-
Frequency (Hz)
49.7 Higher Inertia age management becomes much

ROCOF more difficult, especially in long,
49.6
high-impedance networks in rural
49.5 Lower areas where many large-scale
49.4
Frequency renewables are connected.
Nadir and The term system strength has
49.3 Reduced
Nadir Time been introduced as an umbrella
49.2 concept to indicate a general mea-
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (s) sure of power system stability,
particularly in terms of a system’s
figure 1. The effects of lower inertia on system frequency response after a given ability to maintain voltage wave-
contingency event (adapted from Mancarella et al., 2017). form and phase under generic

operating conditions, including following an outage. System ent natures. For example, the frequency-response security maps
strength has typically been associated with the fault current developed during the Finkel Review (Figure 2), which aimed to
level available at a given location and measured via metrics review the status of the NEM following the South Austra-
such as the short circuit ratio. lian blackout of September 2016 and move forward toward a
However, several emerging instability issues have also been renewables-rich future, can be used to represent the effects of
recently witnessed in the presence of IBRs and fast control different parameters and the utilization of resources on secu-
loops, calling for new considerations and metrics besides fault rity requirements. Such maps depict the secure area (shaded)
current level. For example, in strong grids, IBRs normally use in which the relevant three-frequency-response parameters
a phase-locked loop control as the voltage synchronization would be constrained to meet suitable security criteria (e.g.,
mechanism that makes up for the lack of inherent synchro- maximum acceptable ROCOF, minimum acceptable nadir,
nism. However, as very weak grids with large shares of IBRs and the minimum level of quasi-steady-state frequency)
may experience significant voltage oscillations and distortions for different levels of PFR and system inertia. The verti-
during and after a disturbance, existing controls may be inade- cal line depicts the level of inertia that corresponds to the
quate to track the voltage angle and maintain synchronization. desired ROCOF limit while the horizontal line corresponds
This has led the Australian Energy Market Operator (AEMO) to the static PFR requirement (currently implemented in the
to make system-strength-related security interventions, such as NEM and in most jurisdictions worldwide) for the desired
the enforcement of a minimum number of synchronous gen- quasi-steady-state frequency limit. The hyperbolic-like
erators that stay online, the curtailment of renewable output, curve depicts the desired limit for the frequency nadir for
and the procurement of synchronous condensers. under-frequency events (similar maps can be drawn for over-
Other solutions to reduce the negative impacts of low frequency events and even for multiple areas in the case of
system-strength conditions include the retuning of IBR con- system separation).
trollers and fast reactive power support. Several ongoing, For typical parameters that might be used to constrain the
large-scale battery-storage projects are also being trialed system (e.g., a postcontingency frequency nadir not lower than
throughout Australia. Some of these include newer grid-form- 49 Hz) and typical load-damping factors (e.g., 3%/Hz) high-
ing converters, which do not use a phase-locked-loop-based inertia systems with plentiful synchronous generation are
architecture but generate the reference voltage themselves, typically constrained by static requirements that are indepen-
and virtual synchronous machines that emulate the dynamic dent of the system inertia, i.e., the secure operating envelope
characteristics of conventional synchronous generators. is bounded by the horizontal line. However, when transition-
ing into low-inertia systems, both the frequency nadir limit
System Fragility and the Risk of Cascading (the hyperbolic curve) and the ROCOF limit (the vertical line)
Also linked to decreasing system strength and inertia, many may become binding to meet the operational security require-
renewables, DERs, and their protection systems may gen- ments. Therefore, the scheduled PFR should be higher than
erally be more sensitive and vulnerable to both frequency the static requirement typically adopted in traditional sys-
and voltage excursions and, therefore, be more prone to cas- tems with plentiful inertia and should also be sized (or co-
cading (what we can generally indicate as “fragility”). This optimized), taking into account the incumbent system inertia.
includes inadequate ride-through capability, insufficient This approach also provides an intuitive way to visualize (and
local reactive support in response to voltage transients, or even formally quantify) the transition into low-inertia condi-
unsuitable or not fully coordinated protection settings. tions from the perspective of frequency management.
Additionally, there are risks related to interlinkages
between system parameters and security conditions, such as
voltage-induced frequency dips and uncoordinated or poorly
understood dynamic response from new technologies (see Nadir Requirement
the case study next). All of these situations highlight the Static Requirement
ROCOF Requirement
greater fragility of an increasingly complex grid with large
shares of IBRs and multiple interlinked dynamics, which Secure Region
PFR
calls for new operational tools and technologies to manage

system security. High Inertia
Low Inertia
The Role of New Operational Security Tools
In the face of all of the emerging technical challenges illustrated Aggregated Inertia After Contingency
previously, several advances have been proposed to deal with
fast changing system conditions, including new optimal power figure 2. A frequency-response security map for low-
flow and scheduling tools to securely commit and dispatch frequency events with an illustration of the conventional
resources in low-inertia systems as well as machine-learning- transition from “high-inertia” to “low-inertia” conditions
based tools to deal with the variability and uncertainty of differ- (adapted from Mancarella et al., 2017).

Frequency-response security maps have been widely used conditions for the Wholesale Electricity Market operated in
by AEMO in its 2020 Renewables Integration Study and the South West Interconnected System. These maps can also
implemented in AEMO’s control room in Western Australia be used to assess the implications of using fast frequency-
for the real-time online security assessment of low-inertia response resources to support slower generation units or
modulate the size of the largest contingency in the system to
decrease the incumbent security requirements.
In this respect, Figure 3 illustrates a 3D security map
ROCOF Requirement
considering the interaction of a variable contingency size,
0 with the amount of inertia and PFR shown. From the exam-
2,50 Nadir Requirement ple, it can be appreciated how the ROCOF and nadir require-
0 ments decrease greatly (for the nadir, very nonlinearly) with
2,00 Static Requirement
the contingency size. This suggests that ramping down the
0
1,50
PFR (MW)
output of the largest online generator could significantly help

0 meet security requirements, and this effect is much larger for
1,00
decreasing inertia conditions.
500
70
A natural implementation of the multiparametric secu-
In 0
er 60 0 rity maps discussed previously is the development of a fre-
tia 10 0 5 0 )
Af 2 30 00 W quency-response, security-constrained, optimal power-flow
te 0 4 ( M
rC 4 00
ze tool that could co-optimize energy, PFR (and fast frequency
on 0
tin 5 0
30
0 Si
ge 6 20 cy response), inertia, and the largest system contingency. The
nc 0 0 en
y( 7 0 1 t i ng largest contingency may refer to generation/demand loss as
GW 8 00 n
s) Co well as, more generally, to interconnector flows in case there
is a risk of system split. Such tools are now being considered
figure 3. A frequency-response security map to comply for implementation in both the NEM and Western Australia.
with the desired nadir, ROCOF, and quasi-steady-state There are also various progressive approaches under-
frequency limits considering variable contingency size taken by AEMO to deal with variability and uncertainty
(adapted from Puschel et al., 2020). by using data-driven artificial intelligence algorithms. For
table 1. The fragility of low-carbon grids: Challenges and potential solutions.

Risk Emergence Mitigations
Frequency • Sustained frequency excursions • Minimum inertia levels
control and (regulation) • Compulsory droop-based governor response
inertia • High ROCOF following contingency • An additional amount of PFR
• Insufficient regional inertia • The co-optimization of energy, frequency response, and
• Insufficient PFR (regional and system-level) inertia
• The risk of low inertia and insufficient PFR • The regional allocation of reserves
after separation • New sources of fast frequency response (e.g., batteries,
electrolyzers)
• The management of largest contingency and interconnector
flows (system at risk of regional separation)
Variability and • A large variation in net demand • Better forecasting
uncertainty • Insufficient short- and medium-term and • Machine learning to assess reserves (e.g., dynamic Bayesian
ramping reserves belief network tools)
• The use of more flexible resources, including energy storage
(e.g., pumped hydro)
DER visibility • Photovoltaic generation (and generally • Connection standards
DERs) trip following transmission • The setup of distributed marketplaces for DERs to interact
frequency and voltage events with wholesale markets
• Commercial security issues related to fast • Advanced transmission system operator/distribution system
price-driven response from DERs operator interface and coordination
System strength • Fault current shortage • Minimum levels of inertia and fault current (out-of-merit
• Voltage instability dispatch of conventional generators)
• Sustained voltage oscillations after fault • Synchronous condensers
• Fault ride-through issues • Static synchronous compensator and static VAR
compensators to improve voltage stability
• Improvements of internal generator controls (especially in
solar and wind farms)
• Grid-forming converters and virtual synchronous machines

example, dynamic Bayesian belief networks are currently may cascade and split into different areas. In particular, the
being employed by AEMO to assess the requirements for ROCOF value in Queensland following the interconnector
short- to medium-term reserves, including the forecasting trip was up to approximately 0.8 Hz/s. This relatively high
of several uncertain parameters, such as conventional gen- value is attributed to local low-inertia conditions in the
eration availability, demand, renewable output, weather, and separated system due to 23% of the total generation being
market prices. Such a tool could potentially also be extended nonsynchronous and consisting mostly of photovoltaic units.
to forecasting ramping and various flexibility requirements. Additionally, on one hand, while renewables and DERs
A summary of solutions being implemented or have been helped support system security by providing some over-fre-
proposed or discussed in Australia to deal with different sys- quency response, uncertainty in their response underscored
tem security issues is presented in Table 1. the importance of both increasing DERs’ visibility and mak-
ing the system less fragile. On the other hand, given that
Case Study: Australian System Cascading and the interconnector’s trip was not considered a credible event,
Separation Event, 25 August 2018 renewables and DERs contributed (through their frequency
On Saturday, 25 August 2018, lightning strikes on the response) to providing system resilience to deal with a non-
transmission towers that support the two circuits of the credible event that might have otherwise ended up in further,
330-kV Queensland–New South Wales interconnector led high-impact cascading behavior.
both circuits to trip, leaving Queensland islanded. As the Special consideration should go to the response of the
Queensland–New South Wales interconnector was trans- 100-MW/129-MWh Hornsdale Power Reserve plant located in
ferring 865 MW from Queensland to New South Wales, South Australia, which, at the time, was the largest lithium-
Queensland experienced over-frequency conditions while ion battery system in the world. During the separation event,
the remainder of the NEM experienced low frequency. The the Hornsdale plant provided an extremely fast response for
generating units in South Australia, including the Hornsdale both low and high frequency when the frequency drop in South
battery system, increased their output to restore the system Australia switched to a rise following the trip of the Heywood
frequency, which led to a rapid rise in active power flowing interconnector (Figure 5). As it can be appreciated, this is an
through the Heywood interconnector. The interconnector impressive performance in terms of the subsecond speed of
eventually tripped due to the activation of dynamic protec- activation and ramping capability to mirror the frequency
tion mechanisms—about 8 s after the Queensland–New variation by droop control and, most importantly, in terms of
South Wales interconnector trip.
At the time of separation, Hey-
wood was transferring 430 MW
from South Australia to Victoria. QNI and Heywood Trips–25 August 2018
This caused a frequency rise in 51
South Australia and a further fre- Frequency in Queensland
quency drop in New South Wales 50.5 QNI Trip
and Victoria, which led to the acti- 13:11:39 h Frequency in South Australia
vation of multiple under-frequency
Frequency (Hz)
load-shedding schemes (around 50

1 GW in total) in these two states. Frequency in Victoria and
Droop response and automatic gen- 49.5 New South Wales (“Mainland”)
Heywood
eration control from synchronous Trip Frequency in Tasmania
generation then restored the fre- 49 13:11:46.901 13:11:47
quency in Victoria and New South 13:11:45 UFLS-Mainland
AUFLS-TAS
Wales, followed by the restoration (Smelter) (Smelter and Residential)
48.5
of loads and resynchronization of
13:11:30
13:11:40
13:11:50
13:12:00
13:12:10
13:12:20
13:12:30
13:12:40
13:12:50
13:13:00
the separated states within approx-

imately 2 h. The event frequency
traces for the first minutes of the Time (hh:mm:ss)
event can be seen in Figure 4.
Although the NEM as a whole Legend:
QNI – Queensland-New South Wales Interconnector
was not, strictly speaking, operat- TAS – Tasmania
ing under low-inertia conditions UFLS – Under-Frequency Load Shedding
at the time, the separation event AUFLS – Automated Under-Frequency Load Shedding
illustrates the complexity and,
to some extent, the fragility of a figure 4. The 25 August 2018 separation event frequencies in the different states
large interconnected system that (Source: AEMO).

its ability to switch the active power direction following the ing to system security. In this respect, while the challenges
frequency’s inversion. of resource adequacy and reliability often relate to critical
However, such responses might create issues in an periods over a year and are a matter of planning, keeping
interconnected system, for example, because too fast of an a system operationally secure is an everyday (and even an
increase in interconnector flows might activate protection every-second) challenge that requires careful consideration
relays and trip the interconnector. In the specific case of the within a market environment.
separation event, it is not clear whether the fast response from As previously discussed, new forms of technical risk
the battery did contribute to the trip of Heywood. However, are being introduced from intermittent and inverter-based
authors’ simulations that were analyzed to emulate the event sources of supply and demand. From a market perspective,
and study potentially similar cascaded outages suggest this scarcities are emerging in system services that were previ-
is a material possibility. Therefore, moving forward, it will ously delivered as a by-product of energy, such as inertia
be particularly important to carefully plan the location of and system strength provided by synchronous generators
fast frequency-response resources, considering interconnec- that would be online to produce energy (and make money in
tor transfer limits and coordinating their potential response energy markets) and would also provide these other services
with interconnectors’ protection settings. (and in many cases without being specifically remunerated).
Finally, increasing interactions among different power sys-
Economy, Market, and Regulatory tem parameters with the potential for cascading and corre-
Challenges and Opportunities lated system events (what we previously called “system fra-
Following the previous technical discussions and consider- gility”) are being observed.
ing all of the potential solutions to the emerging challenges The economic implications of a failure to manage system
that have been proposed, the questions now arise of what is security are serious. Scarcities of system services may force
the best way to incentivize the development of the most suit- market operators to increasingly intervene in the market.
able solution within a market environment, what the role of This may also lead to more curtailment of renewable plants,
regulation and energy policy is, and what the best approach delays to connection, and stagnating investment. This has all
would be. been witnessed in Australia.
On a starker level, inadequate service provision could
The Economics of System Security: From the lead to system outages and major economic loss, especially
Bottom Up in the context of a more fragile grid that is less resilient to
From the considerations made in the previous sections, it is high-impact, low-probability events, as illustrated previ-
clear that the transition of our electricity system to a low-car- ously in the case of the 25 August 2018 separation event. A
bon future with large shares of variable and partly uncertain key challenge for policy makers and market designers is to
renewable energy and with pervasive IBRs is profoundly develop cohesive economic and regulatory frameworks for
changing (or has already changed) the nature of risks relat- operational security that efficiently procure the services nec-
essary to secure the system to an
appropriate level of risk and that
Hornsdale Battery Plant–25 August 2018 effectively manage the integration
80 50.6 within the broader market design
for electric supply.
60 50.4
In this respect, cross-market co-
40 50.2 optimization, for energy, operating
Active Power (MW)
Frequency (Hz)
20 50 reserves, inertia, largest contin-

gency, and so on, has been shown
0 49.8 to be technically achievable. In
–20 49.6 fact, it is already being pursued in
Western Australia. However, inte-
–40 49.4
gration among other different ser-
–60
Battery (MW) Frequency (Hz) 49.2 vices is lacking. For example, sys-
–80
tem strength, which is also linked
49
to inertia, is managed as a local
13:11:30
13:11:40
13:11:50
13:11:60
13:12:10
13:12:20
13:12:30
service, in contrast with the more

regional or system level nature of
Time (hh:mm:ss) the others. Furthermore, the right
economic signals should be incor-
figure 5. The Hornsdale battery plant’s active power response versus frequency in porated to support adequate invest-
South Australia during the 25 August 2018 separation event (Source: AEMO). ment over the long term, but this is

A bottom-up approach can provide nuanced insights into the
incentive compatibility of alternative mechanism designs to foster
the participation of different, innovative technologies.
not obvious when viewed across multiple markets and tech- vision of services can also cross over between differ-
nologies that may compete to provide different services. ent industrial structures, such as between competitive
An array of market and regulatory mechanisms is avail- electricity supply and regulated network monopolies.
able to the policy maker, including mandatory licenses, Hence, the designation of economic responsibility
regulated monopoly provision, and organized markets. The for aspects of security takes on added weight and should
choice of mechanism, or a combination thereof, is a critical account for the efficiency of competitive provision, rel-
policy decision, along with the delegation of responsibility to ative to the efficacy of regulated monopoly provision.
the operating parties and the frameworks that guide provid- ✔ Complex multiuse goods: Some physical parameters ap-
ers and users’ incentives. ply to the system as a whole, others are highly locational,
One method to designing policy for system security is and, finally, others have both system and locational impli-
through a top-down approach that begins with the economic cations. Take the example of inertia, which is essentially
design that then flows down to system parameters and control the kinetic energy stored in rotational turbines. While
frameworks. However, this approach risks applying an eco- much of the previous analysis has focused upon the im-
nomic framework that is inconsistent with the fast-changing, pact of inertia on slowing the system-wide frequency
underlying physics of the system. It also risks being bound, degradation, inertia is also important for local angular
unnecessarily and in some cases undesirably, to traditional stability and system strength. Furthermore, droop-based
and established market constructs, which might be less PFR is relevant for frequency control but may also affect
applicable to the new system dynamics being observed. oscillatory (small-signal) stability constraints. In eco-
By contrast, a bottom-up approach begins with the phys- nomic terms, these are complex multiuse goods in ad-
ics of power networks. This approach can provide a more dition to being technically complex services. Thus, any
granular appreciation of the economic characterization of design of system security frameworks must reflect the
new security services that may be required during the low- full contribution of the good-to-system requirements.
carbon transition. It can provide nuanced insights into the ✔ The rivalry and excludability of consumption: Sys-
incentive compatibility of alternative mechanism designs to tem services are often categorized as public goods.
foster the participation of different, innovative technologies. Public goods are generally characterized by two fea-
tures: 1) they are nonexcludable—users of the good
The Physical Characteristics cannot be easily excluded from the enjoyment of the
Informing the Economics good and 2) they are nonrival—where the consump-
System security is a multifaceted concept and concerns tion of the good by one user does not affect the abil-
many different aspects of power system physics. It moves ity of others to enjoy the good. While this may apply
well beyond the static or dynamic balancing of active and to some security services, such as PFR services, a
reactive power, as could be appreciated from the previous closer examination of the underlying physics suggests
technical discussions. Increasingly relevant are the interac- that not all system services neatly fit into the classi-
tions among various physical parameters of generators, net- fication of public goods (see Figure 6). For instance,
works (and associated equipment), and load. Next, we high- some system services may be nonexcludable but dis-
light critical features of aspects of system security that can play rivalry, especially under congestion, such as
inform their economic characterization. fault current levels and voltage response. Also, other
✔ The multiplicity of provision: Unlike the classical de- services may be nonrival but excludable. An example
lineation between the supply, transmission, and con- of this is tertiary reserves (sometimes called replace-
sumption of the electricity commodity, system secu- ment reserves and linked to ramping and flexibility
rity has a multiplicity of providers, which can include reserves), where it may be possible to curtail users
generators, load, storage, and network equipment. that do not wish to pay for the product.
For example, inertia can be provided by synchro- ✔ The inseparability of goods: The provision of many
nous generation and load, synchronous condensers, essential system services by synchronous resources is
and IBRs in a virtual or emulated form. This kind of inseparable. For example, the provision of inertia and
service is closer to a fast frequency response than to the fault current level support by a synchronous gener-
synchronous inertia per se. This means that the pro- ator are inseparable. This means that the way in which

one good is procured affects the other. This introduces approaches to commitment (and therefore time-ahead
new questions for markets and regulation. Are some markets) and dispatch. Examples of binary services
products to be procured separately or together, i.e., are are inertia, fault current levels, and system strength.
they individual products or super products? Should par- The binary nature of the service has significant impli-
ticipants be compensated for the provision of one prod- cations for price formation.
uct when scheduled for the other? This underscores the ✔ Product definition: Another key aspect to consider
complexity of situations where system services have is the definition of the product or service itself. In
different characterizations but are inseparable. For ex- fact, for a market product or good to be clearly trad-
ample, in South Australia, synchronous generators have able, it must be well defined and measurable. This is
been directed by AEMO to commit and generate at relatively straightforward for a few services (e.g., ac-
minimum levels to contribute to local system strength; tive power services) but far from trivial in emerging
however, they also provide system inertia at the region- cases. For example, as we mentioned earlier, “sys-
al level. This obviously may have an impact on other tem strength” is usually used as an umbrella concept
technologies that, in the future, might compete to pro- that refers to general stability considerations and has
vide this service. Furthermore, as inertia is also linked been historically associated with a local fault cur-
to frequency-response requirements, these services will rent level. However, synchronous inertia also plays a
also be indirectly affected by the requirements for sys- certain role, and it is not yet fully clear how emerg-
tem strength and the relevant provision. ing forms of instability are physically linked to these
✔ The binary nature of provision: The provision of cer- parameters and others as well. Therefore, what is the
tain system security services is based on binary re- market product that we can trade when we talk about
sponse. In other words, they depend on whether the system strength?
unit is synchronized with the system. The unit pro-
vides its full response if it is synchronized and zero Market Development Versus
if it is not. These responses do not scale up or down Regulatory Approaches
with the level of generation, which is important for There are a variety of options available to policy makers to
manage power system security,
ranging from market mechanisms
Excludable such as auctions and spot markets,
nonmarket mechanisms such as
mandatory license conditions and
Club Goods Private Goods
regulated network procurement,
to operational mechanisms such
as constraints and curtailment.
Table 2 illustrates some relevant
exa mples f rom Australia and
around the globe.
Excludability Through The following considerations
Curtailment Regimes are relevant in deciding upon the
Dynamic/Tertiary optimal approach for service pro-
Reserves curement:
Nonrival Rival ✔ Product standardization and
Fault Levels
uniformity: Market-based ap-
PFR Dynamic Rival With
Voltage
proaches rely upon the speci-
Secondary Increasing
fication of a standardized
Frequency Static Voltage Congestion
product that can be traded in
Response
Subclasses of a liquid and transparent man-
Inertial
Users May ner and under a clear formu-
Impact the Value lation. Commoditization re-
Response
of the Product lies upon a clear and accepted
Common Pool
Public Goods Resources definition of the service,
which for many emerging
Nonexcludable system security phenomena
is not yet available, as previ-
figure 6. The economic properties of security services (adapted from Billimoria ously mentioned for the case
et al., 2020). of system strength.

✔ The quantification of the service requirement: This into adopting linear relaxations of the integer products
is critical for market-based approaches but also relevant to obtain meaningful pricing of inertia. In other markets,
for regulatory approaches. While this may be carried the challenges of revenue inadequacy flowing from cen-
out for some system requirements, such as relating to tralized unit commitment have relied upon “uplift and
the co-optimization of inertia and frequency response, clawback” side-payment frameworks and upon alterna-
it is challenging for other emerging security phenom- tive price formations for energy, such as convex-hull
ena, again, such as system strength in weak grids. In the approximations, to minimize those uplift payments. It
latter case, simple standardized metrics fail to capture also means that for thermal generator factors such as
the technical issue in its entirety while more accurate, the minimum stable generation level, start-up and shut-
dynamic simulations are computationally intensive and down costs and no-load cost become increasingly im-
highly sensitive to changes to assumptions on operating portant. This is an important open research topic in the
conditions, power flows, and power system parameters. context of new security services.
Thus, there is a tradeoff between the accuracy of the ✔ Market depth and liquidity: In the consideration of
condition and quantification for dispatch, connection, market frameworks, a key question emerges as to
and planning purposes. Furthermore, even if modeling whether sufficient depth and liquidity can be created
is possible, there is a social question of how much to in system service markets to allow for vibrant com-
procure, e.g., from minimum procurement to a full pro- petition. Especially as it relates to local system pa-
curement that supports 100% renewables. rameters, such as voltage, reactive power, and system
✔ Price formation: Pricing and cost allocation need to be strength, the potential for the exercise of market power
granular enough to reflect the technical scarcity but also in relation to pricing needs to be carefully considered.
understandable enough for contracts to be created from This is even more important in the context of services
it. As outlined previously, certain system services, such that can affect other markets, too, as discussed previ-
as inertia and system strength, are dependent upon unit ously. The perception of market power may also dis-
commitment rather than generation dispatch. Because suade competition and result in a barrier to new entry.
of its binary nature, unit commitment creates noncon- ✔ DERs: DERs have an important role to play in the
vexities in a centralized scheduling optimization. This provision of system services through the provision of
makes shadow prices and, therefore, locational margin- bottom-up grid-flexibility services. While wholesale
al pricing less meaningful. Some designs are looking frameworks would ideally be technology and provider
table 2. Examples of different possible mechanisms to procure security services

(adapted from Billimoria et al., 2020).
Mechanism Description Examples
Mandatory Mandatory conditions imposed on • Virtual inertia provision (Quebec, Ontario)
licenses connection licenses to provide or • Primary frequency control (NEM, National Grid United Kingdom)
contract for system services • Mandatory system reserves (Spain)
• “Do no harm” generator technical requirements (NEM)
• Obligatory reactive power service (National Grid United Kingdom)
Regulated Responsibility delegated to regulated • Minimum system strength and inertia levels (NEM)
procurement network monopoly to provide system • “Delivering a Secure, Sustainable Electricity System” (DS3) System
services, procured either through self- Services Regulated (Eirgrid, Ireland)
build or contracting
Central agency Responsibility delegated to a central • System integrity protection schemes (NEM)
delegation agency (such as an independent • Network support and control ancillary services (NEM)
system operator) to procure system • System stability, voltage, and network pathfinders (National Grid
services via bilateral contracts or United Kingdom)
organized auctions • Enhanced frequency response (National Grid United Kingdom)
• DS3 Service Tender (Eirgrid, Ireland)
• Enhanced Reactive Power Service (National Grid United Kingdom)
• Megavolt amp of reactive power services tender (Belgium)
Spot markets Short-term operational spot • Fast regulation markets (PJM, Midcontinent ISO)
markets for system services, often • Ramping products (California ISO, Midcontinent ISO)
co-optimized with system risk limits • Primary frequency reserve (Wholesale Electricity Market—Western
Austral, proposed)
Market Direct operator intervention or • Residual unit commitments (United States)
constraints and imposition of constraints on system • Market intervention/directions (NEM)
interventions resources to maintain a secure
operating envelope
ISO: independent system operator.

agnostic, the provision of services by DERs necessi- challenges that market designers and regulators face are sig-
tates a consideration of the impact upon distribution nificant and are, as of June 2020, the object of ongoing dis-
network operations. Coordination with the relevant cussions in Australia.
distribution network operator or distribution system Given the deep and complex interactions of technical and
operator and, as it is being discussed in Australia, dis- economic aspects, as outlined in this article, we believe that
tribution market operator, is therefore critical to al- a from-physics-to-economics approach to the low-carbon
lowing local competition and mitigating local adverse energy market and regulatory design may be more effective
effects from the provision into wholesale markets. than in the past, when economic designs paid less attention to
✔ Co-optimization of multiple services: Any market or physical considerations. This will require a greater presence
regulatory design will ultimately have to relate the provi- and engagement of power system engineers and researchers
sion of system security services to each other and with at the relevant energy policy and regulation discussion tables.
energy dispatch. System services are intended to pro-
vide a secure operating envelope within which energy For Further Reading
dispatch can occur. As such, there are varying degrees P. Mancarella et al., “Power system security assessment of the
and types of interlinkages between energy provision and future national electricity market,” Melbourne Energy Inst.,
system service provision. Three forms of co-optimiza- Australia, Tech. Appendix, June 2017. [Online]. Available:
tion underpin constraint formulations. The first is “no https://www.energy.gov.au/sites/default/files/independent
co-optimization with other system conditions,” which -review-future-nem-power-system-security-assessment.pdf
is usually specified under minimum service level pro- “Renewables integration study,” Australian Energy Mar-
vision (for example, in the NEM, the minimum system ket Operator, Melbourne, Australia, Mar. 2020. [Online].
strength unit configurations in South Australia). The sec- Available: https://aemo.com.au/en/energy-systems/major
ond is “co-optimization with other ancillary services and -publications/renewable-integration-study-ris
energy limits,” for instance, the development of security “Queensland and South Australia system separation
envelopes through the co-optimization of inertia against on 25 August 2018,” Australian Energy Market Operator,
PFR and the maximum contingency sizing previously Melbourne, Australia, Final Rep., Jan. 2019. [Online]. Avail-
discussed. Finally, there is the “comprehensive co-opti- able: https://www.aemo.com.au/-/media/Files/Electricity/
mization with other ancillary services, energy limits, en- NEM/Market_Notices_and_Events/Power_System_Incident
ergy flows, and individual or groups of resources.” These _Reports/2018/Qld—SA-Separation-25-August-2018-Incident
constraint formulations are often highly locational and -Report.pdf
resource specific, for example, in the NEM, the system S. Puschel, M. G. Dozein, S. Low, and P. Mancarella,
strength constraints relating to renewable generation in “Separation event-constrained optimal power flow to en-
Victoria and Queensland. The degree of co-optimization hance resilience in low-inertia power systems,” Electric
can also reflect of the level of system security risk. This Power Syst. Res., vol. 189, Art. no. 106,678, Dec. 2020. doi:
may include minimum provision across localized regions 10.1016/j.epsr.2020.106678.
such as the co-optimization and scheduling of energy, in- F. Fahiman, S. Disano, S.M. Erfani, P. Mancarella, and
ertia, PFR, and contingency levels on regional levels, giv- C. Leckie, “Data-driven dynamic probabilistic reserve siz-
en the risks of cascading scenarios or system separation. ing based on dynamic Bayesian belief networks,” IEEE
Trans. Power Syst., vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 2281–2291, May 2019.
Concluding Remarks doi: 10.1109/TPWRS.2018.2884711.
The traditional physical features that have characterized elec- F. Billimoria, P. Mancarella, and R. Poudineh, “Market
tricity grids over the past 100 years and more are changing design for system security in low-carbon electricity grids:
in different ways in the transition toward low-carbon grids. In From the physics to the economics,” Oxford Inst. for Energy
this context, power systems around the world, and particularly Studies, U.K., EL41, 2020. [Online]. Available: https://www
in Australia, are witnessing increasing challenges in providing .oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/
security services associated with large shares of renewables Market-design-for-system-security-in-low-carbon-electricity
and DERs, most of them connected via power electronic inter- -grids.pdf
faces. However, these challenges and the resulting increasing
system fragility can be and are already being very effectively Biographies
dealt with from a technical perspective, utilizing innovative Pierluigi Mancarella is with the University of Melbourne,
operational solutions and new technologies with an outlook to Melbourne, 3010, Australia, and the University of Manches-
integrate 75% renewables in Australia by 2025. ter, Manchester, M13 9PL, U.K.
However, fundamental challenges remain as to how new Farhad Billimoria is with the Australian Energy Market
security services should be procured and provided in a mar- Operator, Melbourne, 3010, Australia, and the University
ket context as well as the role of regulation and energy policy. of Oxford, Oxford, OX2, U.K.
p&e
While several options exist, the integrated techno-economic

awards
IEEE Fellows
congratulations to the class of 2021
T
THE IEEE FELLOW AWARD IS A Wenzhong Gao Leila Parsa
special recognition for IEEE Members For contributions to grid integration For contributions to control of mul-
with extraordinary accomplishments of wind power and electric vehicle tiphase permanent-magnet electrical
in IEEE technical fields. The total technology. drives.
number of recipients each year cannot
exceed 0.1% of the total higher-grade Hua Geng Jacquelien Scherpen
membership, which ensures the excep- For contributions to control of renew- For contributions to nonlinear model
tional status of becoming a Fellow. able energy power converters. reduction and passivity-based control.
The Class of 2021 Fellows Oriol Gomis Bellmunt Kalyan Sen

Congratulations to the following outstand- For contributions to grid integration of For the development and application of
ing IEEE Power & Energy Society (PES) renewable energy sources. power flow control technology.
members and to those who were evaluated
by the PES for their achievements. Yongpei Guan Ramteen Sioshansi
For contributions to robust and sto- For contributions to energy storage in
Enrique Acha chastic optimization for power system electric power systems.
For contributions to power electronics operations.
modeling and applications in electrical Poul Sorensen
power systems. Dragan Jovcic For contributions to wind power con-
For contributions to improvements in verter control and grid integration.
Alireza Bakhshai multiterminal high-voltage dc (HVdc)
For contributions to the development of transmission grids and development of Suresh Srivastava
synchronization techniques for power HVdc transformers. For contributions to power system se-
electronics converters. curity and stability.
Ning Lu
Yaow-Ming Chen For contributions to load modeling and Shinzo Tamai
For contributions to grid-connected control methods for providing demand- For contributions to control for motor
power converters for renewable energy side grid services. drives and three-level converters.
applications.
Giovanni Mazzanti Mi-Ching Tsai
Vasilis Fthenakis For contributions to HVdc cable sys- For leadership in magnetic materials
For contributions to photovoltaics tech- tems. for the electric motor industry.
nology.
Sanjib Panda Mohammad Uddin
For contributions to iterative learning For contributions to control techniques
Date of current version: 19 February 2021 control of motor drives. for ac motor drives.

We want
Ganesh Venayagamoorthy Wenchuan Wu to hear
from you!
For contributions to the application of For contributions to energy manage-
artificial intelligence to power systems. ment, operations, and control.
Jianhui Wang Zheng Xu

For contributions to unit commitment For contributions to control and mod-
and economic dispatch with renewable eling of modular multilevel converter-
generation. based HVDC transmission systems.
Jin Wang Hamidreza Zareipour

For development of high-density power For contributions to the modeling of
converters and their use in electric cars. energy storage for system operation IMAGE LICENSED BY GRAPHIC STOCK
and planning.
Zhongdong Wang
For contributions to insulating liquids Jizhong Zhu Do you like what you’re reading?
and frequency response analysis meth- For application of optimization meth- Your feedback is important.
ods for power transformers. ods for real-time economic power
system operation. Let us know—
Fushuan Wen send the editor-in-chief an e-mail!
For contributions to fault diagnosis in
power grids. p&e
EVERYTHING YOU NEED IN ONE PLACE

Visit the IEEE PES Resource Center: resourcecenter.ieee-pes.org
The IEEE PES Resource Center is the most extensive library in the world devoted exclusively to the power and
energy industry. You don’t have to be a PES member to access the Resource Center’s vast array of content available
to assist in your research, presentations, or academic programs, and benefit your professional development!
PES Member Access: Most materials in the PES Resource

Center are free to society members - an important member
benefit.
Non-PES Member Access: Discounted prices, for IEEE
members, are listed for each product. Non-members also have
access to all the products on the IEEE PES Resource Center.
• Download PES Magazines

• Watch Video Tutorials & Archived Webinars
• Access Conference Videos & Presentations
• Update Your License with CEU/PDH credits
• Download Complete Technical Reports

society news
Peter Palensky
ISGT Europe 2020

conference focuses on smart grid technology
D
DELFT UNIVERSITY OF TECH- discussed how innovative smart grid Ad van Wijk (adviser to Hydrogen
nology, The Netherlands, played host technologies can contribute to clean- Europe and the European Commission)
to the 10th edition of the IEEE Power energy objectives. Keynote presenta- opened the conference with a proposal
& Energy Society (PES) Innovative tions addressed different views of these that electricity and hydrogen will be car-
Smart Grid Technologies (ISGT) Eu- futuristic energy systems. bon-free symbiotic energy carriers with a
rope Conference, a flagship event
cosponsored by the PES. This
year, the symposium was orga-
nized virtually due to COVID-19.
Policy initiatives
set by the
European
Commission
aim to make
Europe climate
neutral in 2050.
One of the virtual sessions at ISGT-Europe 2020.
Participants logged in from 47
countries on five-plus continents.
More than 30% of the attendees
had an affiliation outside Europe.
2020 wa s t he yea r of t he
“European Green Deal.” Policy
initiatives set by the European
Commission aim to make Europe
climate neutral in 2050. There-
fore, the conference’s theme was
“Smart Grids: Key Enablers of a
Green Power System.” Attendees


Leo Dijkstra (IBM) gave the presentation “The Cognitive Grid Enerprise,” one of the three keynotes.
need for smart grids to integrate them. Leo Dijkstra

(IBM) led off the second day with a keynote about
the cognitive grid enterprise, which makes smarter
grid operation possible by augmenting humans with
artificial intelligence and machine learning algo-
rithms. On the last day, Alexander Apostolov (Omi-
cron) spoke about how the smart grid is a digital net-
work in which the role of standards is crucial.
Apart from the keynotes, there were eight
s Meets FAA Specifications!
Color – Size – Shape! panel sessions, including two industry-led discus-
– International Orange sions. Topics varied from energy prosumers and de-
s Tested and approved by mand response to real-time simulation and digital
major power companies!
s Thousands still in service twins and from the flexibility of the transmission grid
after 40 years to energy markets in distribution grids. “I congratu-
s Universal attaching! Fits any
wire .1" to 1"! late the committee on a superbly well-organized
s Installs in 5 minutes! virtual conference, especially during these tough
s Withstands hail! times, when so much flexibility is required when plan-
s No maintenance! Does not
slip, oscillate, chafe, cause ning events,” said Kati Sidwall of RTDS Technolo-
electrolysis or harmonic gies. “The technical program was very strong, and
vibration.
s Ships in halves nested. the logistics were done very well.” All 2020 conference
9, 12, 20, 24, 30, and 36" balls keynote addresses and panel discussions are available
& special sizes available through the IEEE Resource Center.
Call now 573-796-3812
Save the Date
ext. 2001 The next PES ISGT Europe Conference, tentative-
Fax 573-796-3770 ly set for 18–21 October 2021, will be organized by
www.tanawiremarker.com
TANA WIRE MARKERS Aalto University, Finland.
p&e
P.O. Box 370, California, MO 65018

634276_Tana.indd 1 23/03/13 10:38 AM
book reviews
fundamental references
infrastructure asset and renewable energy
T
THIS ISSUE’S “BOOK REVIEWS” The book focuses on energy infra-
column offers two reviews. The first structure asset management. It shows
discusses Infrastructure Asset Man- systematic techniques, such as reliabil-
agement With Power System Applica- ity-centered maintenance (RCM) and
tions, written by Lina Bertling Tjern- reliability-centered asset maintenance
berg. The reviewer writes, “This book (RCAM). These are used to achieve
is a solid contribution to the state-of- infrastr ucture asset management
the-art asset management application strategies. The RCM method focuses
to electric power systems.” The second on maintenance plans’ reliability as-
reviews Renewable Energy Technolo- pects. Maintenance and reliability
gies and Resources, written by Nader are large costs not only as mainte-
Anani. The reviewer writes, “This nance tasks but also as production and
book is a welcome addition to the lit- breakdowns costs. Breakdown conse-
erature on renewable energy modeling, quences affect the environment and/or
computation, and integration.” personal safety. The RCAM method
combines RCM with maintenance-op-
Infrastructure Asset timization techniques. Merging these
Management With Power approaches provides an instrument
System Applications for maintenance strategy assessment
By Lina Bertling Tjernberg and comparisons.
This book provides detailed highlights of The author eloquently presents that
infrastructure asset management issues. nance, modification, decommission- new technology developments provide
It is written by Dr. Lina Bertling Tjern- ing, and disposal. There are budget enhanced solutions for asset manage-
berg, a professor in power grid technol- constraints, which result in the need ment. One new general trend is control
ogy at Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan, the for a strategy for asset management. and operation with phasor measure-
Royal Institute of Technology in Swe- The electric power system is a mas- ment units located in transmission
den. Bertling Tjernberg points out sive infrastructure to manage the supply grids or with smart meters placed at
that infrastructure asset management of electricity from generation to con- consumer sites to enable the integra-
can be expressed as a combination of sumption. The electric power system tion of distributed resources with dis-
managerial, financial, economic, and is undergoing a major reconstruction, tributed energy-use control. Another
engineering concepts applied to physi- which is captured in the concept of a trend is the development of diagnostic
cal assets. Infrastructure asset manage- smart grid. The main drivers are higher measurement techniques for assessing
ment is a wide field that covers different reliability, climate change, and customer insulation conditions, lifetime predic-
expertise areas. It includes the whole participation in sustainable energy. This tions of assets, and sensor network con-
lifecycle of an asset: design, construc- book provides readers with knowledge dition monitoring. These trends have
tion, commission, operation, mainte- of the terminology and theory used. It the common goal to access and handle
provides different analysis tools and ex- large volumes of data (i.e., big data).
amples to use for electric power system The book introduces reliability and
Date of current version: 19 February 2021 applications. maintenance, including equipment

failure, maintenance planning, and optimization, including multiobjective
prevention. Chapter 3 presents is- optimization for distribution systems,
sues of risk assessment, lifecycle cost, event-driven Monte Carlo simulations,
and the reliability of computer tools. heuristic optimization approaches, and
Chapter 4 elaborates upon the RCAM opportunistic optimization methods.
method, implementation, systematic Chapter 10 explains the RCAM case for
asset management, and data analysis hydropower systems with calculation
requirements. Chapter 5 introduces details at Vattenfall, risk management
and data analyses, and a comparison of
three RCM methods for case study.
This book’s vision is to encourage
The author collaboration and knowledge exchang-
es among participants from industry
eloquently and academia, regulators, and deci-
presents that sion makers. The author states that ex-
changes would lead to better decisions
new technology and higher quality asset management
results. The target audience includes
developments readers with varying expertise in as-
provide set management. The book is meant for
practitioners and academics within dif-
enhanced ferent infrastructure asset management the head of the Electronics and Electri-
systems with applications to electric cal Engineering Division at the Univer-
solutions power systems. The background knowl- sity of Chichester, United Kingdom. He
for asset edge required for the reader is math- has authored dozens of journal articles
ematical analysis and fundamentals in and conference papers and is a Senior
management. electrical engineering. The author has Member of IEEE. He received his
provided additional explanations in Ph.D. degree from Manchester Metro-
the appendix and listed more refer- politan University, United Kingdom.
applications to electric power system ences to a large literature review for Renewable Energy Technologies
reliability assessment, load point in- novice readers. and Resources focuses on renewable
dices, deterministic versus probabi- This book is a solid contribution to energy generation and describes the sci-
listic criteria, operational risk assess- the state-of-the-art asset management entific principles and physical systems
ment, and maintenance specifications application to electric power systems. used to harness these resources. The en-
and performance. Chapter 6 presents I congratulate Prof. Lina Bertling vironmental and economic impacts of
RCAM applications to power distribu- Tjernberg for amassing a much-need- using these methods are also introduced
tion systems, including underground ed set of topics to educate the next with worked examples and exercises.
cables, cable insulations, the rehabili- generation in this era of uncertainties Photovoltaics and the modeling of
tation of water-treed cables, and rural a nd evolvi ng elect r ic power sys- these systems are presented along with
overhead line system aging factors, and tem innovations. the environmental and social issues of
their effects. utilizing specified biomass as an en-
Chapter 7 elaborates upon wind —Mohammad Shahidehpour ergy source. Readers will also learn
power system survey failures, tur- how to effectively calculate the cost
bine and gearbox reliability, condi- Renewable Energy and payback time for a given renew-
tion monitoring for preventive main- Technologies and able energy plant by understanding the
tenance, and RCAM implementation. Resources factors affecting the cost of generating
Chapter 8 explains the reliability and By Nader Anani electricity from a renewable energy
maintenance of components including This exciting new resource by Nader system. A compa r ison with tradi-
hazard-rate estimation using infrared Anani presents comprehensive cover- tional energy generation is included.
thermography, condition-based main- age of renewable energy technologies Based on the author’s experience in the
tenance management, artificial neural and resources. Anani is an associate development and delivery of renewable
network condition monitoring, and su- professor in electrical engineering and energy models, this book provides
pervisory control and data acquisition concise and practical solutions that
alarms and warnings analysis. Chapter Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2020.3043676
will appeal to both student and pro-
9 discusses RCAM case maintenance Date of current version: 19 February 2021 fessional practitioners.

The organization and material in this 1) to illustrate analytical expressions with This book is suitable for an advanced
text reflect a thoroughly planned ap- numerical values through ranges within undergraduate course. It would be best
proach as demonstrated by 1) the depth plots and 2) to provide examples of nu- for students who have completed the
of covered topics, 2) the introductory merical values for design over a range of first course on power system analysis.
material included, and 3) the learning values. The interconnection with practi-
—Gerry Sheblé
outcomes of each chapter. As with most cal power systems is shown with the
p&e
textbooks, a distinctive feature is that power electronics to connect each device.
most of the topics are illustrated with
detailed numerical examples.
The text is organized with introduc-
EasyPower
tory background material first and then
with equipment explanations and mod-
Power System Analysis

els. The chapters include
This book
provides concise
and practical
solutions that
will appeal to
both student
CURRENT IN AMPERES X 100 AT 480 VOLTS
.5 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10000
1000 1000
800 TX-2 800
FLA
600 600
500 500
0.15
400 400
300 TX-2 300

1 / 1.288 MVA
200 13.8 - 0.48 kV 200
and professional
6%
18.71
100 BL-1 100
80
TX-2
GE AKR-50 80
60 1000 / 1288 kVA 1600/1760 60

50 6% 50
3
.1
40 SWG-4
24
40
30 BL-3 30
GE AKR-30H
20 800/400 20
1.90
practitioners.
BL-1
10 GE MVT
MV T-Plus
MVT-Plus 10
17.58
8 Sensor = 1600 8
TIME IN SECONDS
TIME IN SECONDS
Plug = 1600
6 6
C ur Set = 1.1 (1760A)
Cur
8
5 5
.4
LT
T Band = 1 M-1
19
4 4
STPU = 2
STPU .5 (4400A)
2.5 BL-5
3 STD
ST elay
ela
Delayy = IInt
nt 3
C-H HFD
ST Delay
ST y I²t
I²t = Out
2 O verride = 50000A
Override 225/150 2
1 1
.8 .8
.6 BL-3 .6
.5 GE MVTMVT-9
MV T-9 .5
.4 Sensor = 800 .4
Plug = 800 BL-1
.3
3 Cur
C ur Set = 0.5
0.5
5 (400A) .3
18627A
LT
L T Band = 1 C-6
.2 IInst
nst = 4 (3200A) .2
✔ Photovoltaics: Background Ma-

1 - 400 kcmilil CU
CU
TX-2
.1 1000 / 1288 kVA .1
.08 INRUSH .08
BL-5
.06 .06
Cutler Hammer
er Series
mer Serie C
.05 .05
HFD
terial
.04 BL-3 .04
Frame = 225A (150AT
(150AT)
(150A T
Trip = 150 29249A
.03 .03
.02 .02
BL-5
20574A
Arc Fault Arc Fault Upstream Upstream Electrode Electrode Est Arc Flash Working Incident
.01 .01 Trip Device Trip Device Equip Type Gap Boundary Distance Energy
✔ Photovoltaics: Characteristics
.5 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1000 2 3 4 Bus
5 6 7 8 9 10000 Name Bus kV Configuration
Name Function (mm) (inches) (inches) (cal/cm2)
R R CURRENT IN AMPERES X 100 AT 480 VOLTS
BUS-3 13.8 R-6 51/50 Open Air VOA 152 32.1 + 26 1.7
BUS-7 13.8 R-7 51/50 Open Air VOA 152 30.5 + 26 1.5
M-1 0.48 BL-3 Other HCB 32 31.6 + 18 3.8
and Circuit Modeling of the

MAIN SWG 3.8 R-18 51/50 Switchgear VCB + HCB 152 189.3 + 18 59.3
REFINER 2.4 R-7 51/50 Switchgear VCB + HCB 104 261.9 + 18 122.8
SWG-4 0.48 R-6 51/50 Switchgear VCB + HCB 32 213.2 + 18 135.1
MCC-1 0.48 BL-2 MCC VCB 25 53.6 + 18 6.9
PV Cell
MCC-2 0.48 BL-3 MCC VCB 25 53.1 + 18 6.8
PNL-1 0.208 FS-2 Panel VCB + HBB 25 48.2 + 18 7.1

PNL-2 0.208 PNL-1 Panel VCB 25 57.8 + 18 7.7
✔ Photovoltaics: PV Arrays Opera- and Shock

Arc Flash priate PPE Requir
Risk Hazar
ed
d
PANEL PANEL PANEL Appro Arc Flash and Shoc

tion and Characteristics rd Boundary Incident Ener
gy k Risk Hazard
Flash Haza inches - Arc Flash s or arc rated cove Appropriate PPE
rall
4’ - 0” cal/cm at
18
arc rated
and
2pant Required
6.0 shirt 4’ - 0” Flash Hazard Bounda
Arc-rated ved
cover is remo 6.0 cal/cm2 at 18 inches ry
Hazard when - Arc Flash Inciden
✔ Photovoltaics: PV Generating
kV Shock oach
t Energy
0.48 Limited Appr oach
3’ - 6” Appr 0.48 kV Shock Hazard
Restricted when cover is remove
1’ - 0” (Fed By: 27B) ONLY3’ - 6” Limited Approa d
MCC-23A FIGURATI
ON 1’ - 0” ch
pme nt Name: EM CON Restricted Approa
ch
Equi SYST
NORMAL
Systems
VALID FOR Equipment Name:
SWG-4 (Fed By:
VALID FOR NORMA 18A)
L SYSTEM CONFIG
URATION ONLY
✔ Hydroelectricity
· Easy to Learn and Use

✔ Tidal Energy
✔ Wind Energy
✔ Bioenergy
✔ Costing a Renewable Energy
Project.
The book offers a list of references
for each chapter of the key literature. A
· Fast Results
thorough explanation of the operation
Try instantly online or download a free demo copy at:
for each device, with detailed versions of www.EasyPower.com/demo
key plots and figures, is included. Each
chapter ends with a set of problems to re-
view the depth of learning achieved. ®
The author provides examples and
Power made easy.
problems as a key part of the material
treatment. The data serves two purposes:

calendar
PES meetings
for more information, www.ieee-pes.org
T
T H E I EEE POW ER & EN ERGY IEEE PowerTech Madrid (PowerTech Peru, contact Jorge Lafitte, dr.jorge
Society’s (PES’s) website (http:// 2021), 28 June–2 July, Madrid, Spain, [email protected]
www.ieee-pes.org) features a meet- contact Tomas Gomez San-Roman,
ings section, which includes calls [email protected], https://www October 2021
for papers and additional informa- .powertech2021.com/ IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid
tion about each of the PES-sponsored Technologies Europe (ISGT Europe
meetings. Please check the conference July 2021 2021), 18–21 October, Espoo, Finland,
website for the most current informa- IEEE PES General Meeting (GM contact Pourakbari Kasmaei Mahdi,
tion and any venue changes due to the 2021), 25–29 July, Washington, D.C., [email protected]
pandemic. United States, contact Roseanne Jones,
[email protected] November 2021
May 2021 IEEE PES Asia-Pacific Power and
IEEE International Conference August 2021 Energy Engineering Conference
on Electrical Machines and Drives IEEE Electric Ship Technologies (APPEEC 2021), 21–23 November,
(IEMDC 2021), 16–19 May, Hartford, Symposium (ESTS 2021), 4–6 August, Thiruvananthapuram, India, contact
Connecticut, United States, contact Ali Arlington, Virginia, United States, Boby Philip, [email protected]
Bazzi, [email protected], http://iemdc contact Julie Chalfant, chalfant@mit
-conference.org/ .edu, https://ests21.mit.edu December 2021
IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid
June 2021 September 2021 Technologies Asia (ISGT Asia 2021),
IEEE Transportation Electrification IEEE PES GT&D International 5–8 December, Brisbane, Australia,
Conference and Expo (ITEC 2021), Conference and Exposition, Istan- contact Tapan Saha, [email protected]
23–25 June, Chicago, Illinois, United bul (GTD), 14–17 September, Istanbul,
States, contact Rebecca Krishnamurthy, Turkey, contact Omer Usta, usta@ieee For more information on additional tech-
[email protected], https:// .org, https://ieee-gtd.org/ nical committee meetings, webinars, and
itec-conf.com events, please visit our IEEE PES calendar:
IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid https://www.ieee-pes.org/meetings
Technologies Latin America (ISGT -and-conferences/conference-calendar.
LA 2021), 15–17 September, Lima, p&e

in my view (continued from p. 100)
must consider both the consequences of different countries do not always have complex from an organizational point of
a disturbance as well as its probability. the same legislative policies and regula- view. I will not elaborate more on these
Note that system resiliency was not tions. Third, there are different players challenges, but they are essential to keep
mentioned in the CIGRE paper and active in the system, i.e., power produc- in mind in the future, too.
consequently not defined. Today, sys- ers, system operators, regulators, con- In this issue of IEEE Power & En-
tem resiliency is important when dis- sumers, and so on, making the system ergy Magazine, several new constraints
cussing system security. I will come
back to this.
Challenges—Old and New

The electric power system is continu-
ally faced with new challenges in addi-
They know exactly where they’re going.
tion to old ones, and so are all other in-
frastructure systems. These challenges Your crews can too!
are due to evolving requirements and
boundary conditions coming from so-
Route work orders and control processes with
ciety as well as the introduction and
integration of new technologies. New configurable workflows and notifications
technologies offer new and more ef-
fective solutions, but their introduction
often requires the redesign of prevail-
ing systems and procedures, which
could be a demanding task introducing
new failure modes in the system. Many
of the latest requirements from soci-
ety, imposed in the form of new laws
and regulations, are due to increasing
environmental concerns and aware-
ness. Furthermore, the requirements
should be taken into account without
any substantial increase in cost for the
end consumer. This is summarized in
the so-called “energy trilemma” opti-
mization scheme: energy security, sus-
tainability, and affordability, which all
need to be considered when designing
the system.
Before discussing the new chal-
lenges, let us quickly review some of the
salient characteristics of power sys-
tems that will remain in the future. First,
time constants from subseconds (tran-
sients of different kinds) to several years
(the expansion planning and manage-
ment of large hydro reservoirs) must be
addressed. Luckily, many processes can
be decoupled due to different timescales
so that the complexity can be managed.
Second, the physical distances in inter-
connected systems, like those in Eu-
rope, North America, and other places
in the world, create various problems.
Software that works varasset.com
Interconnected systems that comprise

and challenges with relevance for sys- ist, these might not always be able to system, we try to contain the impacts
tem security in different systems have fulfill the tasks required to integrate of the “known” unknowns in such a
been presented together with solutions renewables securely. A fourth possi- way that the risk level of the system is
and remedial actions. Many innova- bility would be to utilize the flexibil- within desired limits, and this can be
tive designs have been suggested and ity of other power plants, e.g., hydro- said to be the traditional way of design-
implemented as a response to new dif- power, if available, or flexible thermal ing power systems.
ficulties, and they are good examples power plants. However, due to the increased sys-
of how power engineers perpetually A new security threat that has at- tem complexity because of new tech-
work to guarantee the security of sup- tracted a lot of attention lately is re- nologies, new players, new types of
ply. In my view, there are a couple of lated to cybersecurity. We have already power plants, and so on, the ability to
main causes behind the development seen cyberattacks in power systems foresee all possible threats is increas-
described here, as I will explain. and other technical systems. With the ingly difficult. This is corroborated
First, with the large-scale intro- increasing penetration of control and by the analyses of many of the major
duction of new weather-dependent monitoring systems, e.g., based on pha- power system blackouts during the last
renewables [mainly wind power and sor measurement units using Internet- decades. A system can be designed
photovoltaics (PVs)], power system based communication channels, the ex- to withstand many individual distur-
planning, operation, and control face posure to such attacks will grow. I am bances, but a specific combination and
new problems, and the ongoing stud- convinced that cybersecurity will be temporal occurrence of these events
ies on the topic are plentiful. With the an integrated part of the overall system might bring the system to a complete
ever-increasing penetration of renew- security assessment in the future, and or a partial blackout. One could say
ables, new solutions are proposed, and this must be done in cooperation with that an “unknown” unknown, i.e., the
I do not think we have seen the com- other engineering disciplines. combination of events, was the cause
plete answer yet. of the power outage. Furthermore, de-
Considering the total electric ener- How to Achieve Security signing a system to withstand all low-
gy production by wind power and PVs To achieve the desired security level, probability events, even if they can
from a larger geographical area and one can, in principle, use two design have a very severe impact on the sys-
over a longer period, e.g., a year, this approaches: make the system either tem, is not economical. Examples in-
production will not show any larger robust or resilient. The difference can clude hurricanes or ice storms hitting
variations from year to year. The yearly be captured in the following some- a power system with disastrous con-
energy production of the large area can what simplified descriptions: a robust sequences. History tells us that such
be assumed to be fairly constant (al- system is designed so that its users extreme weather events can be very
though a changing climate might imply should not be surprised, whereas a different, so it is not realistic to aim at
that this will not be true in the future). resilient system is designed so that designing and building a system that is
However, the local variations from year its users are prepared to be surprised. robust against all these events. Thus,
to year can be substantial, and so can The article “Toward a Consensus on other means to cope with high-impact,
the temporal variations over the year. the Definition and Taxonomy of Pow- low-probability events are needed,
There are, in principle, three ways to er System Resilience” offers the fol- and here, a resilience-based approach
cope with these problems: transmis- lowing definition: would be more promising.
sion lines, storage, and demand-side re- The ability to withstand and re- I believe that the future solution
sponse. Depending on the nature of the duce the magnitude and/or dura- would be to combine robustness and
variations (geographical or temporal) tion of disruptive events, which resilience in system design and opera-
and other system characteristics, one includes the capability to an- tion. Actively introducing resiliency is
or the other (and in many cases a com- ticipate, absorb, adapt to, and/ fairly new in the design of power sys-
bination of these means) must be em- or rapidly recover from such tems, at least when compared with ro-
ployed to guarantee the desired system an event. bustness, and a lot of research is going
operation requirements and security. A robust system is designed to cope on in this area. I am sure that, in the
Several articles in this issue de- with several predetermined events future, many new and innovative ideas
scribe new ways to master this problem and disturbances within a specified inspired by resiliency will be imple-
in different systems. Note that in some space. These events are presumed to be mented in the power system to increase
systems, e.g., the continental European known a priori, and their magnitudes, system security. As indicated in the
system, interconnections were origi- in some metric, are assumed to be previous definition, an effective resto-
nally built and designed primarily to bounded. The events to be considered ration process will add to the resiliency
enable the sharing of reserves and pro- in the design and their possible maxi- of the system. Restoration plans have
viding redundancy. Therefore, even if mum magnitudes are based on experi- always been important to ensure sys-
interconnecting transmission lines ex- ence and system knowledge. In a robust tem security, and I am convinced that

they will continue to be important in The needs of the nation’s health sys- distraction, mostly because of home-
the future. tem were deemed more important office work and reliable Internet con-
Experience gained from blackouts than the laws and agreements of the nections. This is a strength, but as John
and other situations that put the power EU, and the overall coordination and A. Casazza, a prominent U.S. power
system under severe stress should be assessment within the EU were on engineer, once said, “Look at a system’s
shared so that other system operators hold. This was later rectified, and or a procedure’s greatest strength to see
can use it in developing and designing when the first phase of the pandemic the source of its greatest weakness.”
their systems. Knowledge gained about was over, free trade seemed to func- How essential processes and proce-
so-called hidden failures that occur un- tion more or less as intended. dures used in the power industry may
der stressed system conditions or as a Many countries in Europe are criti- be exposed to various disturbances and
consequence of several unlikely events cally dependent on the exchange of what impact they can have on power
should be used to improve power sys- electric power. It can be in the form of system security both deserve a system-
tem security. “pure” energy imports over a year or atic and critical review. Also, processes
seasonal power exchanges over nation- and procedures that might appear as
Some Lessons From the al borders. What will happen if should peripheral to the power systems opera-
COVID-19 Pandemic there be an energy shortage somewhere tion can turn out to be critical during
When a disruptive event with far- in Europe? Will each country primar- long-lasting emergencies such as the
reaching consequences for society, like ily look to its own needs, or will the COVID-19 pandemic.
the COVID-19 pandemic, hits, the ex- overall needs of the interconnected
perience and knowledge obtained from system have priority? If we look at Concluding Remarks
such an event may also apply to power the experiences from the initial phase This issue contains many interest-
system operations. Even if a pandemic of the COVID-19 crisis in Europe, ing examples of how the problems
caused by an infectious virus and a the former of these two may likely be are addressed in different systems in
power system follow different physical the initial outcome. Furthermore, the the world. Each system is unique and
laws, I think that there are some par- trade of electric power system equip- requires specific solutions to meet se-
allels. Both a pandemic and the mal- ment might also be hindered due to na- curity requirements. Due to changes
function of the power system can have tional concerns, and this will have an and developments in technology, regu-
dramatic impacts on social life, eco- impact but on a longer timescale. The lations, and organizations, new solu-
nomics, and other vital functions of our complex, international supply chains tions and concepts must continuously
society. I am sure that when the pan- that are dominating the manufacture of be contrived. The future power system
demic has been brought under control, many high-tech products are also used must be designed to cope with known
governments, authorities, companies, by the producers of high-voltage equip- and unknown events and disturbances
and other organizations will analyze ment and can affect the maintenance through a combination of robustness
the course of events, consequences, and and replacement of critical components and resilience to meet the security and
efficacy of different preventive actions in the power system. other requirements of society.
and try to draw conclusions that will be As far as I know, power systems
useful in the containment of future epi- worldwide have worked more or less For Further Reading
demics and pandemics. Without claim- as intended, and no severe interrup- P. Kundur et al., “Definition and classi-
ing to have made a more systematic tions directly caused by the pandemic fication of power system stability IEEE/
study of the current pandemic and its have been reported. I believe this CIGRE joint task force on stability terms
consequences, I want to give two ex- is due to today’s highly automated and definitions,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst.,
amples that I think also have relevance systems, including remote-control vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 1387–1401, Aug. 2004.
for the electric power system. operations. The daily operation of doi: 10.1109/TPWRS.2004.825981.
One of the fundamental principles power systems has been marginally A. Gholami, T. Shekari, M. H.
of the European Union (EU) is a free affected, and the end consumers have Amirioun, F. Aminifar, M. H. Amini,
and nondiscriminatory market that not noticed anything. Of course, the and A. Sargolzaei, “Toward a consen-
is open to actors from all its mem- economic lockdown has reduced the sus on the definition and taxonomy of
ber states. However, when the virus consumption of electric power, but the power system resilience,” IEEE Access,
started to spread, some countries power system has still withstood the vol. 6, pp. 32,035–32,053, June 2018.
stopped the export of equipment es- stresses incurred by the crisis. Also, doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2845378.
sential for health care to other mem- most of the longer-term work, e.g.,
p&e
ber states, despite earlier agreements. planning, has continued without major

in my view
Göran Andersson
power system security

why & how
A
A SECURE, RELIABLE, EFFICIENT, electric power systems constitute the turbance. It depends on the oper-
and sustainable energy system is a pre- “backbone” usually come out as the ating condition and the nature of
requisite for a well-functioning society most advantageous ones, due mainly the physical disturbance.
that can satisfy the needs of its citizens to the versatility and attractiveness of As a comment on the definition of
affordably, and this applies to the elec- electricity for the end consumer. security, it is further postulated that
tric power system in particular. This is System security may be further
obvious to most of us, and I will not What Is System Security? distinguished from stability in
discuss and motivate the correctness of Formal definitions of system security terms of the resulting conse-
this statement further in this column and reliability are worthwhile to estab- quences. For example, two sys-
since numerous papers and articles dis- lish as different engineering disciplines tems may both be stable with
cuss it in detail. Rather, I will take this use somewhat different definitions. A equal stability margins, but one
premise as a starting point for a dis- joint CIGRE and IEEE task force pub- may be relatively more secure
course on some aspects of the security lished a paper in 2004 that formulates because the consequences of in-
of energy systems and, more specifi- a number of definitions used in power stability are less severe.
cally, the electric power system. systems dynamics, but I think that they Other terms that one sees are “secu-
During recent years, many studies are also useful in the more general con- rity of supply” and “system security,”
and other initiatives have been directed text we are dealing with here. The pa- where the latter applies specifically to
to multienergy systems, also referred per states: power system dynamics, as was the fo-
to as energy system integration or sec- Reliability of a power system cus of the aforementioned paper. How-
tor coupling, aiming at optimizing the refers to the probability of its ever, I think that we can use the previous
overall energy system. By considering satisfactory operation over the definition with some minor modifica-
not only one energy-delivery system, long run. It denotes the ability to tions. Thus, I propose the following
such as electricity, in the system analy- supply adequate electric service definition of power system security:
sis and optimization but also includ- on a nearly continuous basis, ✔ Security of a power system re-
ing other interrelated energy-delivery with few interruptions over an fers to the degree of risk in its
systems, such as gas and heat-delivery extended time period. ability to withstand disturbanc-
systems, the features of the different Security of a power system es, on all connected equipment
energy-delivery systems can comple- refers to the degree of risk in its and subsystems, without inter-
ment each other, resulting in a more ef- ability to survive imminent dis- ruption of customer service. It
ficient and reliable overall system. I am turbances (contingencies) with- relates to the design of the sys-
convinced that future system design- out interruption of customer ser- tem and connected subsystems
ers will increasingly consider this op- vice. It relates to robustness of as well as the contingent prob-
tion. However, due to the limited space the system to imminent distur- ability of disturbances.
available, I will focus on the electric bances and, hence, depends on A few words and phrases have been
power system. Another motivation is the system operating condition modified. These changes will be elabo-
that in most studies of future multie- as well as the contingent prob- rated in this article. I want to empha-
nergy systems, the scenarios where ability of disturbances. size that the risk concept is kept, which
Stability of a power system means that when assessing security, we
(…) refers to the continuance of
Date of current version: 19 February 2021 intact operation following a dis- (continued on p. 97)

advertisers index
The Advertisers Index contained in this issue is compiled as a service to our readers and advertisers: The
publisher is not liable for errors or omissions although every effort is made to ensure its accuracy. Be sure
to let our advertisers know you found them through IEEE Power & Energy Magazine.
Company page# URL Phone

ASPEN, Inc. CVR 4 www.aspeninc.com +1 650 347 3997
Bigwood Systems, Inc. 6 www.bigwood-systems.com +1 607 257 0915
Craig Wire Products 13 www.craigwire.com +1 770 920 2222
CYME CVR 2 www.eaton.com/cyme +1 800 361 3627
DIgSILENT GmbH 3 www.digsilent.de/powerfactory
EasyPower LLC 95 www.EasyPower.com/demo
ETAP 11 etap.com/20.5 +1 949 900 1000
P & R Technologies 17 www.pr-tech.com +1 800 722 8078
Powertech Labs, Inc. 12 www.dsatools.com
PowerWorld Corporation 8 www.powerworld.com +1 217 384 6330
PSCAD a product of MHI 7 pscad.com
RTDS Technologies, Inc. 9 www.rtds.com
SKM Systems Analysis, Inc. 5 www.skm.com +1 800 500 4SKM
Tana Wire Markers 92 www.tanawiremarker.com +1 573 796 3812
Varasset 97 varasset.com
YVI Labs 14 www.photoplusplus.com
445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854
IEEE power & energy magazine representative

Erik Henson
Naylor Association Solutions
+1 352 333 3443, fax: +1 352 331 3525
[email protected]

Pes Powerenergy 030421

Uploaded by

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pes Powerenergy 030421

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pes Powerenergy 030421

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Volume 19 • Number 2 • March/April 2021

Volume 19 • Number 2 • March/April 2021

columns & departments

IEEE POWER & ENERGY SOCIETY (PES)

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2020.3043609

march/april 2021 ieee power & energy magazine 1

2 ieee power & energy magazine Promoting Sustainable Forestry

OPTIMAL POWER FLOW

For more information visit POWER SYSTEM SOLUTIONS

4 ieee power & energy magazine march/april 2021

ADDITIONAL SOFTWARE FROM SKM

SKM Power*Tools Training Classes

World Leader in Developing

Network Applications for the Control Center

IT’S NOT JUST WEATHER OR WILDLIFE. PREPARE FOR CYBER

Worldwide, the RTDS Simulator is a crucial component of cybersecurity

YOUR WORLD IN REAL TIME.

10 ieee power & energy magazine march/april 2021

Modeling of renewables and their controls in DSAToolsTM

12 ieee power & energy magazine march/april 2021

Craig Wire Products ~ Frequently Asked Questions

Call Craig Wire

Craig Wire Products

· Inspire technology education

Discover how you can do a world of good today.

16 ieee power & energy magazine march/april 2021

making life visibly safer

FireFly® & BirdMark® SpanGuard TM & SpanLite TM QuikMark TM & SpanMark TM

By Julia Matevosyan, Shun Hsien Huang,

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MPE.2020.3043611

18 ieee power & energy magazine 1540-7977/21©2021IEEE march/april 2021

ERCOT is the sole energy-on-

march/april 2021 ieee power & energy magazine 19

40,000 3,633 3,633

Late 1990s 2019

Gas Steam Gas Steam

20 ieee power & energy magazine march/april 2021

voluntary financial day-ahead

electricity market processes have 60,000 10,000

energy and ancillary services mar- Hour Ending

march/april 2021 ieee power & energy magazine 21

The hourly reliability unit commitment runs

figure 5. The ERCOT market processes.

22 ieee power & energy magazine march/april 2021

march/april 2021 ieee power & energy magazine 23

Wind Resource Response to Wind Resource Response to

60.025 178 60.056

59.95 172 60 110

59.925 170 59.981

59.85 164 59.925 80

Frequency Nominal Frequency MW

figure 7. The frequency response from wind generation resources in ERCOT.

24 ieee power & energy magazine march/april 2021

Absolute Percentage Error

Operating Day-2 Next Day Operating Day

Generic Multihour Study for the Entire Day

Voltage Stability Assessment

Transient Security Assessment

Inertia Monitoring and Look-Ahead