Advanced Secondary Education

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 Advanced Secondary Education

Text © Loibanguti, B 2022

Author: Baraka Loibanguti
Editor: Baraka Loibanguti
Publisher: Baraka Loibanguti
Cover Design: Baraka Loibanguti

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Baraka Loibanguti,
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Ruvuma Tanzania.

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Arusha,
Tanzania.

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To my wife Caroline

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 Advanced Secondary Education

LOGIC Chapter

The rules of logic give precise measuring to

mathematical statements. These rules are used to
distinguish between valid and invalid mathematical
arguments.
3
In addition, it is importance in understanding mathematical reasoning; logic has
numerous applications in computer science. These rules are used in design of
computer circuits the construction of computer programs, the verification of the
correctness of programs and in many other ways.
Logic is all about reasons. Every day we consider
possibilities, we think about what follows from
different assumptions, what would be the case in
different alternatives, and we weight up competing
positions or options. In all of this, we reason. Logic is
the study of good reasoning, and in particular, what
makes good reasoning good.
To understand good reasoning, we must have an
G.L. Boolean idea of the kinds of things we reason about. What
are the things we give reasons for? We can give
reasons for doing something rather than something else (these are reasons for
actions) or for liking some things above other things, (these are reasons for
preferences). In the study of logic, we do not so much look at these kinds of
reasoning: instead, logic concerns itself with reasons for believing something
instead of something else. For beliefs are special, it includes faith. They function
not only as the outcome of reasoning, but also as the premises in our reasoning.
So, we start with the following question: What are the sorts of things we believe?
What are the things we reason with?

PROPOSITIONS
A proposition is a statement that is either true or false but not both or neither.
Proposition are denoted by letters just as letters used in algebra. The most
common letter used to represent propositions are p , q and r although any other
letter may be used.
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Sentence is a group of words to give out the meaning phrase. This book is not
discussing more about sentences but propositions (statements).
Example of propositions
(a) Arusha is a capital city of Tanzania
(b) You are a single girl.
(c) Dar Es Salaam is the city in Eastern Tanzania
(d) Kampala is a capital city of Kenya
(e) 3 + 5 = 8
(f) 2 + 2 = 22
The propositions (a), (d) and (f) are false whereas propositions (c) and (e) are true
statements, (b) is neither true nor false, it is hard to tell (this is not a proposition).
Each sentence in this list is the kind of thing to which we might assent or dissent.
We may agree or disagree, believe or disbelieve, or simply be undecided, about
each of these claims.
Not every sentence is proposition; Sentences such as those expressing emotions,
greeting, asking questions or making requests are not propositions.
Example of sentences, which are not propositions: Questions, emotion expression,
commands, etc.
(a) What is your name?
(b) Hello! How are you?
(c) Where is my book?
(d) 3x + 1 = 7
(e) x + y = z
(f) I am very happy today!
All these are not propositioning. Propositions are the sorts of things that can be
true or false. In the study of logic, we are interested in relationships between
propositions, and the way in which some propositions can act as reasons for other
propositions. These reasons are what we call arguments.
An argument is a list of propositions, called the premises, followed by a word such
as ‘therefore’, or ‘so’, and then another proposition, called the conclusion.
Example of an argument.
“If I study Mathematics, I will not study physics. I am studying physics; therefore, I
am not studying Mathematics”
The first two sentences
(a) If I study Mathematics, I will not study Physics.
(b) I am studying Physics.
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Are premises, while the last sentence
(c) Therefore, I am not studying Mathematics.
Is a conclusion
For an argument to be good is for the premises to guarantee the conclusion. That
is if the premises are true then the conclusion has to be true. These good
arguments are called valid arguments. Generally, an argument is valid if and only
if whenever the premises are true, so is the conclusion. In other words, it is
impossible for the premises to be true while at the same time the conclusion is
false.
Consider the next argument below
“If people are mammals, they are not cold-blooded. People are cold-blooded.
Therefore, people are not mammals”
Note that, the argument may be invalid in real life but valid logically. Example of
the argument that is invalid in real life but valid logically
“If human are cold blooded animals, then they are reptilians, human are cold
blooded animas. Therefore, they are reptilians”.
This argument is invalid in real world; we need to be careful here because logically
this argument is valid.
This is clearly a valid argument, but no one in his or her right mind would believe
the conclusion. That is because the premises are false. Well, the second premise
is false—but that is enough. One premise being false is enough for the argument
to be bad. The bad arguments are called invalid arguments.
Sometimes we do not have enough information in our premises to guarantee the
conclusion, but we might make the conclusion more likely than it might be
otherwise. We say that an argument is inductively strong if, given the truth of the
premises, the conclusion is likely. An argument is inductively weak if the truth of
the premises does not make the conclusion likely. The study of inductive strength
and weakness is the study of inductive logic. We will not explore inductive logic in
this book. We will concentrate on what is called deductive logic — the study of
validity of arguments.

Consider the argument below once again

If people are mammals, they are not cold-blooded. People are cold-blooded.
Let p be “if people are mammals” and q be “they are cold blooded”
These premises have the following structure
“If p then not q, therefore not p”

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• Be warned—an argument can be an instance of an invalid form, while still
being valid.
Logic is all about reasoning. Letters are used to denote propositions just as letters
used to denote variables in algebra.
From the book of Thought written by English Mathematician George Boole 1954,
we have methods of producing new propositions from those that we already have.
Many Mathematical statements are constructed by combining one or more
propositions.
Definition: “Compound proposition is formed from existing proposition using logical
operators. These are mathematical statements constructed by combining two or
more propositions”

TRUTH TABLE
The truth table displays the relationship between the truth-values of proposition.
The truth table are especially valuable in the determination of the truth-values of
propositions constructed from simpler propositions. To construct the truth table,
follow steps below: -
(i) First column has T = 2n −1 and F = 2n −1 truth values
(ii) The second column has T = 2n − 2 and F = 2n − 2 truth values
(iii) The r th column has T = 22 − r and F = 22 − r truth-values, where n is
number of simpler propositions and r is the specified column.
Numbers of T and F occurs alternate in the truth table.

LOGIC OPERATORS
The propositional connectives are negation (  , not), conjunction (  , and),
disjunction (  , or), implication (  , if - then) and bi-implication (  , if and only
if). The connectives  ,  ,  and  are designated as binary while  is
designated as unary.

Conjunction (and,  )
Let p and q be simple propositions. The proposition “p and q” denoted by p  q is
the proposition that is true when both p and q are true and is false otherwise. The
proposition p  q is called the conjunction of p and q.
Here we have two propositions p and q therefore n = 2 (number of simple
propositions p and q)
Therefore T = 2 and F = 2 in the first column
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p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Disjunction (OR,  )
Let p and q be simple propositions. The proposition “p or q” denoted by p  q is
the proposition that is false when both p and q are false and is true otherwise. The
proposition p  q is called the disjunction of p and q.
Truth table of p  q is given below
p q pq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Exclusive Or (  )
Let p and q be propositions. The exclusive or of p and q is denoted by p q is the
proposition that is true when exactly one p and q is true and is false otherwise. The
proposition p q is called the exclusive or of p and q.
Truth table of p q is given below
p q p q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

Negation, (NOT,  )
Let p be a proposition. The negation of p is denoted by p or ~p. p is false only
when p is true and false otherwise.
Truth table of p
p p
T F
T F
F T
F T

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Condition/Implication, ( → )
Let p and q be propositions. The implication p → q is the proposition that is false
when p is true and q is false and is true otherwise. In this implication p is called
hypotheses, antecedent, or premise and q is called the conclusion or
consequence.
Truth table of p → q p q p →q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Because implication arise in many places in mathematical reasoning a wide variety
of terminology is used to express p → q . Keywords used to show implication are:
(a) If p then q (e) p is necessary for q
(b) p is sufficient for q (f) q if p
(c) if p, q (g) q whenever p
(d) p only if q
Note that p → q is false only in the case that p is true but q is false so that
it is true when both p and q are true and when p is false (No matter what
truth-value q has).
Consider the example below about implication “If you make more than
Tshs. 75,000/- per month then you must file a tax return”. This statement
is saying nothing about somebody making less than Tshs. 75,000/- and do
not file a tax return.
Similarly, the statement “If a player hits more than 60 home runs, then a
bonus of 10 million is awarded”, then this contract will be violated only if
the player hits more than 60 home runs and not awarded but it says
nothing if the player hits fewer than 60 home runs.

CONVERSE, INVERSE AND CONTRAPOSITIVE

Let p and q be two propositions. There are some related implications that
can be formed from p → q . The proposition q → p is called the converse
of p → q and the proposition q → p is called contrapositive of p → q
. Simply, contrapositive is the inverse of converse.
We can build up compound propositions using the negation operator and
the different connectives defined so far. Parentheses are used to specify

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the order in which the various logical operator in compound propositions

are applied. In particular, the logical operator in the innermost
parentheses are applied first.

Example 1
Write down the converse and contrapositive of the implication “If today is
Thursday, then I have a test today”
Solution
Let p be “today is Thursday” and q be “I have a test today”, then the
compound statement can be written as p → q , it is converse q → p , In
words is “If I have a test today, then today is Thursday”. Contrapositive of
p → q is q → p then it is “If I do not have a test today, then today is not
Thursday”.
Biconditional/double implication, (  )
Let p and q be propositions. The biconditional p  q is the proposition
that is true when p and q have the same truth-values and false otherwise.
Truth table for p  q
p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Keywords to show biconditional

(a) “p if and only if q”
(b) “p is necessary and sufficient for q”
(c) “If p then q and conversely”.

LAWS OF ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITION

Let p, q and r be the logical statements, where T and F stands for True
and False values

Note that, the symbol  show “Logical equivalent”

(a) Identity law

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p T p
pF  p
p  p  T
p  p  F
(b) Domination law
p T T
p F  F
(c) Idempotent law
p p  p
pp p
(d) Double negation law
(p)  p
(e) Commutative law
p  qqp
p  qqp
(f) Associative law
(p  q)  r  p  (q  r)
(p  q)  r  p  (q  r)
(g) Distributive law
p  (q  r)  (p  q)  (p  r)
p  (q  r)  (p  q)  (p  r)
(h) De Morgan’s law
(p  q)  p  q
(p  q)  p  q
(i) p → q  p  q
p  q  (p → q)  (q →p)  (p  q)  (q  p)

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EXERCISE 1: LOGIC
1. Draw the truth table of the following
(a) (p  q) → q (e) (p → q)  p
(b) (p → q) → p (f) (p  q) → r  (q → p)
(c) (p  q) → r (g) (p  q)  (p  q)
(d) (p  q) → (p → q)
2. Use the algebra laws of proposition simplify the following
(a) (p  q) → (p  q)  q
(b) (p  q)  (q → p ) (e) (p  q) → (p → q)
(c) (p → q) → (p  q) (f) (p → q) → (q → p)
(d) (q  p)  (q  p)
(g) (p  q)  (p  q)  (p  q)

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ARGUMENTS
In everyday situations, arguments are dialogues between people. Here we
do not study everything of these dialogues. We just stick on the
propositions people express when they give reasons for things. In logic,
argument is a list of propositions called the premises, we saw early,
followed by a word such as “therefore” or “so” and then another
proposition called conclusion.
In simple words; an argument is a sequence of statements.
Premises or assumptions or hypothesis these are statements in an
argument.
Conclusion is the final statement in an argument.

Example 2
“If I live in Arusha, then I’m a Maasai. I’m a Maasai; therefore, I live in
Arusha”.
Solution
Let p be “I live in Arusha” and q be “I am a Maasai”
Here the conclusion is “I live in Arusha”
Logically equivalent
The compound propositions that have the same truth-values in all possible
cases are called logically equivalent. The symbol  stands for “Equivalent
to”.
One the way to show that the logical propositions are equivalent is by
using truth table and another way is to use laws of algebra of propositions
to resemble either left hand sides to the right-hand side or vice versa.
Propositions p and q are said to be logically equivalent if and only if the
columns giving their truth-values agree otherwise, they are not logically
equivalent.

Example 3
Use the truth table to show that (p  q)  p  q

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Solution
p q (p  q) p  q
T T F F
T F F F
F T F F
F F T T
Because the columns of (p  q) and p  q on the truth table have
the same truth values, then they are equivalent, written as
(p  q)  p  q

Example 4
Show that the propositions p → q and p  q are logically equivalent.
Solution
Using the truth table
p q p  q p→q
T T T T
T F F F
F T T T
F F T T
The columns of p  q and p → q have the same truth values,
therefore p → q  p  q

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TAUTOLOGY, FALLACY AND CONTINGENCY

Tautology is a compound proposition that is always true no matter what
the truth-values of the proposition that occur in it.
In other words, Is the proposition which is true (T) in every row of the truth
table.
Example 6
Use the truth table to show that p  p is tautology
Solution
p p p  p
T F T
T F T
F T T
F T T
Fallacy or Contradiction is a compound statement/proposition that is
always false. It is the opposite of tautology.

Example of a contradiction proposition is p  p

p p p  p
T F F
T F F
F T F
F T F
Contingency or invalid proposition: is a compound proposition, which is
neither tautology nor fallacy.
Example of an invalid proposition is (p  q) → p
p q pq (p  q) → p
T T T T
T F T T
F T T F
F F F T

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Because the last column (p  q) → p has truth-values T and F then

statement is nether tautology nor fallacy. This is contingency or invalid
statement.
Example 7
Show that (p  (p  q)) and p  q are equivalent
Solution
p q (p  (p  q)) p  q
T T F F
T F F F
F T F F
F F T T
Hence (p  (p  q))  p  q

Example 8
Show that (p  q) → (p  q) is tautology using laws of proposition.
Solution
Given (p  q) → (p  q)
 (p  q)  (p  q) - Negation law

 p  q  p  q - De Morgan’s law

 (p  p)  (q  q) - Associative law

TT - Identity law

T - Identity law

Hence (p  q) → (p  q) is tautology proposition

TESTING VALIDITY OF ARGUMENTS

Valid argument: In logic the property of an argument consisting in the fact
that the truth of the premises logically guarantee the truth of the
conclusion.
The following are steps to test the validity of an argument
(a) Express the compound statement (argument) as a logical symbol

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(b) Use the truth table to check the validity of an argument or use
laws of algebra of propositions to simplify the compound
statement
(c) Write the conclusion

Example 9
Test the validity of the following argument using the truth table “If I love
Mathematics then I will practice Mathematics. I do not practice
Mathematics; therefore, I hate Mathematics”
Solution
Using the truth table
Let p be “I love mathematics” and q be “I will practice Mathematics”

Symbolize, (p → q)  q → p

Truth table
p q (p → q) (p → q)  q (p → q)  q → p
T T T F T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T T T
Therefore, the argument is valid (tautology)
Using laws of algebra of propositions
(p → q)  q → p
(p  q)  q → p - Negation law

(p  q)  (q  q) → p - Distributive law

(p  q)  F → p - Identity law

(p  q) → p - Identity law

(p  q)  p - Negation law

(p  q)  p - Associative law

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(p  p)  q - Associative law

Tq - Identity law

T
Hence, the proposition is valid

Example 10
Test the validity of the argument; “If 6 is even then 2 divide 7, either 5 is
not prime or 2 divide 7, but 5 is Prime. Therefore 6 is odd”.
Solution
Let p be “6 is even” q be “2 divide 7” and r be “5 is prime”
Symbolically

(p → q)  (r  q)  r  → p
Using the truth table
(p → q)  (p → q)  
p q p → q r  q (r  q)  r  → p
r
(r  q)  r  
T T T T F F T
T T F T T F T
T F T F F F T
T F F F T F T
F T T T T T T
F T F T F F T
F F T T T T T
F F F T F F T
Using the truth table, the conclusion is valid.

Example 11
Determine the validity of the following statement: “If there is no Law,
there is no justice. There is no Law, there is no justice”
Solution
Let p be “there is no law” and q be “there is no justice”
Symbolically

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(p → q)  (p → q) by the truth table

p q p→q p→q (p → q)  (p → q)
T T T T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T
The conclusion from the truth table shows that the statement is invalid

ACTIVITY 2
1. (a) Check the validity of the following argument p → (q  r ) ,
r → p , q → r and r
(b) What does the proposition (p  q)  r  → (p  q) represent?
2. (a)What is mean by the terms;
(i) Fallacy statement
(ii) Tautology statement

(b) Translate into symbolic form and test the validity of the following
argument: “If Kanzi speaks logically, then He does not contradict
laws of Algebra. Either there is no meaning or He contradicts laws
of Algebra. However, there is meaning. Therefore, Kanzi speaks
logically”.

3. (a) Simplify the following (p  q)  r  → (p  q)

(b) Draw the truth table of (p  q)  p and conclude
4. Symbolize the following argument and conclude “If I am headache,
then I have malaria or low blood pressure, I have no malaria nor low
blood pressure, therefore I am not headache”.
5. Test the validity of the statements: If 3 + 6 = 9 then 3x + 2x = 6x,
therefore 4 + 5 = 11 or 9 – 5 = 4.

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ELECTRICAL NETWORK
Logic is very useful in daily life of electric. For the bulb to be light up the
complete circuit must be well connected, thus wire, source of power and
bulb itself. Electric circuit can also be used to verify or test the validity of
the logical statements (compound statements).
Consider the circuits below
Switch

Wire This circuit is open (off), the current is not

passing therefore the bulb is not light up.
When a switch closed (on) the current will
Source of power Bulb
pass to the bulb, which make it to light up.

Switch

Wire This circuit is closed (on), the current is

passing therefore the bulb is light up.
Bulb
Source of power

Parallel and series connection of switches

Series switch connection
S1 S2 Switches S1 and S2 are series switches.
When S1 switch is closed (on) and S2 is
Wire open (on) the bulb will not light up. For the
Bulb
bulb to light up both switches must be
Source of power closed (on) otherwise the bulb will not
work.

Parallel switch connection

p

q
T1 T2

Source of power Bulb

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To light the bulb all one switch (p or q) need to be closed (on). For this
case, the bulb will light when one or both (all) the parallel switches turned
on.

Using the logic concept, one or both switches should be true (on) but not
both for the bulb to work and it will not work only when both p and q are
p
false (off)

T1 q
T2

Source of power Bulb

As seen here only switch p is closed and q is open, this makes the current
to pass through the switch p to connect the source of power and the bulb,
which makes the bulb to light up.
Let p and q be the compound statement represented by the following
circuits, the series switches are connected by the word “and” while the
parallel switches are connected by the word “or”.

q
T1 T2

r
Source of power Bulb

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Switch p and q are parallel and both are in series with switch r. Even if
switch p and q will be closed and r left, open there is no way a bulb will
light up. Switch r controls current to both switch p and q, logically this can
be expressed as (p  q)  r .
If switch p and q are closed and switch r is open, still the bulb will not work,
because r disconnect the current to reach the bulb.
Note that, when switches are opposite of the normal switch logically is
interpreted as negation of the switch.

Example 12
Express the following electric circuit in logical symbols using the switch
letters given

p
r
T1 q T2

S B
Solution
Switch p and q are parallel and r is in series with p and q, this can be written
as (p  q)  r

Example 13
Construct an electrical network corresponding to the proposition
(p  q)  r   s
Solution
p and q are parallel, p q is in series with r and lastly (p  q)  r is parallel
to switch s

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The circuit look as follows

p
r
T1 q T2

Battery Bulb

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MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE – LOGIC

1. Use properties of operations in logic to show whether the following
proposition is a tautology (p  q)  (p  q)  p
2. What is a proposition as used in mathematics logic?
3. Show that (p) and p are logically equivalent
4. Use the truth table to show that the following proposition are logically
equivalent.
a) (p  q) and (q  p)
b) (p  q) and (q  p)
5. Verify the following associative laws by truth table
(p  q)  r = p  (q  r )
6. Use the truth table very that (p  q)  (p  q)
7. Prove that p  (q  r ) = (p  q)  (p  r ) truth table.
8. Determine the contrapositive of the statement: “If John is a jobless,
then he is poor”
9. Show that each of the following are tautology using truth table
a) (p  q) → p b) p → (p  q) c) p → (p → q)
10. Use laws of algebra of propositions show that the following are
tautology
a) p → (p  q) b) (p → q) → q c) p → (p → q)
d) (p  q) → (p → q)
11. Use laws of algebra simplify the following
a) p  (p  q) → p
b) (p → q)  (q → r ) → (p → r )
c) p  (p → q) → q
d) (p  q)  (p → r )  (q → r ) → r
12. Verify the following absorption laws
a) p  (p  q)  p
b) p  (p  q)  p
13. Determine if the following propositions are tautology or not
a) p  (p → q) → q

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b) q  (p → q) → p
14. Show that p  q is equivalent to (p  q)  (p  q)
15. Determine if (p → q) → r and p → (q → r ) are not equivalent.
16. Show that p → q is equivalent to it is contrapositive
17. Use truth table to show that p  q and p  q are logically
equivalent
18. Show that (p  q) and p  q are logically equivalent
19. Write the negation of the following statements
(a) If she buys book, she will read
(b) If it rains, he will not go to play
(c) If it is a sunny day, we will wash our clothes
20. Symbolize the following statements and write their inverse, converse
and contrapositive
(a) If Mathematics is interesting then I will not study Physics
(b) If I get grade A in Physics then I will be an engineer
(c) If 3 is even, then 4 is odd
(d) History is interesting if and only if mathematics is boring and tough
21. Construct the truth table for the following statements
(a) If I work hard, I will be rich
(b) A number is even if and only if it is divisible by 2
(c) You will pass your examinations if you study hard
(d) We will play football if there is no rain or extensive sunlight
(e) You like Geography and Advanced Mathematics or you do not like
Geography and Economics’
22. Draw a simple electric network diagram for the statements
(a) (p → q)  (p  q)
(b) (p  q)  (p  q)
23. Prove that (p → q)  p and p  q are equivalent, using
(a) Laws of algebra of sets
(b) The truth tables
24. Draw the electric network for the proposition (p  q)  (p  q)
25. Use laws of algebra of sets to show if (p  q)  (p  q)  p

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26. Construct an electrical network corresponding to the proposition

(p  q)  r   s
27. Differentiate between tautology, contradiction and contingency
28. Simplify the following electrical network and re-draw
(a)
p q
T1 T2

(b) T1 p
T2
p q
q

29. Consider the truth table below

p q X Y
T T F F
T F T F
F T F T
F F F F
Find the compound statements represented by letters X and Y and
hence draw an electric network to represent the simplified
propositions
30. Consider the truth table below
p q r M N L S
T T T F T T T
T T F F T T T
T F T T T T T
T F F F T T T
F T T F F F F
F T F F T T F
F F T T F T F
F F F F T T F
Find the propositions represented as the letters M, N, L and S and
draw electric network for each statement above.

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31. Without simplifying, the propositions (p  q)  (r  q) draw an

electric network and construct a truth table.
32. Define the following terminologies as used in logic
(a) Proposition
(b) Disjunction
(c) Contradiction
33. (a) Simply the compound statement (p  q )  (p  q )  (p  q )
and an electric network.
(b) Using the letters and logical connectives, write the following
statement “If q is less than zero then is not positive”
(c) Given the statement “If q is less than zero then is not positive”
write: -
(i) The contrapositive of converse
(ii) Converse of the inverse
(iii) Contrapositive of inverse of converse
34. (a) Show whether (p  q )  (q  r ) is tautology, invalid or fallacy.
(b) Test the validity of this compound statement “All women are
polite. Irene is a woman. Therefore, Irene is polite”
(c) “If Urmy won the competition, then either Sreya came second or
Samrat came third. Samrat didn’t come third. Thus, if Sreya didn’t
come second, then Urmy didn’t win the competition.”
35. (a) Show that (p  q) → q is logically equivalent to it is contrapositive
using a truth table.
(b) Given that S1 = (p → q ) → (q → p ) and
S2 = (q → p ) → (p → q ) , use the truth table to show
whether S1 is equivalent to S2
(c) Draw a simple network for q  (p  q )  (r  p )
(d) Construct a compound sentence X (p,q, r ) having the truth table
shown below: -
p T T T T F F F F
q T T F F T T F F
r T F T F T F T F

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X (p, q , r ) T F T F F F F F
36. (a) Differentiate between Tautology and contradiction and give one
example for each.
(b) Determine whether or not, the statement (p  q )  r  → (p  q )
is a tautology.
(c) Given that proposition (p  q ) → r
Write: -
(i) The converse of its contrapositive
(ii) Inverse of its converse
(d) Let p be Sam is rich and q be Sam is unhappy. Write each of the
following in symbolic form.
(i) Sam is poor but unhappy
(ii) Sam is poor or else he is both rich and unhappy
(iii) Sam is either rich or unhappy
(iv) Sam is rich if and only if he is happy
37. (a) Show that p  q does not logically imply p → q
(b) What is meant by saying that an argument is valid?
(c) Prove the validity of the following argument: “If the country is
democratic and governed by selfish leaders, then the country will
develop. If the leaders are not selfish, the country will not develop
therefore the country is not democratic.”
(d) Construct a truth table and simplified logical circuit of: -
(i) p  (p → q ) (ii) (p → q ) → p
38. Consider two propositions p and q, complete the truth table below.
p q ¬q p  ¬q ¬p ¬p  q

Decide whether the compound proposition (p  ¬q)  (¬p  q) is

a tautology. State the reason for your decision.
39. Complete the truth table shown below.

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p q p q p  (p  q) (p  ( p  q))  p
T T
T F
F T
F F
State whether the compound proposition (p  ( p  q))  p is a
contradiction, a tautology or neither.
40. Consider the following propositions.
p: Isaac finishes her homework
q: Isaac goes to the football match
Write in symbolic form the following proposition. If Isaac does not go
to the football match, then Isaac finishes his homework.

41. (a) Complete the following truth table.

p q .............................. p  q
T T F ................
T F T ................
F T F ................
F F T ................
Consider the propositions
p: Cristina understands logic
q: Cristina will do well on the logic test.
(b) Write down the following compound proposition in symbolic form.
“If Cristina understands logic, then she will do well on the logic
test”
(c) Write down in words the contrapositive of the proposition given in
part (b).

42. Consider the two propositions p and q.

p: The sun is shining q: I will go swimming
Write in words the compound propositions
(a) p  q;

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(b) ¬p  q.
(c) The truth table for these compound propositions is given below.

p q K ¬p M
T T T …………. T
T F F …………. F
F T T …………. T
F F T …………. T

Complete the table

(d) State the relationship between the compound propositions K and
M.

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References
a) Greg Restall (2006) Logic: An Introduction, Madison AVe, New York,
NY 10016: Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2006.
b) Dr. A.R. Mushi Logic: Discrete Mathematics: Course notes
c) Kenneth H. Rosen (1998) Discrete Mathematics and Its applications,
fourth edition, Published by China Machine Press/McGraw-Hill
d) Prof. Mordechai (Moti) Ben-Ari Science teaching department (2012)
Mathematical Logic for Computer science, third edition, Springer
London Heidelberg New York Dordrecht

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