Introduction to quantitative and qualitative Data

Quantitative approaches

• Attempts to explain phenomena by collecting and analysing

numerical data
• Tells you if there is a “difference” but not necessarily why
• Data collected are always numerical and analysed using
statistical methods
• Variables are controlled as much as possible (RCD as the
gold standard) so we can eliminate interference and
measure the effect of any change
• Randomisation to reduce subjective bias
• If there are no numbers involved, its not quantitative
• Some types of research lend themselves better to quant
approaches than others
 Quantitative data

• Data sources include

– Surveys where there are a large number of respondents (esp where you have used a Likert
scale)
– Observations (counts of numbers and/or coding data into numbers)
– Secondary data (government data; SATs scores etc)
• Analysis techniques include hypothesis testing, correlations and cluster analysis
 Discrete Data

The term discrete means distinct or separate. The

discrete data contain the values that fall under integers
or whole numbers. The total number of students in a
class is an example of discrete data. These data can’t
be broken into decimal or fraction values.

The discrete data are countable and have finite values;

their subdivision is not possible. These data are
represented mainly by a bar graph, number line, or
frequency table.
 Discrete Data

Examples of Discrete Data :

Total numbers of students present in a class
Cost of a cell phone
Numbers of employees in a company
The total number of players who participated
in a competition
Days in a week
 Continuous Data

• Continuous data are in the form of fractional numbers. It can be the version of an android phone, the height of a
person, the length of an object, etc. Continuous data represents information that can be divided into smaller levels.
The continuous variable can take any value within a range.
• The key difference between discrete and continuous data is that discrete data contains the integer or whole number.
Still, continuous data stores the fractional numbers to record different types of data such as temperature, height,
width, time, speed, etc.
 Continuous Data

Examples of Continuous Data :

• Height of a person
• Speed of a vehicle
• “Time-taken” to finish the work
• Wi-Fi Frequency
• Market share price
 Qualitative approaches

• Any research that doesn’t involve numerical data

• Instead uses words, pictures, photos, videos, audio recordings. Field notes, generalities. Peoples’
own words.
• Tends to start with a broad question rather than a specific hypothesis
• Develop theory rather than start with one
inductive rather than deductive
 Qualitative data

• Qualitative means you can't, and it's not numerical (think quality - categorical data instead).
• Nominal data
Nominal data are used to label variables without any quantitative value. Common examples include
male/female (albeit somewhat outdated), hair color, nationalities, names of people, and so on.
 Qualitative data

Examples:
What color hair do you have?
• Brown
• Blonde
• Black
• Rainbow unicorn
 Qualitative data

• Ordinal data
• The key with ordinal data is to remember that ordinal sounds like order - and it's the order of the
variables which matters. Not so much the differences between those values.
• Ordinal scales are often used for measures of satisfaction, happiness, and so on.
 Qualitative data

How likely are you to recommend our services to your friends?"

• Very likely
• Likely
• Neutral
• Unlikely
• Very unlikely
 Qualitative data

Binary data
• Binary data can have only two values. If you can place an observation into only two categories, you
have a binary variable. Statisticians also refer to binary data as both dichotomous and indicator
variables. For example, pass/fail, male/female, and the presence/absence of a characteristic are all
binary data.
 Qualitative data

Categorical data
• Categorical data have values that you can put into a countable number of distinct groups based on a
characteristic. For a categorical variable, you can assign categories, but the categories have no natural
order. Analysts also refer to categorical data as both attribute and nominal variables. For example, college
major is a categorical variable that can have values such as psychology, political science, engineering,
biology, etc. Categorical data is also known as nominal data.
 Gathering qual data

• Tends to yield rich data to explore how and why things happened
• Don’t need large sample sizes (in comparison to quantitative research)
• Some issues may arise, such as
– Respondents providing inaccurate or false information – or saying what they think the researcher wants to
hear
– Ethical issues may be more problematic as the researcher is usually closer to participants
– Researcher objectivity may be more difficult to achieve
 Sources of qual data

• Interviews (structured, semi-structured or unstructured)

• Focus groups
• Questionnaires or surveys
• Secondary data, including diaries, self-reporting, written accounts of past events/archive data and company
reports;
• Direct observations – may also be recorded (video/audio)
• Ethnography
 Types of graph/Chart

Bar Plot or Bar chart

Pie Diagram or Pie Chart
Histogram
Scatter Plot
Box Plot
Stem and Leaf plot
Dot plot
 Bar Plot or Bar Chart

• Bar graphs are used to display categories of data.

• A bar graph is one method of comparing data by using solid bars to represent unique quantities.
Bar Plot or Bar Chart
 Pie Diagram or Pie Chart

• Pi graphs are used to show a

relationship of the parts to a whole.

• Percentages are used to show how

much of the whole each category
occupies.
Pie Diagram or Pie Chart
 Histogram

• A special kind of bar graph that uses

bars to represent the frequency of
numerical data that have been
organized into intervals.
• Because the intervals are all equal, all
of the bars have the same width
• Because the intervals are continuous
(connected; ongoing), there is no space
between the bars.
Histogram
 Stem and Leaf Plot

In a stem-and-leaf plot, the data are

organized from least to greatest. The
digits of the least place value form the
leaves, and the next place value digits
form the stems.
 Stem and Leaf Plot

https://www.cuemath.com/data/stem-and-l
eaf-plot/
 Box and Whisker Plot

• A box-and-whisker plot is a
diagram that summarizes data by
dividing it into four parts
(quartiles).
• Box and whiskers show us the
spread (range) and median
(middle) of the data.
Box and Whisker Plot
 Scatter plots

• Scatter plots are the graphs that

present the relationship between two
variables in a data-set. It represents
data points on a two-dimensional plane
or on a Cartesian system.
• The independent variable or attribute is
plotted on the X-axis, while the
dependent variable is plotted on the
Y-axis. These plots are often
called scatter graphs or scatter
diagrams.
Scatter plots
 Dot plots

• A dot plot, also known as a strip plot or

dot chart, is a simple form of data
visualization that consists of data points
plotted as dots on a graph with an x- and
y-axis.
• These types of charts are used to
graphically depict certain data trends or
groupings.
Dot plots
 Time-series graph

● The time-series graph exhibit the data at the

different points in time, and this is another
kind of graph used for certain types of paired
data.
● As its name itself implies, this type of graph
measures trends over time. However, the
time frame can be minutes, hours, days,
months, years, decades, or centuries.
Time-series graph
 Exponential Graph

● Exponential graphs represent the exponential functions

that use the table of the values and plotting the points on
graph paper. Y ou must have noticed that the exponential
functions are the inverse of the logarithmic functions.
● In exponential charts, the graph can be an increasing or
decreasing type of curve based on the function. Below
you can see an example that will quickly help you
understand the graphing exponential function.
Exponential Graph
 Logarithmic Graph

● Logarithmic functions are the contrary of the

exponential functions. However, the plot method is
similar. A table of the values is needed to plot the
logarithmic graphs and then plot the points
correspondingly on graph paper.
● The graph of any log function will be the opposite
of an exponential function. The diagram is given
below for better understanding.
 Trigonometric Graphs

Trigonometry graphs are plotted for

different trigonometric functions, and they are:
1. Sine function
2. Cosine function
3. Tangent function
4. Cotangent function
5. Cosec function, and
6. Sec function.
Trigonometric Graphs
 Frequency distribution graph

● To show the frequency of results in a particular

sample, use frequency distribution graphs.
● For frequency distribution diagrams, a table of
values is created by placing the results in one
column and the number of times they appear (ie,
the frequency) in the other column.
● This table is known as the frequency
distribution table from which the cumulative
frequency graph can be drawn.
Frequency distribution graph