2020 International Conference for Emerging Technology (INCET)

Belgaum, India. Jun 5-7, 2020

Design Methodologies for Measurement of KA DC

Current: A Review
Akash Mali1, Rushikesh Sonawale2, Surekha Gharat3, Neha Ingle4, R. D. Kulkarni5, Sangita Nandurkar6
1,2,3,4
B.E. Student, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, A.C.Patil College of Engineering Kharghar, Navi Mumbai, India
5
Member, IEEE and Scientific Officer 'H' Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Dept. of Atomic Energy, Govt. of India Trombay, Mumbai,
India
6
Professor, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, A.C.Patil College of Engineering Kharghar, Navi Mumbai, India
1
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
5
[email protected], [email protected]

Abstract — Current sensor plays an important role in power stations, etc. and needs accurate measurement of DC current.
industries, the information obtained from the current sensor is Saturable core reactor method provides a very simple means
used for controlling, motoring and protection. The paper gives of controlling AC current proportionally through load where
comprehensive review regarding various current measurement the current is approximately proportional to the direct current
schemes used in industries and utilities for DC current through the control winding. Another method of using shunt
measurement. Especially, the technical issues including resistor are having advantages over saturable core reactor
difficulties in hardware implementation among all current method. Shunt resistor is simple and economical too. This
sensing schemes like Hall Effect based current transducer, method can be used for both AC as well for DC current
typical shunt resistor method, saturable core reactor technique
measurement. The disadvantage of this method is voltage
and fiber optic current sensor have been extensively discussed.
The comparative analysis of these methodologies have been
drop that is the power gets dissipated in the shunt resistor and
presented. hence it needs proper cooling mechanism else it affects the
accuracy. Hall Effect principle is mostly used in DC current
Keywords — DC Current Measurement, Hall Effect, Fiber measurement due to its several merits. The disadvantage of
Optic Current Sensor, Shunt Resistor, Saturable Core Reactor shunt resistor gets overcome by this method having 0.1%
accuracy of the measured value. The Hall Effect current
I. INTRODUCTION transducer principle is based on magnetic flux nullification.
In electrical engineering, current sensing/detection is very This method also having certain disadvantages like little bit
important factor in case of transmission and supply of power complexity and weight goes upto several kgs for very high
to a particular load. The measurement of current ranging ampere of current. It also requires complex setup procedures
typically from few ampere to thousands of amperes or even so that the asymmetric magnetic field and cross talk problem
more. The selection factor of a current sensing method can be avoided. With advance technologies and development
depends on various requirements like accuracy, magnitude, in optical fiber, symmetry in magnetic field issues occurred
bandwidth, isolation, robustness, resolution, size, reliability in hall sensor gets overcome by fiber optic current sensor.
including cost. The current magnitude may be directly Fiber optic current sensor is based on well known Faradays
displayed on an instrument or converted into digital form for effect. The advantage of this method is negligible power
the purpose of monitoring or feedback control system with consumption, higher accuracy, less weight, better current
the help of appropriate design schematic. stability and no need of onsite calibration which ultimately
saves considerable amount of time [1].
Measurement of high AC and DC current can be achieved
by various methods. For measurement of AC current, several II. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR
techniques have been used like Current Transformer (CT), MEASUREMENT OF HIGH DC CURRENT
Rogowski coil, Shunt resistor, etc. Measurement of AC There are various methods available to measure high DC
current is simply possible with conventional CT but in case of current of the order of several kilo amperes. Each method has
DC current, due to absence of frequency, core saturation its own advantages as well as few disadvantages because of
takes place including some other technical important issues some technical issues or problems related with hardware
and use of such CT is impossible. An alternating current implementation. The overall design of measuring
carrying conductor generates magnetic field around it which devices/instruments should look for the provision of suitable
is alternating in nature, however, in case of DC current, the display with required resolution which shows magnitude of
magnetic field is not alternating and is constant around the current and the key terms like accuracy, rangability including
conductor. Hence, in most of the power electronics and robust construction, techno-economical product, appropriate
power system applications, as the direct measurement of DC input/output isolation, compactness and less weight. The
current is not feasible, the magnetic field nearby conductor is mechanical stresses including vibration as well as
sensed and corresponding current flowing through a atmospheric conditions like moisture, dust particles, ambient
conductor is determined. DC current measurement techniques temperature should not affect the instrument. For working
are very special like Hall Effect based current transducer, out design considerations for measuring high DC current, DC
Shunt resistor, Saturable core reactor and innovative Fiber current magnitude range from 500 Amp to 6000 Amp has
optic current transducer. been considered. To avoid core saturation problems, it is
The high DC current sources have been used in electro recommended to use core material having high magnetic flux
winning industries, high voltage DC transmission network, density and higher permeability. It helps in overcoming core
electroplating, feeding power to electrical vehicle charging saturation problem as well as accurate flux mapping

978-1-7281-6221-8/20/$31.00 ©2020 IEEE 1

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including minimization of leakage flux is also possible. The [3]. Hall Effect transducer is used to measure the magnetic
accuracy of technique has to be 0.1% of set current and the field around a conductor and then the transducer converts
current stability is also 0.1% of the reading. The resolution the magnetic field into an electric quantity which can be
should be 1.0 ampere achievable and there should not be any easily measured with the help of appropriate instrument.
drift in the hardware design due to temperature and any other Hall Effect element is shows in Fig.2.
parameter. As the mV derived from the hardware
proportional to the current is to be used in feedback control
action, suitable isolation is needed.
III. METHODS FOR DC CURRENTMEASUREMENT
The following methods have been considered, designed
and further analyzed to measure high DC current.
A. Hall Effect based current transducer:
The Hall Effect was discovered by Dr. Edwin H. Hall in
1879 while he was a doctoral candidate at Johns Hopkins
University in Baltimore. With the arrival of semiconductor
material in the 1950's, first time it is being used combined
with integrated amplifiers and Hall switch is introduced for
world. The basic diagram of Hall Effect is shown in Fig.1[2].
Fig. 2. The Hall Effect element

When AC or DC current passes through busbar or

conductor it generates magnetic field in near surrounding.
Strength of magnetic field is directly proportional to current.
Current measurements have traditionally been based on the
Hall effect in the electrical industry. A high performance
magnetic flux nullification Hall Effect DC current transducer
has a magnetic core surrounding a current carrying bus bar.
Magnetic field is measured by a number of semiconductor
hall elements placed within the core. The number of sensors
depends on desired accuracy. The hall sensor require very
low current of the order of few micro amps, which can be
supplied by a constant DC current source. Hall element
signals are fed to high gain current amplifiers whose outputs
fed to the compensating coils wound on the magnetic core.
Fig. 1. The basic diagram of Hall Effect [2]
Compensating coils produces a magnetic field that counter
Hall Effect phenomenon basically consider very thin film balance the primary field produced by the DC current
of a material on which the electrons are moving in one single through bus bar. The secondary currents are proportional to
plane. Voltage source is applied to a hall element. Current (I) the primary current [4]. The summation of the output current
flows through a hall element and the drift electron direction of all compensating coils is linearly related to main busbar
opposite a current flowing through a hall element. At this current [5]. Then with the help of shunt, the amount of
point voltmeter is not showing anything. Now if hall element current flow can be seen on the display. The output quantity
is placed in the magnetic field which is perpendicular to plane is the voltage across the shunt proportional to the current that
and the electrons which are flowing through a hall element flows through the conductor [6]. Schematic diagram of Hall
which is kept in magnetic field, electrons experience force Effect current sensor is shown in Fig.3.
called Lorentz's force and is given by Flemings left hand rule.
The electrons shift towards one side such that in opposite side
the number of electrons will be less. Amount of electrons
decides the negative and positive side. More the electrons, the
side is considered as negative and lesser electrons considered
as positive side. At this point voltmeter will show a voltage
which is called Hall voltage [3].
1) Hall Effect current sensor with compensating winding
If a strip of conducting material carries current in
preference of transverse magnetic field as shown in Fig.1, an
Electro Motive Force (EMF) is produced between the two
edges of a conductor. The magnitude of the voltage depends
upon the current magnitude, value of magnetic flux density
and a typical property of conductor called Hall Effect co-
efficient [1].
If a hall sensor is subjected to magnetic field, it responds
with a voltage output proportional to magnetic field intensity
Fig. 3. Schematic of Hall Effect current transducer with compensating winding

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 2) Hall Effect current sensor without compensating x Path a-b-c: Now, while decrease in the magnetic
winding force, the magnetic field also decrease but the same
value is not repeated. At point 'o', magnetic force
Hall Effect sensor without compensating winding is becomes zero but magnetic field does not become
shown in Fig.4. The main purpose of compensating winding zero, because some magnetic material retained in
is to nullify the main field flux generated by the DC current. ferromagnetic material. To decrease this magnetizing
Absence of compensating winding will lead to increase in the field, applying magnetic force in opposite direction
saturation of core and it further increases the hysteresis loss. and at the point of 'c', magnetizing field will
Current flowing in forward and reverse direction in core completely become zero.
produces the magnetization and demagnetizing of core and
due to which hysteresis loss is produced [7]. The area under x Path c-d: If magnetic force is further increase on
the BH curve is directly proportional to the losses as the loop negative side, then magnetic field also increase in
area reduces losses. The B-H curve of DCCT core is shown negative side, after certain time at point 'd' the
in Fig.5. magnetic field is not increase. This is called
saturation point in opposite direction.
x Path d-e-f: Now, while decrease in magnetic force,
the magnetic field is also decreases, at point 'e' the
magnetic force become zero, but magnetic field is
not zero and it's retained in core material. When
magnetic force is increases in positive direction and
at the point 'f' magnetic field becomes zero.
x Path f-a: While keeping on increasing magnetic force
in positive direction and magnetic field gets
developing positive direction, at certain value a
magnetic field becomes Bmax and is called saturation
point [8].
B. Shunt Resistor:
This scheme works on the principle of the ohm's law, as
voltage across a resistor is commensurate with the amount
of current flowing through the conductor. This method is
simple, techno-economical and accurate, that is why it is
used in many applications and it is often preferred. The
voltage across the shunt resistor is proportional to the
Fig. 4. Hall Effect DCCT without compensating winding
amount of current flowing through the conductor. The rating
of a shunt resistor is 1500 Ampere at 75 mvolts. The ohm
law based shunt resistor scheme can be used for both DC
and AC system. The shunt resistor value is kept very small
to reduce the loss of power due to heating. The shunt is
connected in series and the voltage measuring instrument
i.e. voltmeter is connected in parallel to shunt. The current
flowing through the shunt will generate a voltage drop
which is measured and the voltmeter scale is calibrated in
terms of current. Fig.6 shows the DC current from high
current rectifier which is measured with the help of shunt
resistor method [9].

Fig. 5. B-H curve of DCCT core [8]

Fig. 6. Shunt resistor
x Path o-a: At the time of starting while increase in the
magnetic force it will also increase the magnetizing Now the value of current is measured from the ohm's
field (B), however, after some time increase in the law shown in (1),
magnetic force (H) at Hmax, magnetic field does not
increase and its become less response or constant and I = V/R (1)
this point is called as saturation point.
Where, I - Current flowing through the conductor/shunt
V- Voltage drop across shunt resistor

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 R - Resistance of shunt resistor The effect of Faraday is proportional to the magnetization
of the material given by the equation (2).
The calculation of current is very easy as from above
equation (1), as the voltage drop is measured with the help of θ = ‫݇׬‬ǤԦ‫ܯ‬
ԦԦԦԦԦǤԦԦ݀ԦԦ݈ (2)
voltmeter and the ‫ ܮ‬resistance of shunt resistor is known.

However, addition of resistor in the circuit will generate Where, M is the magnetization, l is the length of the light
heating loss corresponds to the value of resistor added. path and k is constant depending on the propagating material,
Preventing shunt from getting over heated, its value is kept wavelength and temperature, θ is the polarization rotation.
very low around milliohms. With the advance technologies
The rotation of polarization is directly proportional to the
shunts are available in various forms such as metal layer
magnetic field intensity. The rotation defines the power of
technology, full metal shunt resistor, typical four wire shunt
the magnetic field H and the constant V of the Verdent.
configuration. Shunt resistor method can be used up to
current value of 2000 Ampere beyond which due to I2R Practical polarization rotation is given by equation (3).
losses, temperature increases and need cooling mechanism. θ = ‫ܸ׬‬ǤԦ‫ܪ‬
ԦԦԦԦǤԦԦ݀ԦԦ݈ (3)
While selecting
the material for shunt wire, temperature
‫ܮ‬
The V is Verdet constant which is material's specific
coefficient 'α' for material has to be taken into consideration. rotation and is defined as the angle over the magnetic field
Temperature coefficient 'α' is the rate of change of resistance times the length (°/T•m). The expression of Verdet constant
value per degree of temperature change so it has to be keep is given by equation (4).
very low or nearby constant. The material used for shunt is
Nichrome (alloy of nickel, chromium and soft iron), V = (μ.θ)/(B.l) (4)
Manganin (alloy of 84% copper, 12% manganese, 4% nickel)
[10], Constantan (alloy of 55% copper, 45% nickel). These Where, V depends on the material's magnetic properties.
materials have less and almost constant 'α' and hence they are B is the magnetic flux density parallel to the light
mostly preferred [11]. Various materials used for shunt and propagation path [12]. The light may be explained as
their parametric values are given in Table 1. follows.
¾ Polarized light: It is a light in which the electrical and
TABLE I. PARAMETRIC VALUES OF VARIOUS SHUNT MATERIALS magnetic field vectors in the wave have a preferred
Shunt Material direction.
Property
Constantan Manganin Nichrome German silver ¾ Unpolarized light: There is no desired direction of the
Resistivity (ρ) at waves coming in in random directions with electrical
200C 0.49 0.43 1.33 0.23 and magnetic field vectors.
(Ω-m) X 10-6
Temperature Three kinds of polarization are exist and they are (1)
coefficient per 30 20 20 ؆50 Linear polarization, (2) Circular polarization and (3)
0C X (10-6) Elliptical polarization. In this scheme, only two type of
polarization linear and circular have been considered.
Density at 200C
8.9 8.4 8.1 ؆7.5
gram/cc x Linear polarization: When the electric field vector
Specific heat vibrates or travels in a constant direction in the xy
0.098 0.097 0.11 ؆0.1
kcal/kg 0C plane, a beam of light is said to be a linear polarization
state. It occurs if two oscillator elements are either in
phase or out of phase.
C. Fiber Optic Current Sensor (FOCS):
x Circular polarization: When the electric field vector
Effect of Faraday: The effect of Faraday is a magneto- undergoes uniform rotation in the xy plane, a light
optic effect which causes the polarization of light to change. beam is said to be circularly polarized [13].
When a light beam is passed through a material, the influence
Working principle is described next.
of the faraday is rotated by an angle in the dependence of the
magnetic field intensity parallel to the light. Faradays effect is A light wave is passed through a semiconductor light
shown in Fig.7. source. The optical modulator means an optical element that
controls light volume, phase and polarization state by a
signal given from the outside circuit. With liquid crystal or
optical crystal, the polarization state or phase of the light to
be injected changes with the electric field applied (voltage
applied across electrodes). Change of the light volume can be
also be possible by disposing an appropriate polarization
filter at the incident side and the injection side. Phase
modulation or frequency shift is caused to the light injected
from here and light intensity modulation can be performed by
changing the frequency of the ultrasonic wave [14].
First of all, two light waves with orthogonal linear
polarization in nature pass from the light source to the
sensing fiber coil through an interconnecting fiber. Then the
linear polarize d light can be transformed to circular
Fig. 7. Faraday's effect polarization with the aid of the quater wave sheet. When this

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two circularly polarized light wave passing through the
magnetic field produced by the current caring conductor the
light waves starts travelling at different speed and thus they
create a phase displacement between the two waves ∆ Φ.
At the other end of the sensing fiber there is a mirror or
reflector whose angle of reflection is equal to the angle of
incidence, so light wave retraces its optical path back to the
optoelectronics module or it can also be supplied to the
interfero meter[15](another method) where the phase
displacement is measured and a phase displacement can be Fig. 9. Saturable core reactor
converted with th e aid of the signal processor. The total
difference in the round trip process is proportional to the line In control winding, variable DC current can be injected to
integral of the magnetic field along the closed path defined by control saturation amount. The AC current in the main
the sensing fiber and is therefore possible to directly calculate winding is not affected by the saturation of core in the DC
the current [3]. control winding [17]. Since the two windings are orthogonal
When the optical fiber is used for optical path of the in nature, mutual interconnection between them is negligible.
interferometer, single-mode optical fiber is used because light Under normal device conditions, unit works in the
with single phase is handled [14]. Working of fiber optic saturation region and must be removed quickly from
current sensor is shown in Fig.8. saturation at the beginning of short circuit process.
Impedances generally increases in nature and is low and
may not be appropriate if significant current limitations are
needed. A typical type of iron core saturable reactor can also
be used to achieve saturation by injecting DC current into
the main winding. In case of DC voltage and CT, these
provide separate DC output for use with integrated or
complex circuits from DC sources. Elemental DCCT
consists of two specific saturable reactor linked in series
opposition to common primary winding. On high
permeability (square loop) magnetic alloy, the reactors are
toroidally wounded. Typical practical circuit of saturable
Fig. 8. Basic working of Fiber optic current sensor core reactor is shown in Fig.10.

This is how the phase shift difference can be carried out in

another way - Circular birefringence it is the difference
between the refractive indices of right and left circularly
polarized light. When a light beam is passed through
polarizer (circular birefringence of a sample) a relative phase
shift is produced between left and right circularly polarized
component. The net phase shift distributed along the light
beam path through the sample is known as circular
retardation or circular retardance. Because a linear
combination of right and left circular polarized light gives
linear polarized light, circular retardation can result in linear
polarization (optical rotation) rotation of the plane when the Fig. 10. Practical circuit of saturable core reactor
light beam passes through the sample.
According to the primary current, both reactors will be
Circular attenuation is specified as follows. Cd = saturated by DC ampere turns. The impedance of their AC in
(TRCP − TLCP)/(TRCP + TLCP) this situation is now going to be low. Saturation level in each
reactor varies as AC excitation current shifts in operation.AC
where TRCP and TLCP are the right and left circularly current must saturate one reactor in one half of the cycle
polarized light transmission intensities [11]. only, maintaining low impedance. The magnetizing forces on
the other reactor are now resisting saturation and current is
D. Saturable Core Reactor: beginning to take reactor out of equilibrium. AC impedance
Originally this method is published by the U.S. Navy of reactor will then go up to help rest of excitation voltage.
defines a saturable reactor it is a device that controls the AC The two reactors ' roles are reversed during other half cycle.
reactance of coil by controlling the effective permeability of Resulting output current is nearsquare AC wave equal to the
magnetic core on which the coil is wound. In its most simple primary DC current.Upon rectification, it gives the standard
form saturable reactor is made up of a ferromagnetic core DC waveform. [18]. Table 2 shows the comparative analysis
with windings that connect a DC circuit and second winding of various methods for measuring KA range DC current.
set that connect an AC circuit as shown in Fig.9 [16].

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 TABLE II. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS METHODS FOR considering various parameters of interest keeping the typical
MEASUREMENT OF KA RANGE DC CURRENT
application of the DC current sensors.
Fiber optic
Saturable
Parameter Hall efffect Shunt resistor current REFERENCES
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