DESIGN OF INTERSECTION

INTERSECTION
• An intersection is defined as the general area where
two or more highways join or cross
• This area is designated for the vehicles to turn to
different directions to reach their desired
destinations.
• This is because vehicles moving in different direction
want to occupy same space at the same time.
 Elements of intersection
• Each roadway extending from the intersection
is referred to as a leg.
• The intersection of two roadways has usually
four legs (or three if there one of the roadway
is ended).
• The leg used by traffic approaching the
intersection is the approach leg, and that used
by traffic leaving is the departure leg.
• The major street is typically the intersecting
street with greater traffic volume, larger cross-
section, and higher functional class.
• The minor street is the intersecting street
likely to have less traffic volume, smaller cross-
section and lower functional classification
than the major street.
• Channelization is the separation or regulation
of conflicting traffic movements into definite
paths of travel by traffic islands or pavement
markings (regulation of traffic).
The following principles should be followed for
a good design of intersection

• The number of intersection should be kept minimum

• The geometric layout should be so selected that
hazardous movement by drivers are eliminated
• The design should permit the driver to find
distinguish quickly either from the lay out or from
traffic signs the path he should follow and the actions
of merging and diverging
• The layout should follow the natural vehicle path . It
must be smooth avoid abrupt and sharp corners
• The number of conflicts point should be minimised
by separating some of the many cuttings, merging or
diverging movement
• Vehicles that are forced to wait in order to cross a
traffic should be provided with adequate space at the
junction
 Types of intersection

• There are two main types of intersection of

roads.
• Grade – separated intersections or
interchanges.
• At – grade intersections.
 Grade separated

• An intersection were where roads cross at different level

• It is a bridge that eliminates crossing conflicts at
intersections by vertical separation of roadways in space.
• Route transfer at grade separations is accommodated by
interchange facilities consisting of ramps.
• The interchange configurations are designed in such a way
to accommodate economically the traffic requirements of
flow, operation on the crossing facilities, physical
requirements of the topography, adjoining land use, type of
controls, right-of-way and direction of movements.
 At grade intersection
• At-grade intersections in which all the
exchanges between the roads take place on
the same plane.
• These are of two types
• Standard at-grade intersections
• Round about at-grade intersections.
 Choice of intersection
• The choice between an at grade and grade
separated junctions at a particular sites
depends upon various factors such as traffic,
economy, safety, aesthetic, delay etc.
• Grade separated junctions are generally are
more expensive initially and are justified in
certain situations
• On high type facilities such as expressways,
freeways and motor ways
• Certain at grade intersection which have reached
the maximum capacity
• At certain locations which have a proven record
of bad accidents history when functioning as at
grade junction
• At junctions where the traffic volume is heavy
and delays and loss caused justify economically
• At certain specific topographical situations
where it is logical to provide grade separated
rather than at grade
Types of grade separated intersection
• Underpass
• Overpass
• Trumpet Interchange
• Diamond Interchange
• Cloverleaf Interchange
• Partial cloverleaf Interchange
• Directional Interchange
• Bridged Rotary
underpass
GRADE SEPARATED INTERSECTION
 GRADE SEPERATED INTERSECTION
✓ Highest form of intersection treatment.
✓ Much superior to intersection at grade from the point of view of traffic safety and
efficient operation.
✓ Highway grade separation is achieved by means of vertical level.
✓ The grade separation may be either by bridge or under pass.
✓ Transform of rout at grade separation is provided by interchange facilities
consisting of ramp.
Ramps classified in to:
a. Direct interchange ramp involves diverging to right side and merging from the
right.
b. Semi-direct interchange ramp allows diverging to left but merging from right
side.
c. Indirect interchange ramp allows a simple diverging to left and merging from left
side.
 ADVANTAGES OF GRADE SEPARATION
✓ Maximum facility given to the crossing traffic.
✓ There is increased safety for turning traffic and by indirect interchange ramp right
turn movement is made safe.
✓ Overall increase in comfort and convenience to motorists and saving travel time
and vehicle operation cost.
✓ Capacity of grade operated intersection can pratical ly approach that of two cross
roads.
✓ Grade separation is an essential part of controlled access highway like expressway
and freeway.
✓ It is possible to adopt grade separation for all likely angles and layout of
intersecting roads.
✓ Stage construction of additional ramp are possible after grade separation structure
b/n main roads are constructed.
 DISADVANTAGES OF GRADE SEPERATION

✓ It is costly to provide complete grade separation and interchange facilities.

✓ Where there is limited right of way like build up or urban areas or where
topography is not favourable, construction of grade separation is costly, difficult
and undesirable.
✓ In flat or plain terrain , grade separation may introduce undesirable crests and sags
in the vertical alignment.
 GRADE SEPARATION STRUCTURES
✓ Bridge structure used to separate the grades of 2 intersecting highway may be T-
beam bridge,rigid frame type and prestressed concrete bridges.
✓ There should be vertical clearance of atleast 4.3m.
✓ Type of bridge structure should be selected depending on design ,construction and
other consideration like site condition etc.
✓ Grade separated intersection are classified as over-pass and under –pass.
Over-pass
✓ Major highway is taken above by rising its profile above the general grond level
by embankment and an overbridge across another highway
Advantage
✓ Drainage problem may be reduced
✓ Cost of bridge structure is less.
✓ Future expansion or lateral expansion or construction of separate bridge structure
is possible.
Disadvantages

✓ In rolling terrain ,vertical profile will also have rolling grade line.
✓ By constructing high embankment and by providing steep gradient will result in
increased grade resistance
✓ Restriction to sight distance
Under pass
✓ If the highway is taken by depressing it below the ground level to cross another
road by means of an under-bridge ,it is known as under-pass.
Advantages
✓ There is a warning to traffic in advance due to the presence of under pass
✓ When the major highway is taken below , it is advantageous to the turning traffic.
✓ It may be of advantage when main highway is taken along the existing grade
Disadvantage
✓ Drainage problem
✓ The over head structure may resist the vertical sight
✓ No possibility of stage construction for bridge structure
INTER CHANGE
Grade separated intersection with complete interchange facilities is essential to develop
a highway with full control of access.
Some types of interchanges are
1. Diamond
2. Rotary interchange
3. Partial clover leaf
4. Full clover leaf
DIAMON
CLOVER LEAF INTERCHANGE
PARTIAL CLOVER INTERCHANGE
 INTER SECTION AT GRADE
All road intersections which meet at about the same level allowing
traffic manoeuvres like merging, diverging, crossing, and weaving
are called intersections at grade.
Requirements are,
• Area of conflict should be small
• Relative speed and angle of approach of vehicle should be small
• Adequate visibility
• Sudden change should be avoided
• Geometric features should be provided
• Proper sign should be provided
• Good lighting
•If no. Of pedestrians and cyclists are large, Separate provisions
should be made for safe passage
Examples foe channelized and unchannellized intersection
Various forms of intersections
Intersections may be Classified into two

Unchannelized intersections

Channelized intersection
 UNCHANNNELIZED INTERSECTION (all paved)

The intersection area is paved and there is no restriction to

vehicles to use of any part of intersection area.
hence the unchannelized intersection are the
➢ Lowest class of intersection
➢ Easiest in design
➢ Most complex in traffic operation
➢Resulting maximum conflict area
➢ When no additional pavement width for turning movement –
called plain intersection
➢ when pavement is widened at intersection – called flared
intersection
➢ In fig arrows indicate – path of traffic flow, turning,
crossing and through movements
 CHANNELIZED INTERSECTIONS

❖ Achieved by – introducing islands into intersectional area

❖ Reducing the total conflict area available in the unchannelized

intersection

❖ To accommodate the channelizing islands- radius of the entrance, exit

curves and area are suitably designed

❖ islands helps- channelized turning traffic, to control their speed and

angle of approach to decrease the conflict area

❖Thes intersections are may be partial or complete with divisional and

directional islands and medians

❖ here better control of traffic on the traffic entering and leaving

 Advantages of channelized intersection
➢ Vehicles can be confined to definite paths

➢ Cause minimum disruption

➢ Angle between intersecting streams of traffic may be kept as

desired in favourable way

➢ Speed control can be established

➢ Points of conflicts can be separated

➢ Provide proper place for installation of signs and traffic

control devices
 Advantages of channelized intersection
➢ Vehicles can be confined to definite paths
➢ Angle of merging streams can be forced to be flat Cause minimum
disruption
➢ Angle between intersecting streams of traffic may be kept as
desired in favourable way
➢ Speed control can be established
➢ Points of conflicts can be separated
➢ Provide proper place for installation of signs and traffic control
devices
➢ Both major and minor conflict area within the intersection
considerably decreased
 ROTARY INTERSECTION
• Enlarged road intersection.
• All the converging vehicles are forced to move round a
large central island in one direction.
• direction- clock wise direction
• Objective:
o eliminate the stopping of vehicle
o Reduce area of conflict.
• Crossing of vehicle is avoided by
o vehicles merge into the stream
o Then to diverge out to the desired radiating road
• Crossing conflict is eliminated.
 Design factors of Rotary
1. Speed

➢ Vehicles have to slow down their speed than design speed ,

even if in the NH design speed is considered.
➢ No need of dead stop
➢ Speed at rotary in India:
a. 40kmph in rural area.
b. 30kmph in urban area and other cases.
2. Shape of central island

➢ Depends on the number and the layout of the intersecting

roads
➢ Different shapes adopted are
1. Circular
2. Elliptical
3. Turbine
4. Tangent
➢ Circular shape: When 2 equally imp roads cross at roughly
right angle.
➢ Island may be elongated
• To accommodate in the layout 4 or more intersecting
roads
• To allow for the greater traffic flow along the direction
of elongation
➢ Too much elongation and tangent shape : not desirable bcz
there will be tendency for the traffic to move much faster.
➢ Turbine shape:
• reduction the vehicle speed at the entering of the rotary
and enables speeding up of the vehicles going out
• the headlight glare is a limitation of the design at night.
3. Radius of rotary roadway

➢ One way rotary road round the island has different radii at
different points depending on the shape of the island
➢ Adequate super elevation cannot be provided and hence it
is safer to neglect the super elevation and to take friction
only into consideration and hence the radius of curvation
R= V*V/(127*f)
➢ f= 0.43 and design speed: 20-35m for 40kmph
➢ f=0.47 and design speed:15-25m for 30kmph
➢ Factor of safety :1.5
➢ Recommended min radii of central island: 1.33 times the
radius of entry curves.
4.Weaving angle and weaving distance

➢ Weaving angle: angle b\w the path of a vehicle entering

the rotary and that of another vehicle leaving the rotary in
adjacent road.
➢ weaving length: length of rotary roadway
➢ For smooth flow of traffic, weaving angle should not less
than 15degree as the dia of central island required is too
large.
➢ For any design speed, the freedom of movement on a
rotary depends on the size of weaving area.
➢ Weaving length:at least (4 X width of the weaving section)
➢ Recommended value:
❑ Weaving length: 45 to 90m for 40kmph
❑ Weaving length: 30 to 60m for 30kmph
5. Width of carriageway at entry and exit

➢ It is governed by amount of traffic entering and leaving the

rotary.
➢ Minimum width of carriageway at entrance and exit : 5m
➢ Entry width (e1) may inc.ed to 6.5,7 & 8 when width of
approaching road is 7,10.5 & 14 and radius at entry is 25 to
35m.
6. Width of rotary roadway

➢ All the traffic go round the one way roadway aleast for a short
distance.
➢ Outer kerb line follow the entrance and exit-sides of roads.
➢ Actual width of roadway varies section to section.
➢ Effective width of rotary roadway: minimum width of the roadway
b/w edge of the central island and adjoining kerb.
➢ It determines the capacity of rotary.
➢ Width of the non-weaving section (e2)=widest single entry
➢ e2< the width of the weaving section(W).
➢ W of the rotary : one traffic wider than the mean width of entry and
non-weaving section i.e.
W =(e1+e2)+3.5
2
7.Entrance and exit curves

➢ Curve traced by the inner rear wheel determines the radius and
shapes of the kerb to be set.
➢ Radius of entrance curve= minimum recommended radius of
central island.
➢ Radius at entry curve= 20 to 35m for 40kmph
=15 to 25m for 30kmph
➢ Easy for bus to take right angle turn at curve in design speed.
➢ Exit curve should have larger dia as the speed inc.ed in
radiating roads.
➢ Reasonable radius of exit curves is one and a half to 2 times
radius of entry.
➢ Extra widening at entry and entrance curve is provided.
➢ Pavement width at entrance curve > than at exit curve as the
radius of former is less than the later.
8.Capacity of the rotary:
Practical capacity depends on the minimum capacity of the
individual weaving section.
Practical capacity Qp =280W(1+e/w)(1-p/3)
(1+W/L)
Where, Qp = practical capacity of the weaving section of a rotary
in pcu per hour.
W = width of weaving section(6to 18m)
e = avg width of entry e1& width of non-weaving s/c e2
for the range e/W = 0.4 to 1.0
L = length of the weaving s/c btw the ends of
channelizing islands in metre for the range of W/L=
0.12 t 0.4.
p = proportion of weaving traffic given by
 p = b+c in the range 0.4 to 1.0
a+b+c+d
a = left turning traffic moving along left extreme lane.
d= right turning traffic moving along right extreme lane.
b= crossing traffic turning towards rgt while entering the
rotary.
c= crossing traffic turning towards left while leaving the
rotary.
The IRC has recommended the following PCU(Passenger car
unit) values for finding the capacity of the rotary :
Cars, light commercial vehicles and three-wheelers = 1.0
Buses and heavy commercial vehicles = 2.8
Motor cycles ,scooters = 0.75
Pedal cycles = 0.50
Animal drawn vehicles = 4 to 6
9.Channelizing islands:
• Provided at the entrance & exit of the rotary to
prevent undesirable weaving,& turning & to reduce
area of conflict.
• Helps vehicles to reduce speed to the design speed.
• Serve as convenient place for erecting traffic signs &
as a pedestrian refuge.
• Shape & size governed by:
1.Radius of the rotary
2. Radii of the entrance & exit curves
3.Angles & layout of the radial road &rotary.
• Generally provided with kerbs 15 t0 21cm high.
10. Camber & Superelevation:
• Vehicle passing along rotary traverses a reverse
curve while changing from one-path of roadway to
the exit of the radial road.
• Cross slope should be min at the point of change in
direction.
• Inward slope of camber serves as superelevation,
though design of the curve made assuming no
superelevation.
• Outer slope helps vehicles turning left towards the
exit curve to the radiating road.
11. Sight distance, grade:
• Sight distance should be large as possible.
• Should not be less than safe stopping distance for the
design speed.
• min sight distance= 45-30m for design speed of 40-
30kmph resp.
• locate rotary on level ground or with slope not
exceeding 1 in 50 with the hzl.
12. Lighting :
• Min lighting-one each on the edge of island facing
each radiating road.
• Additional lights when the central island is larger than
60m dia.
• If pedestrians are more, then lighting is provided at
the entrance curve.
13. Traffic Signs:
• Should be installed at all approaching roads .
• Red reflector is placed at 1m abv road level on
the nose of each directional island & on the
kerb of the central island.
• Vertical balck&white strips of width 25-30cm
painted on kerb of central island &
channelizing islands improve visibility.
14. Provision for cyclists and pedestrians:
• As far as possible pedestrians & cyclists should be
isolated from the general traffic utilizing the rotary.
• If the cyclists are less than 50per hour they may be
permitted to mix up with the other traffic.
• If they are more, a separate cycle track is provided.
• If a large no of pedestrians, separate foot path with
guard rails should be provided around the rotary.
• Provision of crossing facilities to pedestrian by
subway or over bridge is possible solution for
pedestrian crossing in rotary.
DESIGN OF INTERSECTION
 Design factors of Rotary
1. Speed
a. 40kmph in rural area.
b. 30kmph in urban area and other cases.
2. Shape of central island

Different shapes adopted are

1. Circular
2. Elliptical
3. Turbine
4. Tangent
3. Radius of rotary roadway
Radius at entry
➢ 20-35m for 40kmph
➢ f=0.47 and design speed:15-25m for 30kmph

Radius at exit=1.5 to 2 timesradius at entry curve

Radius at entry curve=1.33xradius at entry

weaving length

➢ weaving length: length of rotary roadway

➢ Weaving length:at least (4 X width of the weaving section)
➢ Recommended value:
❑ Weaving length: 45 to 90m for 40kmph
❑ Weaving length: 30 to 60m for 30kmph
.Width of carriageway at entry and exit
Width of rotary roadway

W
W=(e1+e2)+3.5
=(e1+e2)+3.5
22
e=(e1+e2)
e=(e1+e2)
22
8.Capacity of the rotary:
Practical capacity Qp =280W(1+e/w)(1-p/3)
(1+W/L)
Where, Qp = practical capacity of the weaving section of a rotary
in pcu per hour.
W = width of weaving section(6to 18m)
W =(e1+e2)+3.5
2
e=(e1+e2)
2
L = length of the weaving s/c btw the ends of
channelizing islands in metre for the range of
W/L=0.12 t 0.4.
p = proportion of weaving traffic given by
p = b+c in the range 0.4 to 1.0
a+b+c+d
a = left turning traffic moving along left extreme lane.
d= right turning traffic moving along right extreme lane.
b= crossing traffic turning towards rgt while entering the rotary.
c= crossing traffic turning towards left while leaving the rotary.
 p = b+c in the range 0.4 to 1.0
a+b+c+d
The IRC has recommended the following PCU(Passenger car unit)
values for finding the capacity of the rotary :
Cars, light commercial vehicles and three-wheelers = 1.0
Buses and heavy commercial vehicles = 2.8
Motor cycles ,scooters = 0.75
Pedal cycles = 0.50
Animal drawn vehicles = 4 to 6
• Assume design speed =30kmph (urban area)
• Assume a circular central island
• Assume radius of entry =20 m
• Assume radius of exit =2x radius of entry =2x20=40m
• Radius of central island =1.33xradius of entry =1.33x20=28 m
• Weaving length =30m
• Width of carriageway at entry and exit =10m
• e=(e1+e2) =10 m e1=10 m & e2=10 m
2
• Width of weaving section ,W =(e1+e2)+3.5 =13.5m
2
• Weaving traffic in each direction
• N-E=643+350+423+424=1840
• E-S=643+493+450+402=1988
• S-W=1331+54981582
• W-N=358+402+423+493=1672
DESIGN OF INTERSECTION
 Design factors of Rotary
1. Speed
a. 40kmph in rural area.
b. 30kmph in urban area and other cases.
2. Shape of central island

Different shapes adopted are

1. Circular
2. Elliptical
3. Turbine
4. Tangent
3. Radius of rotary roadway
Radius at entry
➢ 20-35m for 40kmph
➢ f=0.47 and design speed:15-25m for 30kmph

Radius at exit=1.5 to 2 timesradius at entry curve

Radius at entry curve=1.33xradius at entry

weaving length

➢ weaving length: length of rotary roadway

➢ Weaving length:at least (4 X width of the weaving section)
➢ Recommended value:
❑ Weaving length: 45 to 90m for 40kmph
❑ Weaving length: 30 to 60m for 30kmph
.Width of carriageway at entry and exit
Width of rotary roadway

W
W=(e1+e2)+3.5
=(e1+e2)+3.5
22
e=(e1+e2)
e=(e1+e2)
22
8.Capacity of the rotary:
Practical capacity Qp =280W(1+e/w)(1-p/3)
(1+W/L)
Where, Qp = practical capacity of the weaving section of a rotary
in pcu per hour.
W = width of weaving section(6to 18m)
W =(e1+e2)+3.5
2
e=(e1+e2)
2
L = length of the weaving s/c btw the ends of
channelizing islands in metre for the range of
W/L=0.12 t 0.4.
p = proportion of weaving traffic given by
p = b+c in the range 0.4 to 1.0
a+b+c+d
a = left turning traffic moving along left extreme lane.
d= right turning traffic moving along right extreme lane.
b= crossing traffic turning towards rgt while entering the rotary.
c= crossing traffic turning towards left while leaving the rotary.
 p = b+c in the range 0.4 to 1.0
a+b+c+d
The IRC has recommended the following PCU(Passenger car unit)
values for finding the capacity of the rotary :
Cars, light commercial vehicles and three-wheelers = 1.0
Buses and heavy commercial vehicles = 2.8
Motor cycles ,scooters = 0.75
Pedal cycles = 0.50
Animal drawn vehicles = 4 to 6
• Assume design speed =30kmph (urban area)
• Assume a circular central island
• Assume radius of entry =20 m
• Assume radius of exit =2x radius of entry =2x20=40m
• Radius of central island =1.33xradius of entry =1.33x20=28 m
• Weaving length =30m
• Width of carriageway at entry and exit =10m
• e=(e1+e2) =10 m e1=10 m & e2=10 m
2
• Width of weaving section ,W =(e1+e2)+3.5 =13.5m
2
• Weaving traffic in each direction
• N-E=643+350+423+424=1840
• E-S=643+493+450+402=1988
• S-W=1331+54981582
• W-N=358+402+423+493=1672
TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN-
WEBSTER’S METHOD
Terminology
 Cycle: One complete sequence of the operation of traffic
signals.
 Cycle Time/ Cycle length : The time taken to complete one
cycle or it is the period of time required for one complete
sequence of signal indication.
 Phase of signal: Part of cycle allocated to any combination of
traffic movement receiving right of way simultaneously.
 Interval: The path of signal cycle during which signal indications
don't change
 Offset: It is the time lag in seconds between the beginning of
green phase at intersection and green phase at next
intersection
 Intergreen period: The time between end of right of way for a
phase and the start of the right of way for the next phase.
Terminology
 All red interval: Time during which the indication is red
for all the approaches.
 Lost time: Time not effectively used for vehicle movement
Design of isolated fixed time signal
 Objectives of signalised intersection design
 To provide sufficient intersection capacity
 To minimise overall delay
 General principles of 2-phase signal design
 R1 = G2 + A2
 Red- amber or initial-amber may be provided to end of red
phase
 Clearance time or clearance-amber just after green phase
 Go time or green time is decided based on approach volume
Signal design methods
 Trial cycle method
 Approximate method based on pedestrian crossing
requirement
 Webster’s method
 Design as per IRC guidelines
Webster’s method of traffic signal design
 Analytical approach of determining the optimum cycle
time, Co corresponding to minimum total delay to all the
vehicles at the approach roads of the intersection.
 The field work consist of determining
 Normal flow, q during design hour
 Saturation flow, S,
Saturation flow rate is the number of vehicles that can be
moved in one lane in one hour assuming the signal to be
green always. If not given, take as 160 PCU per 0.3 m width
of road or
S=525w PCU/hr; w- width of approach, m
Webster’s method of traffic signal design contd...
 Design steps:
 Find ratios y = q for given approach roads.
S
 Find Y = y1 + y2

 Find total lost time per cycle in sec, L = nl + R

n- no of phases; R- All-red time

l=initial delay/lost time per phase ; if not given take as 2 sec;

then L = 2n + R
Webster’s method of traffic signal design contd...

 Cycle length, Co =

 Green time for each phase is obtained by:

y1
G1 = (Co − L)
Y
y2
G2 = (Co − L)
Y
Problem 1
 Two roads A and B meet at right-angles. The normal flow and
saturated flow on road A are 750PCU/hr and 3600 PCU/hr
respectively. On road B normal flow is 550 PCU/hr and
saturated flow is 2700PCU/hr. The all red time is 10sec. Design
a two-phase isolated traffic signal for the intersection and
sketch the phase diagram. (KTU DEC 2019, 10 marks)
Solution
ya= 750/3600 =0.208, yb= 550/2700 = 0.204
Y=ya+yb = 0.412
n = 2; R = 10 sec
L=2n+R=14sec
Co = (1.5L+5)/(1-Y) =44.2 sec
GA=(ya/Y )x(Co-L) =15.2sec
GB =(yb/Y )x(Co-L) =14.95sec say15sec
Problem 2
 The average normal flow of traffic on cross roads A and B
during design period are 400 and 250 PCU per hour
respectively. The saturation flow values on these roads are
estimated as 1850 and 1400 PCU per hour respectively. The all
red time required for pedestrian crossing is 16 seconds.
Design a two-phase traffic signal by Webster’s method. (KTU
MAY 2019, 10 marks)
Solution
ya =qa/sa =0.216 ; yb =qb/sb =0.178
Y = ya + yb = 0.395
n = 2; R = 16 sec
L= 2n+R = 20 sec
Co = (1.5L+5)/(1 -Y) = 58 sec
Ga = ya(Co-L)/Y = 21 sec
Gb = yb(Co-L)/Y = 17 sec
Problem 3
 A fixed time 2-phase signal is to be provided at an intersection
having four arms. The design hour traffic and saturation flow
are

Time lost per phase due to starting delay is 2 sec and all red
period is 4 sec. Design two phase traffic signal using Webster’s
method. Draw the phase diagram also. (KTU APRIL 2018,
12 marks)
Solution
 TRAFFIC SIGNALS
OBJECTS OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS
▪ At intersections where there are a large number of crossing and right-turn traffic, there
possibility of several accidents as there cannot be orderly movements.
▪ On cross roads with two-lane two-way traffic, there are 16 crossing conflicts as illustrated in
Fig. 5.20.
❖ The problem of such conflicts at the intersections gains more significance as the traffic
volume increases.
❖ In such situations the earlier practice has been to control the traffic with the help of
traffic police who stops the vehicles on one of the roads alternately and allows the traffic
stream of the other road to cross or take right turn.
❖ Thus the crossing streams of traffic flow are separated by ‘time-segregation’.
❖ In bigger cities, a large number of police personnel are required simultaneously to
control the traffic during peak hours at most of the junctions with heavy traffic flow.
❖ Therefore traffic signals are made use of to perform this function of traffic control at
road intersections.
➢ Traffic signals are automatic traffic control devices which could alternately direct the
traffic to stop and proceed at intersections using red and green traffic light signals as per
the pre-determined time settings.
• The main requirements of traffic signal are to:
(i) Draw attention of the road users
(ii) Enable them to understand the meaning of the light signal
(iii) Provide sufficient time to respond and
(iv) Ensure minimum waste of time.
 ADVANTAGES OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS
( Properly designed traffic signals at intersections )
• Provide orderly movement of traffic at the intersection.
• The quality of traffic flow is improved by forming compact platoons of vehicles, provided
all the vehicles move at approximately the same speed.
• Reduction in accidents due to crossing conflict, notably the right angled collisions.
• Traffic handling capacity is highest among the different types of intersections at-grade.
• Provide a chance to traffic of minor road to cross the continuous traffic flow of the main
road at reasonable intervals of time.
• Pedestrians can cross the roads safely at the signalized intersection.
• When the signal system is properly co-ordinate, there is a reasonable speed along the
major road traffic.
• Automatic traffic signal may work out to be more economical when compared to manual
control.
DISADVANTAGES OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS
• The rear-end collisions may increase.
• Improper design and location of signals may lead to violations of the control system.
• Failure of the signal due to electric power failure or any other defect may cause
confusion to the road users.
• The variation in vehicle arrivals on the approach roads may cause increase in waiting
time on one of the roads and unused green signal time on other road, when fixed time
traffic signals are used.
• Excessive delay of vehicle may be caused particularly during off-peak hours.
• Drivers may be induced to use less adequate and less safe routes to avoid delays at
signals.
 DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN TRAFFIC SIGNALDESIGN
▪ The period of time required for one complete sequence of signal indications is called
‘signal cycle’.
▪ The part of the signal cycle time that is allocated to stop the traffic or to allow traffic
movement is called ‘signal phase’
▪ The duration of ‘stop’ phase is the red phase and
▪ The duration of ‘go’ phase is the green phase.
▪ Any of the division of the signal cycle during which signal indications do not change
is called the ‘interval’.
▪ The engineer has to design the signal with the sequence and duration of individual
phases to serve all approaching traffic at a desired ‘level of service’.
▪ The level of service is measured by the vehicle delay, the queue length or the number
of vehicle backed up and the probability of a vehicle entering the intersection during
the first green phase after arrival.
❖ The capacity of a signalized intersection depends on physical factors of the roads
such as roadway width, number of lanes, geometric design features of intersection
and also the green and red phases of the traffic signal.
❖ The capacity is also affected by operational and control factors such as number of
turning movement, number and size of commercial vehicles, pedestrian traffic signal
characteristics and abutting land use.
 TYPES OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS
The signals are classified into the following types:
Traffic control signals
Pedestrian signal
Special traffic signal
THE TRAFFIC CONTROL SIGNAL
▪ The traffic control signals have three coloured lights which glow facing each direction
of traffic flow namely, red, amber and green.
▪ The red light is meant for ‘stop’,
▪ The green light for ‘go’and
▪ The amber or yellow light allows the ‘clearance time’ for the vehicles which enter the
intersection area by the end of green time to clear off the intersection, before the
change-over to red signal light.
▪ A typical traffic signal head is shown in Fig. 5.27.
▪ Additional signals showing green lights for separate movements of turning traffic
movements may also be provided, where necessary.
PEDESTRIAN SIGNALS
➢ Pedestrian signals may be installed at the intersections controlled by traffic signals
to enable the pedestrians to safely cross the specified roads;
➢ In such cases, the pedestrian signals and their timings are interlinked to operate
along with the traffic control signal.
➢ At certain locations of mid-block stretches of urban roads with high demand for
pedestrian crossing, separate pedestrian signals may be installed along with
appropriate warning and informatory signs.

SPECIAL TRAFFIC SIGNALS

❑ Special traffic signals such as ‘flashing beacons’ may be installed at certain locations
in order to warn the traffic of certain situations.
❑ At flashing red signals, the drivers of vehicles shall stop before entering the nearest
cross walk at an intersection or at a stop line.
❑ Flashing yellow signals are cautionary signals meant to signify that drivers may
proceed with caution.
 TRAFFIC CONTROL SIGNALS
Different types of traffic signals are in use in India namely,
(i) Manually operated signals
(ii) Fixed time automatic signals and
(iii) Automatic traffic-actuated signals.
I) MANUALLY OPERATED SIGNALS
▪ Each of manually signals is operated from a salient point at or near the intersection
by a traffic police constable;
▪ The signal phases may be varied depending on the traffic demand at that point of
time.
(II) FIXED TIME AUTOMATIC SIGNALS
➢ The fixed time automatic traffic signal keeps repeating the same set of signal phases
and the signal cycle time that has been set in the signal controller.
➢ This type of traffic signal may function satisfactorily at locations where there is no
significant variation in traffic flow on different approach roads.
➢ U.S.A. fixed time signals are far more numerous than vehicle-actuated types.
➢ The timing of each phase of the cycle is predetermined based on the traffic studies and
➢ they are the simplest and cheapest type of automatic traffic signals which are
electrically operated.
➢ The main drawback is that when the traffic flow on one road may be almost nil and
traffic on the cross road may be quite heavy, yet the traffic in the heavy stream will
have to keep waiting at red phase.
 (III) AUTOMATIC TRAFFIC- ACTUATED SIGNALS.
❖ Traffic actuated signals are those in which the timings of the phase and cycle are
changed according to traffic demand.
❖ Vehicle actuated signals, in which the green periods vary and are related to the actual
demands made by traffic.
❖ This is made possible by installing detectors on all the traffic.
❖ Vehicle-actuated signals are very popular in U.K.
(a) SEMI-ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNALS
❖ In semi-actuated traffic signals the normal green phase of an approach may be
extended up to a certain period of time for allowing a few more vehicles approaching
closely, to clear off the intersection with the help of detectors installed at the
approaches.
❖ Semi-vehicle-actuated signals, in which the right of way normally rests with the main
road and detectors are located only on the side roads.
(b) FULLY ACTUATED TRAFFIC SIGNAL
❖ In fully actuated traffic movements on the basis of demand and pre-determined
programming.
❖ But these are very costly to be installed at all intersections.
(c) MODERN FIXED TIME EQUIPMENTS
❖ Modern fixed time equipments are built for operation with different settings at
certain periods of the day, to cover different conditions.
❖ This is achieved by providing time switches
 TYPE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Fixed time (i) Simple in construction. (i) Inflexible and hence may
cause avoidable delay.

(ii) Relatively inexpensive (ii) Require careful setting

(iii) Most successfully used in

linked systems requiring a fixed
cycle length for a given pattern
and speed of progression

Vehicle-actuated. (i) They are flexible and are able (i) Require costly equipment
to adjust to changing traffic such as detectors and
conditions automatically sophisticated controllers
Semi-vehicle- (ii) Delay is held to minimum and (ii) Cannot provide signal
actuated maximum capacity is achieved. co-ordination.
Useful for junction of a side They are believed to cause
street having low traffic volume high accident rates at times
with a main street having heavy of light traffic.
flow
 CO-ORDINATED CONTROL OF SIGNALS
Co-ordinated signal system
➢ Co-ordinated signal system on a road net-work of an area is a very complex problem.
➢ Area traffic control system with co-ordinated signal network is to be implemented
with the help of advanced technology.
Need for co-ordinated control
▪ Need for co-ordinated control of signals arises on a main traffic route when it is
desirable to reduce delays and avoid main traffic from having to stop at every
junction.
▪ When a signal indicates a stop aspect at a junction, a queue of vehicles is formed
behind the stop line.
▪ When the signal changes to green, the vehicles start moving in a platoon.
▪ If this platoon is made to meet a green aspect at the next junction no delay is caused
to the vehicles.
▪ This principle of linking adjacent signals so as to secure maximum benefits to the
flow of traffic is called co-ordinated control of signals.
▪ The co-ordination of signals is bought for with the following objectives in view:
(i) To pass the maximum amount of traffic without enforced halts.
(ii) To have minimum overall delay to traffic streams, both in the main and side roads.
(iii) To prevent the queue of vehicles at one intersection from extending and reaching the
next intersection.
Road Accidents

1
Road Accidents

•Types
•Causes
•Preventive Measures

1
 Accidents

• Nearly 60,000 people are killed in road

accidents every year.
• Accidents cause damage, loss of property,
injury or even death.
• Accidents can’t be prevented totally but
can be minimized by proper management
of traffic.

2
 Necessity of Accidents Study

• To study the causes and put remedial

measures
• To check existing designs and suggest
proposed designs
• To carry out surveys for putting causes
and remedies
• To calculate financial and manpower loss
and justify the proposal
3
 Classification of Accidents

I. Collision Accidents:
• Collision with pedestrians
• Collision with other moving vehicles
• Collision with fixed objects
II. Non-Collision Accidents:
• Running off the roadway
• Over-turning
• Any other non-collision.
4
 Causes of Accidents

• Road Users
• Vehicles
• Road pavement
• Environmental factors

5
 Elements Causing Accidents

• Drivers • Defective Road Design

• Pedestrians • Weather
• Moment of Surprise • Animals
• Passenger • Lack of Proper Lighting
• Vehicle Defects • Other Causes
• Bad Road Condition

6
 Preventive Measures

• Engineering Measures
• Enforcement of Laws and Regulations
• Public Education of Traffic Laws

7
 Engineering Measures

• Road Design- Proper Design of Pavement

and traffic factors
• Road Lighting- Proper Illumination during
night
• Maintenance of Defective Roads- regular
or periodic checking of road for
maintenance
• Maintenance of Defective Vehicles-
Checking Brakes, Chassis, and other parts
8
 Enforcement of Traffic Rules

• Speed Control- Use of instruments like

tachometers, speed guns, etc., surprise
checking, imposing fine, etc.
• Traffic Control- Application of signals,
signs, markings, etc., Deploying Traffic
Police.
• Training and Supervision- While giving
Driving license, drivers should be trained
strictly. The trained driver should be tested
periodically. 9
 Enforcement of Traffic Rules

• Observance of Law and Regulations-

Traffic Laws enforcement teams should be
sent to different locations to see if public is
following traffic rules properly or not.
• Medical Check up- Alcohol or intoxicating
consumption should be checked regularly.
Public carrier drivers should be checked
for vision and reaction time.
• Education to public- Traffic Education
should be provided to public. 10
Road accidents
• Road accident
• An accident which occurred or originated on a
road open to public traffic resulting in either
injury or loss of life or damage to property in
which at least one moving vehicle was
involved
 Accident studies and report
• Collection of data
• Accident report
• Accident record
 Collection of accident data
• It is the first step in the accident study
• The details to be collected are
1.General( date,time, person, particular,
classification of accident)
2. Location
3.Details of the vehicle involved
4. Nature of accident
5. Road and traffic condition
• 6.primary causes of accident
• 7. accident costs
• Accident report
• Accident records
Location files
Spot maps
Condition diagram
Collision diagram
Uses of collection od data
 Causes of road accidents
• Vehicle
• Driver
• Road
• Road users other than motorist
• Environmental and Weather factors
 Road user other than motorist
• Pedestrians
• cyclist
 Pedestrian safety

• Trends in pedestrian accident pattern

• 1.age
• 2. sex
• 3.social condition
• 4.Driving experience
• 5.Familiarity with locality
• 6. the drunken pedestrian
 The road and its influence on the
pedestrian accidents
• Geometric features of the road
• Design of intersection
• Road lighting and vehicle lighting
• Pedestrian footway
Measures to increase pedestrian
safety measures
 Environmental and other factors

Weather factors
Rain
Snow or ice
fog
 Steps to be taken for Preventing Road Accidents
1. Most important method to bring down accidents is strict enforcement of speed limits. 90
% of accidents can be avoided by strict enforcement of speed limits.
2. Heavy Penalty should be imposed on ALL those who cross speed limits. If this is strictly
implemented, nobody will dare to go at high speed.
3. Existing speed limits should be brought down further.
4. Heavy penalty should be imposed for those who cause accidents.
5. Tamper proof speed controllers should be made mandatory for all heavy vehicles. New
heavy vehicles should have built in tamper proof speed controllers.
6. Two wheeler manufacturers should be asked to design two wheelers with a designed
maximum possible speed of (say) 50/60 kmph. This limit may be decided based on the
conditions of each country.
7. New gadgets are to be developed for collision prevention and should be fitted on all
vehicle.Research organizations should be asked to develop such gadgets on a war footing.
For example, gadgets can be developed to automatically slow down the vehicle, if safe
distance commensurate with the speed of the vehicle in front is not maintained. Gadgets
can be developed for warning the driver, if the driver sleeps.
8. Diving tests for issue of Driving license is to be made more stringent and foolproof.
9. Lower age limit for two wheeler and Heavy Vehicle license should be raised to 21.
10.Helmet should be made compulsory by law in all countries, OR impose a lower speed
limit for those who do not use helmet. Issue of Helmet should be made mandatory with
the sale of each two wheeler.
11. Helmet should be made compulsory for back seat riders also.
12.Ensure that all Helmet users are fixing the Chinstrap of Helmet.
Otherwise it will not help during an accident.

13.Ensure that ONLY good quality Helmets that meet standard

specifications are available in the market

14.Existing traffic rules should be strictly enforced.

15.Law should be modified such that the person who makes the accident
has to bear (say) 0 to 10 % of the insurance claims, depending on severity
of negligence. Also the compensations should be made very huge, making
accidents unaffordable so that everyone will be very vigilant.

16. All those who do not maintain the safe distance for the speed should be
punished.
17.Safety awareness should begin from childhood, as it is difficult to
impart awareness to a grown up a human. If safety awareness is imparted
at childhood, safety will be a habit
18. Video and Computer games that simulate Motor Racing should be banned by
Government OR discouraged by parents as it will develop racing habit in children.
19. All sorts of Motor sports, especially racing should be banned by government.
Telecast of Motor Sports and Racing also should be banned.
20.Racing, over speed / highly risky riding, driving by Heroes should not be filmed in
cinemas and TV serials. Children are likely to imitate the same. Statutory warning will
no help. Government should censor such scenes.
21.Advertisements by automobile companies which include scenes of dangerous and
risky riding or driving should be banned. Youngsters are likely to imitate the same
. Statutory warnings will not help. Such ads will result in irreparable character formation
regarding riding and driving in kids and children. Such children may make accidents in
future.
20. Children below a certain age should not be permitted to do cycling in busy roads
and in roads where heavy vehicles are plying.
23.Refreshment parlors should be made available at every 50 / 100 k.m. on all
highways and important roads. Truck, Heavy vehicle drivers should be
forced to refresh by having a face wash or by having a cup of tea or coffee.
24. The practice of keeping the traffic signals in standby mode during nights
and on holidays is
to be reviewed and discontinued.
25. Advertisement boards and other items that may obstruct visibility at
junctions, curvatures and other parts of the roads should be removed
immediately.
26 Ensure that the money recovered as Road Tax is fully utilised for the
construction and maintenance of roads.
27. Time Punching of Private buses practiced in some regions should be
discontinued as it is forcing the drivers to go at high speed, after traffic
blocks
 28. Newspaper, Television and other media should be effectively used for
Public Safety
29 Major accidents and accident prone areas should be analysed
scientifically.
30 Speed should be restricted at accident prone areas.
31.More stringent traffic rules should be enacted.
32.License of those who are involved in accidents should be suspended
immediately, at least until they prove that they are not guilty.
35.Health of vehicles should be strictly enforced.
36.Eyes of old aged driving license holders should be checked at regular
intervals.
37.License of drunkard drivers and riders should be cancelled immediately
 38Judicial Commissions should be setup to monitor steps taken to
control road accidents andto monitor the accident rates on a weekly
basis.
39One way traffic should be implemented in all roads as far as
possible. Roads should be widened wherever required. Curvatures
should be minimised. Medians should be constructed in roads with
two way traffic.
40.Footpaths and medians should be made mandatory for all
important roads and for all new roads.
41. Zebra crossings should be provided for pedestrians for safe road
crossings at appropriate places.
42.Signals for road crossings should be provided at important and
busy places where a large number of people have to cross the road
everyday.
42.Signals for road crossings should be provided at important and busy places
where a large number of people have to cross the road everyday.
43. Roads should be properly marked. Sign posts should be provided wherever
required.
Humps should be provided at all important places, accident prone areas. Humps
should be made mandatory for all sub roads where it enters a main road.
44Construction, size and shape of the Humps should be scientific. All the
Contractors of the Public Works and other departments should be provided with
the details of scientific Hump construction.
45.Humps should be clearly marked, to avoid accidents. Methods of permanent
nature should be followed in Hump marking. For example white marble pieces /
white colour / fluorescent pigment can be used.
46. Provision of small pilot humps few meters before humps can also be
considered to ensure that humps are not left unnoticed.
47.Obstructions on road sides caused by unauthorised construction and road side sales
should be
Eliminated completely
48.Visibility should be increased near curvatures. Sometimes, even cutting of grass to
increase
visibility can help save many lives
50. Road Safety Day / Road Safety Week should be observed in all Schools, every year.
Competitions on Road Safety Tips, Slogans, Essays, Paintings etc. should be conducted
for students of various classes.
51.School Buses should be painted with Bright Yellow color.

.
51.School Buses should be painted with Bright Yellow color.
52.Let ‘Road Safety’ be a mandatory topic for School Projects for all classes, every year.
53.A small pool of water or a hanging branch of tree on roadsides can cause accidents as such
obstructions will make the pedestrians and drivers to take sudden LATERAL movement and result
in accidents. Hence any obstruction on road sides which can cause a LATERAL movement should
be rectified immediately.
54. Black color should not be permitted for Cycles. Default color for Cycles should be changed to
Yellow.
55. Automobile and cycle manufacturers should be asked to stop producing black and dark
vehicles. Yellow or other bright colored vehicles should be produced instead.
56. Front and Back of Lorries and Trucks should be painted with bright Yellow color to increase
visibility. This will help to prevent collisions while Lorries and Trucks are parked on roadside
without parking lights switched on.
.
57.Reflectors should be fixed on Front and Back of Trucks and Lorries.
58.Accident statistics should be periodically reviewed to understand the effect of actions taken.
Corrective steps should be taken based on these reviews.
59. Attention distracting Hoardings, banners, posters, advertisements etc
should be banned near roads and highways.
60. Default color of Helmets should be changed to Yellow to reduce accidents by
increased visibility. Black and dark colors should not be permitted.
61. All automobile manufacturers should be asked to strengthen safety standards of
vehicles by improved design. It is to be noted here that in the series of collisions of
200 plus vehicles at Dubai in 2008, only few people were killed. This is because of
the high safety standards.
62.Parking near curvatures should be strictly prohibited.
63.Road crossing near curvatures should be made punishable.
All models of vehicles should be issued a international safety rating number ( say
from 1 to100 ) based on their safety features, design, build, colour etc. Vehicle
manufacturers will compete to improve the safety to get top ranking. This will
ultimately result in saving of many lives. Customers can easily select the safest
vehicle based on safety number.
65. Day light like lighting should be provided in main roads, so that high beam can be
avoided and a lot of accidents caused by high beam of vehicles coming from opposite
direction can be avoided. 66.Drunkard driving should be firmly dealt with.
67.Anti drowsy warning gadgets should be made mandatory during night
travel.
68Street dogs should be eliminated completely.
69Low cost tamper proof electronic devices to record the speed of the vehicle should
be
developed and should be fitted on all heavy vehicles. The devices should be
examined in case of accidents – a miniature version of black box of aero plane.
70. Video cameras should be installed at regular intervals on highways by Police
and should be centrally monitored.
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