ASIA EURO UNIVERSITY

Applied Linguistics

OVERVIEW OF SEMESTER I
Faculty of Arts, Humanities and
Languages
Year 4, Semester 1
Academic Year 2022

By Keo Narith, BEd & MA in IR

1
 OVERVIEW OF SEMESTER I
2

• What is Applied Linguistics?

• Chapter 1: What is language?
• Chapter 2: What are components of a language?
• Chapter 3: Language in spoken discourse
• Chapter 4: Language in written discourse
• Chapter 5: Language development and age
• Chapter 6: The psychology of second language
acquisition
• Chapter 7: Conclusion: L2 Learning and Teaching
 Definition of AL What is language? The Sound of Language (Traditional) Grammar
AL here is a body of Human beings are the only Place of articulation (Bilabials, Parts of speech (n, v, adj,
theoretical knowledge species capable of learning Labiodentals, Alveolars Velars, Dentals, adv, pre, conj., art.)
Palatals, Glottals)
upon which language language, and language3is the Prescriptive grammar:
Manner of articulation: stops,
teachers draw to help them unique possession of human fricatives, affricates, nasals, liquids, rules for proper use of
teach L2 effectively beings and glides language
History of AL Competence/performance Phonology/Phoneme Descriptive grammar:
(1948) Solutions to real I-Language/E-Language Phones, allophones, description of structures
language driven problems minimal pair, phonotactics actually used in a language
(Chomsky)
Traditional and modern Lingua/Parole (Saussure) Syntax: Generative grammar: (deep/surface structure;
Role of AL syntactic structure/structural ambiguity/recursion)
INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER I: WHAT IS CHAPTER II: COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE
PART I

APPLIED LINGUISTICS LANGUAGE?

AL Vs LA 3 Schools of Thought Word formation processes: Semantics
Fields of AL Structuralism/Behaviorism coinage/blending/conversion -Semantic roles: agent,
Language Teaching Backformation/borrowing/ theme, instrument,
(Skinner’ operant
compounding/clipping/ experiencer, location,
Language planning conditioning) Acronyms/derivation source & goal
Lexicography
Language and technology Cognitive psychology 2 kinds of morpheme - Lexical relations:
(Noam Chomsky’s UG) - Free morpheme (lexical: n, synonyms/antonyms/
Descriptive linguistics
v, adj., adv) & (functional: hyponymy/prototypes/
SLA Constructivism pre., art., conj.; pro); homophones/homonyms/
Language assessment (Piaget’s cognitive one & - Bound morpheme polysemy / word play /
Vygotsky’s social one) (derivational: prefixes, metonymy/ collocation
suffixes) & (inflectional:
plural, tense)
Pragmatics: co-text/ reference/presupposition
/inference implicature/anaphora/ speech acts
 Pragmatics What is a Text? A semantic What is a Critical Period? Languages & the Brain
Grice’s Cooperative unit of a language, with Age 2 to puberty – chance Brain plasticity for the
maxims/principles corrosion & coherence of native-likeness young to regain lost lang.
Maxim of Quality (truth) Types of Cohesion: For both L1A & L2A, Learning Process
Maxim of Quantity 4 children acquire phonology, Info Process (IP): input,
referential, lexical,
(informativeness) conjunctive lexicon, syntax and central processes (from
Maxim of Relevance morphology consecutively. controlled to automatized;
Maxim of Manner (clarity) (Herschensohn claims that to restructuring), output
Presupposition Vs L1A and L2A are similar, but Cognitive styles: FD/FI,
Types of Coherence:
differ in schedule and other global/particular;
PART II & III

Entailment Generic & Registerial factors) holistic/analytical

CHAPTER III: LANGUAGE CHAPTER IV: LANGUAGE IN CHAPTER V: LANGUAGE CHAPTER VI:
IN SPOKEND DISCOURSE WRITTEN DISCOURSE DEVELOPMENT AND AGE PSYCHOLOGY OF SLA
3 dimensions of Speech Genre: Context of Culture L1 vulnerable to age Differences among L2
Acts (Austin) - Register configuration: field, constraints, but L2 learners
- Locutionary (utterance) tenor, mode indirectly affected by - Age, aptitude, motivation
- Illocutionary (intent of S) - Staged or Schematic structure external/environ factors
- Cognitive styles
- Perlocutionary (result) - Realisational patterns - Personality
2 Kinds of Speech acts Types of Genre Herschensohn balances the Personality:
Literacy, popular fiction, non- evidence of innate (introverted/extroverted;
Direct S. A. – direct
reflective/impulsive;
relation between Form & fiction, educational, everyday structural predispositions
anxious/self-confident;
Function (CP) and the role of shy/adventuresome; risk-
Indirect S.A. – indirect Register: Context of environmental factors. avoiding/risk-taking;
relation between Form & Situation creative/uncreative
- High levels of motivation, imaginative/un-inquisitive;
Function - Mode: spoken vs. written empathetic/insensitive to
language linguistic training &
others; tolerant of
- Tenor: formal vs. informal education in L2 are likely ambiguity/closure-oriented)
Performative verbs Vs language to characterize individuals Learning Strategies:
Constatives - Field: Technical vs. everyday who attain a high level of Metacognitive (plan monitor
situation nativelikeness in the L2. your progress), Cognitive;
Socio-affective
Different views on Applied Linguistics (AL)
5

International Association of Applied Linguistics

(2009):
• AL is an interdisciplinary field of research and
practice dealing with practical problems of
language and communication that can be
identified, analyzed or solved by applying available
theories, methods and results of Linguistics
 CONCLUSION
6
 However, AL in our program here is to prepare students to teach
English as a foreign language – we do not intend to focus on all
language-related issues, but one – language pedagogy.
 As Davies and Elder (2004) question if AL is emerging from being
a subject to being a discipline, we may agree with their views,
based on the above quotes – that is, from being a university
subject leading to a bachelor‟s or master‟s degree in the field, to
being a discipline or interdisciplinary body.
 However, we attempt to reverse this trend; we view AL in
connection with language pedagogy. That is, AL is a „subject‟ that
provides our teacher trainees knowledge about language (English),
some linguistic theories, language learning and teaching theories
(drawn from research in SLA, sociolinguistics, and
psycholinguistics), among others for them to draw upon when they
teach the language. Teacher trainees will be able to use
theoretical knowledge obtained from this subject to deal with
problems arising from language classrooms – one of the
language-related problems in the real world.
 CONCLUSION
7

 We view AL in a very restrictive sense – AL is a

body of theoretical knowledge upon which language
teachers draw to help them teach either a foreign or
second language effectively.
 What is Language?
8
Language as a form of human
communication
• Most linguists would probably agree that although
many animals are able to communicate, they do not
actually have „language‟ in the sense that humans
do.
• Birds may sing, cats miaow and purr, dogs bark and
growl, apes grunt, scream and even chatter, but they
are not assumed to be using these sounds in the
way we do.
• „Language‟ is therefore a major attribute
distinguishing us from the rest of the animal
kingdom. (Yule, 2006)
What is Language? (Laurie Baeuer,2007)
With different aspects, we can define language as a social fact, as a
psychological state, as a set of 9structures, or as a collection of
output.
1. A language is a social fact, a kind of social contract. It exists not in
an individual, but in a community
2. A language can also be viewed as a mental reality. It exists in the
heads of people who speak it, and we assume its existence because
of people‟s ability to learn languages in general and their practice in
dealing with at least one particular language. „A grammar is a mental
entity, represented in the mind/brain of an individual and
characterizing that individual‟s linguistic capacity‟(Lightfoot,
2000:231). The grammatical system allows speakers to produce
appropriate utterances.
3. A language can be viewed as a system of systems. „Every
language forms a system in which everything is interconnected‟
(Meillet, 1903: 407).
4. A language can be defined as an actual set of utterances or a set of
sentences (output). The totality of utterances that can be made in
a speech community is a language of that speech community
(Bloomfield, 1957). A language is a set of finite or infinite of
sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite
set of elements (Chomsky, 1957).
 Langue Vs Parole (Ferdinand de Saussure)
10

 There two sides to language: langue (language) and

parole (speech). LANGUE is part of language, which „is
not complete in any individual, but exists only in the
community‟ (Saussure 1969); PAROLE is observable in
the behavior of the individual.
 Langue refers to the (formal, grammatical) system of
language, whereas parole refers to its specific use.
 First, different dialects may have different norms.
 Second, Saussure‟s parole similar to Chomsky‟s
performance, but Chomsky‟s competence unlike
Saussure‟s langue because COMPETENCE has no
social side to it, but a mental construct in the individual.
Langue is „a system of signs‟ and Chomsky‟s
competence is a generative system.
 Competence Vs Performance (Nom Chomsky)
11
 Saussures believes that linguistics involves studying the language of
the community, while Chomsky believes linguistics involves studying
the language potential of the individual.
 Competence is the speakers’ actual knowledge of the language;
performance refers to the use of that knowledge (Chomsky). Any
piece of text (spoken or written) represents a performance of
language.
 Competence is the knowledge that all speakers have of their
native language which allows them, without thinking about it at
all, to produce well-formed structures. It is tacit knowledge that
speakers normally have no access to and cannot describe.
 Performance is “the actual use of language in concrete
situations” (Chomsky, 1965: 4), which may contain structures
that, for various reasons, are not actually well-formed. For
example, speakers may produce performance errors because
they‟re tired, distracted, drunk, in a hurry or just being sloppy.
These occasional slips in performance simply represent a poor
implementation of the underlying competence. (Yule, 2010,
p.32)
 CHAPTER II: LANGUAGE ELEMENTS
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Components of language
• The Sounds of Language
• The Sound Patterns of Language
• Words and Word-formation Process
• Morphology
• Grammar
• Syntax
• Semantics
• Pragmatics
 The Origin of Language
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 Language developed over hundreds of

thousands of years from human ancestors‟
call systems.

 Language is the uniquely effective vehicle

for learning that enables humans to adapt
more rapidly to new stimuli than other
primates.
Apes, such as these Congo chimpanzees,
use call systems to communicate in the wild
14

 Call systems consist of a

limited number of sounds that
are produced in response to
specific stimuli (e.g. food or
danger)
• Calls cannot be combined
to produce new calls.
• Calls are reflexive in that
they are automatic
responses to specific
stimuli.
 Although primates use call
systems, their vocal tract is
not suitable for speech.
 What is language acquisition?
15

• Language acquisition is the process by which

humans acquire the capacity to perceive, produce
and use words to understand and communicate. This
capacity involves the picking up of diverse capacities
including syntax, phonetics, and extensive
vocabulary.
• Language might be vocal as with speech or manual
as in sign.
• Language acquisition usually refers to first language
acquisition, which studies infants' acquisition of their
native language, rather than second language
acquisition that deals with acquisition (in both
children and adults) of additional languages.
 What is the distinction between
learning and16acquisition?

Acquisition Learning

Implicit and Explicit and conscious

subconscious
Informal situation Formal situation

Uses grammatical “feel” Uses grammatical rules

Depends on attitude Depends on aptitude
Stable order of Simple to complex order of
acquisition learning
 Language: A uniquely human ability
 The origin of language (known in linguistics as
glottogony) is the onset in prehistory of human
spoken language.
 Human beings have an innate mechanism for learning
language.
 Human beings are the only species capable of learning
language, and language is the unique possession of
human beings.
 Human beings can teach their own language to other
people whose languages are different.
 Human beings can learn other languages through
comparing with their first language.
 Topics discussed in this chapter
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Components of language
• The Sounds of Language
• The Sound Patterns of Language
• Words and Word-formation Process
• Morphology
• Grammar
• Syntax
• Semantics
• Pragmatics
Define the five components of a language
19

Phoneme the smallest unit of sound in a language which

can distinguish two words, i.e. pan vs ban.
Morpheme the smallest meaningful unit in a language, i.e.
unkindness.
Syntax concerns how words combine to form
sentences.
Semantics the study of meaning of words, phrases or
sentences.
Pragmatics the study of the use of language in
communication, particularly the relationships
between sentences and the contexts and
situations in which they are used.
 The Sounds of Language
Phonetics: The general study of the characteristics of speech
sounds 20

• Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of

speech as sound waves in the air
• Articulatory phonetics is the study of the physical production,
via the vocal organs, of speech sounds.
• Two primary linguistic disciplines concerned with speech
sounds - those sounds that are used by humans to
communicate - are phonetics and phonology.
• Phonetics describes the concrete, physical form of sounds
(how they are produced, heard and how they can be
described), while phonology is concerned with the function of
sounds, that is with their status and inventory in any given
language. (Dorgeloh, 2009)
• Traditionally, sounds are classified into consonants and
vowels. Consonants are sounds that are produced with a
major obstruction in the mouth cavity.
• Vowels are sounds that are produced without such obstruction.
 The Sounds of Language
21

Voiced and Voiceless Sounds

o Vowel sounds are generally voiced- the vocal cords are set
vibrating by the outgoing airflow.
o Consonants can be voiced or voiceless: the vocal cords
are either far apart and do not vibrate, as in fan, or they are
relatively closed and vibrate as in van.

Classification of Consonants:
o Place of Articulation: (Bilabials, Labiodentals,
Dentals, Alveolars, Palatals, Velars, Glottals)
o Manner of Articulation: (stops/plosives, fricatives,
affricates, nasals, liquids, and glides/semi-vowels)

Classification of Vowels
 The Sounds of Language
22
PLACE OF ARTICULATION (Consonant sounds)
o Bilabials: Sounds formed using both (= bi) upper and
lower lips (= labia).
• Voiceless: pat [p]
• Voiced: bat [b], mat [m]
o Labiodentals: with the upper teeth and the lower lip.
• Voiceless: fat [f], cough [f], photo [f]
• Voiced: vat [v]
o Dentals: with the tongue tip behind the upper front teeth.
• Voiceless: thin, bath [θ] “theta”
o Alveolars: with the front part of the tongue on the
alveolar ridge, which is the rough, bony ridge immediately
behind and above the upper teeth.
• Voiceless: top [t], sit [s]
• Voiced: dip [d], zoo [z], nut [n]
 The Sounds of Language
23

PLACE OF ARTICULATION (Consonant sounds)

o Palatals: sounds produced with the tongue and the palate
(the roof of your mouth)
• Voiceless: shout [ʃ], child [ʧ], shoebrush [ʃ], church [ʧ]
• Voiced: treasure, pleasure, rouge [ʒ]; joke, gem [ʤ];
judge, George [ʤ]; you, yet [j]
o Velars: sounds produced with the back of the tongue
against the velum
• Voiceless: kid, kill, car, cold, cook, kick, coke [k]
• Voiced: go, gun, give; bag, mug, plague [ɡ]

o Glottals: sounds produced without the active use of the

tongue and other parts of the mouth
• Voiceless glottal: have, house, who, whose [h]
 The Sounds of Language
24
MANNER OF ARTICULATION (Consonant sounds)
1. Stops/Plosives: are consonants that are made up by
completely blocking the airflow.
 There are six plosives in English: bilabial [p] and [b],
alveolar [t] and [d], and velar [k] and [g].
2. Fricatives: are consonants that are produced by impeding,
but not completely blocking the airflow.
 There are nine fricatives in English: labio-dental [f] and
[v], interdental [θ] and [ð], alveolar [s] and [z], palate-
alveolar [ʃ] and [ʒ], and glottal [h].
3. Affricates: are sounds that are similar to both plosives and
fricatives: The tip of the tongue touches the back part of the
teeth ridge, the front part of the tongue is raised towards the
hard palate.
 Voiceless affricate: [tʃ] as in chain
 Voiced affricate: [dʒ], as in jelly
 The Sounds of Language
MANNER OF ARTICULATION 25
(Consonant sounds)
4. Nasals: are consonants which, like plosives, are produced by
completely blocking the airstream. But there is an important
difference: The airflow escapes through the nasal cavity
(hence the term nasals).

 There are three nasal consonants in English: bilabial [m],

alveolar [n], and velar [ŋ]: morning, knitting and name
5. Liquids include alveolar [l] and post-alveolar [r].
 The [l] sound is formed by letting the air stream flow
around the sides of the tongue as the tip of the tongue
makes contact with the middle of the alveolar ridge.
 The [r] sound at the beginning of red is formed with the
tongue tip raised and curled back near the alveolar ridge.
6. Glides/Semi-glides: These sounds are typically produced
with the tongue in motion (or “gliding”) to or from the
position of a vowel.
 The sounds [w] and [j] we, wet, you, yes
Manner of Articulation
- V = voiceless;
26 + V = voiced

Source: Yule, 2014, p.31

 The Sounds of Language
27

CLASSIFICATION OF VOWELS (Voiced)

Depending on the height of the tongue, vowels can be
classified into high, low, and mid vowels:

1. When the front or the back of the tongue is raised

towards the roof of the mouth, the vowel is called high,
this is the case, e.g., in pill, meet, look, or soon.
2. When the front or the back of the tongue is as low as
possible, the vowel is called low, as, e.g., in land, star,
or dog.
3. When the tongue occupies the position intermediate
between the high and the low one, the vowel is called
mid, e.g. in get, or the unstressed [ə] in about.
 The Sounds of Language
28

CLASSIFICATION OF VOWELS (Voiced)

Depending on the part of the tongue that is raised most

vowels are classified into front, back, and central vowels:
1. When the front part of the tongue is raised towards
the hard palate, the vowel is called front, e.g. in meet,
get, or land.
2. When the back part of the tongue is raised towards
the soft palate, the vowel is called back, as in star,
dog, law, or soon.
3. When the front part of the tongue is raised towards
the back part of the hard palate, the vowel is called
central, e.g. in about, much, or nurse.
 Vowel Sounds
29

Source: Yule, 2010, p.35

 The Sound Patterns of Language
1. Phonology: the study of30the systems and patterns of
speech sounds in languages
2. Phonemes: the smallest meaning-distinguishing sound unit
in the abstract representation of the sounds of a language
3. Phones & Allophones: Phone refers to a physically
produced speech sound, representing one version of a
phoneme; allophone: one of a closely related set of speech
sounds or phones. Ex:
4. Minimal pair (set): two (or more) words that are identical in
form except for a contrast in one phoneme in the same
position in each word (e.g. bad, mad)
5. Phonotactics: constraints on the permissible combination
of sounds in a language
6. Syllables and clusters: Syllable is a unit of sound
consisting of a vowel and optional consonants before or
after the vowel; consonant cluster: two or more
consonants in sequence.
7. Co-articulation: assimilation & elision
The Sound Patterns of Language
o Phonemes: the smallest meaning-distinguishing
31 sound unit
in the abstract representation of the sounds of a language
For example:
a. In English, the word pan and ban differ only in their
initial sound –pan begins with /p/ and ban begins with
/b/
b. ban and bin differ only in their vowels:/æ/ and /ɪ/
Therefore, /p/, /b/ , /æ/ and /ɪ/ are phonemes of
English.
o Phone refers to a physically produced speech sound,
representing one version of a phoneme; allophone: one of a
closely related set (group) of speech sounds or phones.
• An allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a
particular language i.e. [t] and [th] are allophones of the
phoneme /t/
• For example, [ph] in pin and [p] in spin are allophones for
the phoneme /p/ in the English language.
The Sound Patterns of Language
32
Minimal pairs
• Identical in form, but contrast in one phoneme:
pat – bat /p/ vs /b/
• Contrast in meaning based on the minimal
sound contrast:
fan – van, bet – bat, site – side
Minimal sets
• One minimal set based on the vowel
phonemes
feat, fit, fat, fate, fought, foot
• Minimal set based on consonant phonemes
big, pig, rig, fig, dig, wig
 Syllables and Clusters
33

o closed syllable: a syllable that ends with a consonant or coda i.e. up,
cup, at, hat
o open syllable: a syllable that ends with a vowel (or nucleus) and has no
coda i.e. me, to, no
o coda: the part of a syllable after the vowel
o onset: the part of the syllable before the vowel
o consonant cluster: two or more consonants in sequence
o rhyme: the part of the syllable containing the vowel plus any following
consonant(s), also called “rime”
 Word-Formation Processes
34

• Coinage
• Borrowing
• Compounding
• Blending
• Clipping
• Backformation
• Conversion
• Acronyms
• Derivation
 Word-Formation Processes
35

o Coinage: The invention of totally new terms basically for trade

names, especially for business purposes.
aspirin, nylon, Nokia, Sum Sung, Sony and xerox
o Borrowing: The taking over of words from other languages, for
example, English has adopted a vast numbers of loan words
from other languages such as:
alcohol (Arabic) boss (Dutch) piano (Italian)
robot (Czech) tycoon (Japanese) yogurt (Turkish)
zebra (Bantu) karaoke (Japanese) monk (Latin)
o Compounding: A joining process of two separate words to
produce a single form.
book + case = bookcase finger + print = fingerprint
sun + burn = sunburn text + book = textbook
(wallpaper, doorknob, wastebasket, football etc.)
 Word-Formation Processes
36
o Blending: A combination of two separate forms to produce a
single new term, but blending typically accomplished by
taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the

end of the other word.
smoke + fog = smog
breakfast + lunch = brunch
motor + hotel = motel
television + broadcast = telecast
o Clipping: This occurs when a word of more than one
syllable is reduced to a shorter form, often in casual speech.
advertisement  ad
fanatic  fan
influenza  flu
laboratory  lab
professor  prof
administration  admin
condominium  condo
 Word-Formation Processes
37
o Backformation: Typically, a word of one type
(usually a noun) is reduced to form another word of
a different type (usually a verb).
televise from television
edit from editor
donate from donation
opt from option
motivate from motivation
enthuse from enthusiasm
o Conversion: (zero-derivation) A change in the
function of a word, as, for example, when a noun
comes to be used as a verb (without any reduction).
bottle, can, paper, cap, butter, vacation,
respect
 Word-Formation Processes
38
o Acronyms: Some new words are formed from the initial
letters of a set of other words. These acronyms often
encompass capital letters. i.e. UNESCO, AEU, ASEAN,
UNHCR
World Trade Organization (WTO)
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
o Derivation: A letter or sound, or group of letters or sounds, (=
a MORPHEME) which is added to a word, and which
changes the meaning or function of the word. Affixes are
bound forms that can be added:
1. to the beginning of a word (= a prefix)
2. to the end of a word (= a suffix)
3. within a word (= infix) (e.g. absogoddamlutely!,
unfuckinbelievable!)
 Morphology
39

o Morpheme: the smallest meaning unit in a language.

A morpheme cannot be divided without altering or
destroying its meaning.
Example:
Un+ friend + ly = unfriendly (3 morphemes)
Improve + ment = improvement (2 morphemes)
Pro + govern + ment = pro-government
(3 morphemes )
 Morphology

Free morpheme Bound morpheme

Lexical Functional Derivational Inflectional

- Nouns - Prepositions Prefixes Possessive

- Adjectives - Articles Suffixes case(s)
- Adverbs - Conjunctions Tense (-ed)
- Verbs - Pronouns

o A single word that can stand alone and carry its meaning is
called Free Morpheme. (Study, open, stand, clever, big,
small, etc.)
o A word that is used alone and carries no meaning is called
Bound Morpheme. (or, ing, ed, un, ation, dis…)
 Syntax
 Syntax: Syntax refers to ways in which words are organized
and sequenced to produce meaningful sentences. In other
words, syntax concerns the ways in which words combine
to form sentences, making some sentences possible and
others not possible within a particular language.
Example:
In Khmer:​​ នាងជាសិសសឆ្នម ើ ម្ននក់ ។ ​(ន + ​គុ.នាម)
In English: She is an outstanding student.
(adj. + n.)
​
 GRAMMAR
42

Traditional grammar
• Parts of speech
• Agreement (number, person, tense, voice &
gender)

Prescriptive grammar

Descriptive grammar
• Structural analysis
• Constituent analysis
• Labeled and bracketed sentences
 Grammar
43

Linguistic
expressions
represented by
phonetic alphabet

the luck -y boy -s

functional lexical derivational lexical
inflectional

(Grammar described in a sequence of

morphemes)
 Traditional Grammar
44

Parts of Speech

o Traditional grammar: the description of the structure of

phrases and sentences based on established categories
used in the analysis of Latin and Greek
o The grammatical category of gender is very usefully
applied in describing a number of languages (including
Latin), but may not be appropriate for describing forms in
other languages such as English.
 Prescriptive Grammar
45
Prescriptive approach: an approach to grammar that has rules
for the proper use of the language, traditionally based on Latin
grammar, in contrast to descriptive approach.
o You must not split an infinitive:
• To boldly go, to solemnly swear, to never ever say goodbye
(not appropriate in Latin grammar, but a typical use of English
among speakers and writers)
o You must not end a sentence with a preposition:
• Who did you go with? (Informal)
• With whom did you go? (Formal)
• Mary runs faster than me. (Informal)
• Mary runs faster than I am. (Formal)
• “Me and my family will be moving to this town.” (Informal)
• My family and I will be moving to this town. (Formal)
 Descriptive Grammar
Descriptive approach: an46approach to grammar that is
based on a description of the structures actually used in a
language, not what should be used, in contrast to the
prescriptive approach.
o Surface structure: the structure of individual sentences
after the application of movement rules to deep structure.
o Constituent analysis: a grammatical analysis of how small
constituents (or components) go together to form larger
constituents in sentences.
o Structural analysis: the investigation of the distribution of
grammatical forms in a language.

Different constituents of the sentence

by using labeled brackets
 SYNTAX
47

Generative Grammar
• Syntactic structure
• Deep and surface structure
• Structural ambiguity
• Recursion
• Symbols used in syntactic description
Tree Diagram
• Phrase structure rules
• Lexical structures
• Back to recursion
• Complement phrases
• Transformational rules
 SYNTAX
Generative Grammar: can be48used to “generate” or produce
sentence structures and not just describe them.
• Syntactic structure: syntax (syntactic structures): (the
analysis of) the structure of phrases and sentences.
• Deep structure (abstract phrase structure) and surface
structures (ways of interpretations)
• Surface structure: the structure of individual sentences after
the application of movement rules to deep structure.
• Deep structure: the underlying structure of sentences as
represented by phrase structure rules.
• Charlie broke the window. (deep structure)
• The window was broken by Charlie.
• It was Charlie who broke the window
• Was the window broken by Charlie?.
(In short, the grammar must be capable of showing how a
single underlying abstract representation can become
different surface structures.)
 SYNTAX
49

Structural ambiguity: a situation in which a single phrase or

sentence has two (or more) different underlying structures and
interpretations.
• Two distinct deep structures
1. “Annie had an umbrella and she bumped into a man with it.”
2. “Annie bumped into a man and the man happened to be carrying an
umbrella.”
Annie bumped into a man with an umbrella. (structural ambiguity)
• It has two distinct underlying interpretations that have to be
represented differently in deep structure.
Other examples of structural ambiguity
 I once shot an elephant in my pajamas. (a joke)
 How he got into my pajamas I‟ll never know.
Possible interpretations
 “I shot an elephant (while I was) in my pajamas.”
 “I shot an elephant (which was) in my pajamas.”
 SYNTAX
50
Recursion: the repeated application of a rule in
generating structures.
• The gun was on the table. (one prepositional phrase)
• The gun was on the table near the window in the
bedroom. (more than one prepositional phrase)
Symbols used in syntactic description
• Examples are “S” (= sentence), “NP” (= noun phrase), “N”
(= noun), “Art” (= article), “V” (= verb) and “VP” (= verb
phrase). Others, such as “PP” (= prepositional phrase),
seem fairly transparent.
Tree Diagram: a diagram with branches showing the
hierarchical organization of structures.
• Phrase structure rules: rules stating that the structure of a
phrase of a specific type consists of one or more
constituents in a particular order
 SYNTAX
51
Phrase structure
rules

Lexical rules: rules stating which words can be used for

constituents generated by phrase structure rules. (7) to (12)
are ungrammatical.
 SYNTAX
52
• Movement rules: rules that are used to move constituents
in structures derived from phrase structure rules. (From
declarative to question form)
Can you see the dog? Should George follow you?
Could the boy see it? Would Mary help George?
• Back to recursion:
Mary helped George.
Cathy knew that Mary helped George.
John believed that Cathy knew that Mary helped George.
(Put one sentence into another)

• Complement phrase: a structure such as that Mary helped George

used to complete a construction beginning with a structure such as Cathy
knew
 SEMANTICS
53

Semantic Features
Semantic roles
• Agent & Theme
• Instrument & experiencer
• Location, source and goal
Lexical relations
• Synonyms/antonyms/hyponymy
• Prototypes
• Homophones & homonyms
• Polysemy/word play/metonymy
• Collocation
 SEMANTICS
Semantic role: the part played
54 by a noun phrase, such as
agent, in the event described by the sentence.
• The boy kicked the ball. (The boy = Agent; the ball = Theme)
• The wind blew the ball away.
• A car ran over the ball.
• The dog caught the ball.
o Instrument: the semantic role of the noun phrase identifying the
entity that is used to perform the action of the verb (e.g. The boy
cut the rope with a razor)
o Experiencer: the semantic role of the noun phrase identifying the
entity that has the feeling, perception or state described by the
verb (e.g. The boy feels sad)
• The boy cut the rope with an old razor. (semantic role of instrument)
• He drew the picture with a crayon. (semantic role of instrument)
• The boy feels sad. (The boy – the experiencer of the only semantic role )
• Did you hear that noise? (you – the experiencer; that noise – the theme)
 SEMANTICS
55

Semantic role: location, source and goal

 SEMANTICS
56

o Hyponymy: the lexical relation in which the meaning of one word is

included in the meaning of another (e.g. “Daffodil” is a hyponym of
“flower”) Examples are the pairs: animal/dog, dog/poodle,
vegetable/ carrot, flower/rose, tree/banyan.
o Superordinate: the higher-level term in hyponymy (e.g. flower–
daffodil)
o “horse is a hyponym of animal” or “cockroach is a hyponym of insect.” In these two
examples, animal and insect are called the superordinate (= higher-level) terms.
We can also say that two or more words that share the same superordinate term
are co-hyponyms. So, dog and horse are co-hyponyms and the superordinate term
 SEMANTICS
o Prototypes: the most characteristic instance of a category
(e.g. “Robin” is the prototype of57 “bird”)
o While the words canary, cormorant, dove, duck, flamingo,
parrot, pelican and robin are all equally co-hyponyms of the
superordinate bird, they are not all considered to be equally
good examples of the category “bird,” except robin.
o Homophones: two or more words with different forms and the
same pronunciation (e.g. to– too–two) Common examples are
bare/bear, meat/meet, flour/ flower, pail/pale, right/write,
sew/so and to/too/two.
o Homonyms: two words with the same form that are unrelated
in meaning (e.g. mole (on skin) – mole (small animal)
bank (of a river) – bank (financial institution)
bat (flying creature) – bat (used in sports)
pupil (at school) – pupil (in the eye)
race (contest of speed) – race (ethnic group)
o Collocation: a relationship between words that frequently
occur together (e.g. salt and pepper; hammer and nail; needle
and thread)
 SEMANTICS
o Polysemy: a word having two or more related meanings (e.g.
foot, of person, of bed, of mountain);
58 run (person does, water
does, colors do). In most dictionaries, bank, mail, mole and sole are
clearly treated as homonyms whereas face, foot, get, head
and run are treated as examples of polysemy.
o Word play: Play on words
Mary had a little lamb. (We think of a small animal)
Mary had a little lamb, some rice and vegetables.
(In a comic version, we think of a small amount of meat)
Why are trees often mistaken for dogs? Because of
their bark. (by recognizing the homonymy in the answer)
Why is 6 afraid of 7? Because 789 (Funny answer by
identifying the homophones)
o Metonymy: a word used in place of another with which it is
closely connected in everyday experience (e.g. He drank the whole
bottle (= the liquid)); based on a container–contents relation
(bottle/water, can/juice), a whole–part relation (car/wheels,
house/roof) or a representative–symbol relationship (king/crown, the
President/the White House); filling up the car, answering the door,
boiling a kettle, giving someone a hand, or needing some wheels.
 PRAGMATICS
59
o What is pragmatics?
o Context
• co-text
• deixis
• reference
• inference
• anaphora
o Presupposition (assumption)
o Speech Acts: direct and indirect
o Polite: negative face and positive face
 PRAGMATICS
60
Context: either the physical context or the linguistic context (co-
text) in which words are used.
- She has to get to the bank to withdraw some cash. (We know
from this linguistic context which type of bank is intended.)
o Co-text: the set of other words used in the same phrase or
sentence, also called the linguistic context
o Deixis (deictic expressions): using words such as this or here as a
way of “pointing” with language. These are words such as here and
there, this or that, now and then, yesterday, today or
tomorrow, as well as pronouns such as you, me, she, him,
it, them.
- You‟ll have to bring it back tomorrow because she isn‟t here
today.
o We use deixis to point to things (it, this, these boxes) and people
(him, them, those idiots), sometimes called person deixis. Words
and phrases used to point to a location (here, there, near that) are
examples of spatial deixis, and those used to point to a time
(now, then, last week) are examples of temporal deixis.
 What is the role of co-text?
61

o Role of Co-text refers to the linguistic material used to help

limit the different possible interpretations of the referring
reference.
Ex: It was so dark that Linda kicked the bucket while
walking. (reference)

Dozens of poultry kicked the bucket after the diseases

spread. (reference)

Thyda arrived home late, which made her father hit

the roof. (furious)

His head hit the roof while he was putting up the

goods at the attic.
 PRAGMATICS
62

o Reference: an act by which a speaker/writer uses

language to enable a listener/reader to identify
someone or something.
o We can use proper nouns (Chomsky, Jennifer,
Whiskas), other nouns in phrases (a writer, my
friend, the cat) or pronouns (he, she, it).
o Inference: additional information used by a
listener/reader to create a connection between what
is said and what must be meant.
Waiter: Where‟s the spinach salad sitting?
Another: He‟s sitting by the door.
Q: Can I look at your Chomsky?
A: Sure, it‟s on the shelf over there.
 PRAGMATICS
63

o Referring expressions (deictic expressions) such as:

i. proper nouns (Thyda, David)
ii. pronouns (he, she, it)
iii. demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those)
iv. demonstrative phrases (that man)
v. definite descriptions (the man in the green shirt)

A. Can I borrow your Shakespear?

(intended referent by the speaker)
B. Yeah, it‟s over there on the table.
(inferred referent by the listener)
C. Where‟s the cheese sandwich sitting?
D He‟s over there by the window.
 PRAGMATICS
o Anaphora (anaphoric expressions):
64 use of pronouns (it) and
noun phrases with the (the puppy) to refer back to something
already mentioned.
• We saw a funny home video about a boy washing a
puppy in a small bath.
• The puppy started struggling and shaking and the boy
got really wet.
• When he let go, it jumped out of the bath and ran away.
The first mention is called the antecedent. So, in our
example, a boy, a puppy and a small bath are
antecedents and The puppy, the boy, he, it and the bath
are anaphoric expressions.
o Anaphora can be defined as subsequent reference to an
already introduced entity.
• We found a house to rent, but the kitchen was very
small.
• I caught a bus and asked the driver if it went near the
downtown area.
 PRAGMATICS
65
o Presupposition: an assumption by a speaker/ writer about
what is true or already known by the listener/reader.
• Your brother is waiting outside. (Presupposition: You
have a brother)
• Why did you arrive late? (Presupposition: You did arrive
late)
• I used to regret marrying him, but I don‟t regret
marrying him now. (Presupposition: I married him)
o Speech act: an action such as “promising” performed by a
speaker with an utterance, either as a direct speech act or an
indirect speech act.
• We use the term speech act to describe actions such as
“requesting,” “commanding,” “questioning” or
“informing.”
o Direct speech act: an action in which the form used (e.g.
interrogative) directly matches the function (e.g. question)
performed by a speaker with an utterance, in contrast to an
indirect speech act
 PRAGMATICS
66
o Direct speech acts
Structures Functions
Did you eat the pizza? Interrogative Question
Eat the pizza (please)! Imperative Command (Request)
You ate the pizza. Declarative Statement
o Indirect speech act: an action in which the form used (e.g.
interrogative) does not directly match the function (e.g.
request) performed by a speaker with an utterance, in
contrast to a direct speech act.
• VISITOR: Excuse me. Do you know where the Ambassador Hotel is?
(Indirect speech act)
• PASSER-BY: Oh sure, I know where it is. (and walks away)
• Can you open that door for me? (indirect speech act)
• Open that door for me! (direct speech act)
(Indirect Speech Act is more polite than Direct Speech Act.)
Chapter 3: Language in spoken discourse
67

PRAGMATICS
o Conversational Implicatures
• Quality
• Quantity
• Manner
• Relevance
o Presupposition
o Speech Acts
• Syntax and words that indicate speech act type
• Content and force in speech acts
• Expressives / directives
o Summary (pragmatics, presupposition, speech acts)
 PRAGMATICS
68
There are five components of a language: phonemes,
morphemes, syntax, semantics and pragmatics.
o Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning and how more is
communicated than is said.
o Pragmatics is the study of “invisible” meaning, or how we
recognize what is meant even when it isn‟t actually said or
written. In order for that to happen, speakers (or writers) must
be able to depend on a lot of shared assumptions and
expectations when they try to communicate.
o To make conversational exchanges successful requires
participants to co-operate with each other, as the philosopher
Paul Grice (1975:45) suggests four co-operative principles
(maxims) to “make your conversational contributions such as
is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted
purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are
engaged.” (Yule, 2010, p.128)
 What is co-operative principle?
o Cooperative principle: participants
69 try to make their
contributions appropriate to the shared purpose of the
„talk exchange‟ in which they are engaged.
There are Grice’s four cooperative maxims
(principles) in conversation:
1. Quality: Do not say something perceived as false or
(truthfulness) insufficient evident.
2. Quantity: Give appropriate amount of information, not
(informativenes too, or less, informative.
s)
3. Relevance: Be relevant to the assumed current goals of
(relation) the people involved.
4. Manner: Utterances should be clear: brief, orderly
(style/clarity) and not obscure.
 Levinson‟s Notation (symbols)
Implicature (of an utterance): the
70 additional conveyed meaning,
implied meaning or intended implication of the utterance.
A. “Utterance” “Would you like something to eat?”
B. “U” “I‟ve got a terrible toothache.”
„Implicature‟ = B implicates, „No, thanks.‟
+ > „i‟
Presupposition: an assumption by a speaker/ writer about what is true
+< or already known by the listener/reader
Entailment: - the foundation of semantics, is defined in terms of
truth: under conditions that make sentence 1 true,
sentence 2 must be true

Entailment is a centrally important type of inference in semantics. While

the pragmatic inferences called explicatures and implicatures are
cancellable, an entailment is a guarantee.
 Examples of Co-operative Maxims
71
o Implicature from quality: True or false?
A. “It‟s lovely weather for April in Cambodia.”
B. “It‟s horrible weather for April in Cambodia.”
Implicature: „The speaker is not cooperative if the
utterance is the blatant violation of the quality maxim or if
the hearer doesn‟t implicate the speech true.‟
o Implicature from quantity: informative?
A: “Where does Bopha live?”
B: “Somewhere in the west of Cambodia.”
„B implicates that he/she doesn‟t know exactly where
Bopha lives.‟ Hence, it‟s less informative, because the
speaker makes a vague or general statement.
C: “Can anyone use this car park?”
D: “It‟s for customers of the market.” +> „No‟
(D‟s indirect answer is more polite than just saying “No”)
 Examples of Co-operative Maxims
72
o Implicature from relevance: related or unrelated?
A: (Picking up a book from a display in a bookshop)
“Have you read Long Walk to Freedom?”
B: “I find autobiographies fascinating.”
+> „Long Walk to Freedom is an autobiography‟
+> „Yes, I have read it‟
B’s answer relevant or not to the question depends
upon if ‘Long Walk to Freedom’ is autobiography.

C: “Dara doesn‟t seem to have a girlfriend these days.”

D: “He has been paying a lot of visits to his hometown.”
D’s remarks would not be cooperative if it were not related
in some way and it wouldn’t be relevant unless D meant to
suggest that C has (or might have) a girlfriend in his
hometown, so this is what implicates.
 Examples of Co-operative Maxims
73
o Implicature from manner: clear or orderly?
I got up, brushed my teeth, got dressed, took a shower
and went to school.
The dog chased the cat.
The cat chased the dog.
She got married and became pregnant.
She became pregnant and got married.
Dara took off his socks and jumped into bed.
Dara jumped into bed and took off his socks.
It‟s sunny in dry season and it‟s rainy in rainy season.
It‟s rainy in rainy season and it‟s sunny in dry season.

o The order of words in some sentences does not

change the meanings, but that in others does.
 Presupposition: +<
74
A: “Where is the head of department‟s office? I want to
speak to him.” +< „The HoD is male‟
B: “She is female.” +< „The HoD is female‟

Hanna forgot to post the letter

Hanna remembered (/did not forget) to post the letter.
Di Hanna forget to post the letter?
+< „Hanna was supposed to post it‟
Dick has begun to do a share of the chores.
Dick hasn‟t begun to do a share of the chores.
Has Dick begun to do a share of the chores?
+< „He didn‟t previously do….‟
Presupposition +< distinguished
from entailment
75

o Symptomatic of presuppositions being information that is

assumed to be true. By way of contrast, entailments do
not, in general, survive negation.
Presupposition +< distinguished
from entailment
o Presuppositions can be cancelled
76 when there is increased
pitch on the stressed syllable of the presupposition
trigger, for example on the get-syllable of forget, or
the mem-syllable of remember.
Presupposition +< distinguished
from entailment
77
o Factive predicates are a class of verbs – including regret,
matter, realise and explain – and adjectives – like (be) odd,
sorry, aware – that have been extensively studied as
presupposition triggers.
 What is Speech Act?
78

o Speech acts are actions performed via utterances such as

apology, complaint, invitation, promise or request.
a. “You are fired.” (dismissal, not just a statement)
b. “You’re so delicious.” (praise)
c. “You’re crazy!” (surprise)
d. “Help yourself.” (invitation)
e. “No right turn.” (prohibition)
f. “Pay this bill immediately.” (order)
g. “Hello.” (greeting)
h. “I lived in Pursat province for 14 years.” (statement)
What are dimensions of speech acts?
79
o According to J.L. Austin‟s Speech Act Theory, formal
semantics is merely informative about sentence meaning, but
lacks the important fact about language. That is, using
language is doing something, or we perform actions when
speaking (pragmatics).
There are three dimensions of speech acts:
1. Locutionary: a communicative act
2. Illocutionary: the speaker‟s intent in the sentence
3. Perlocutionary: the result achieved by the sentence

Example 1: “I‟ve just made some coffee.”

(a) basic act of utterance: locutionary
(b) an offer or an explanation: illuctionary
(c) wonderful smell persuades a hearer to drink some
coffee: perlocutionary
 What are dimensions of speech acts?
80
Example 2:
A: “I have run out of chalk”. (the act of saying: locutionary)
B: (the act of demanding for chalk: illocutionary)
C: (the effect of the utterance brings about – one of the
students will go and get some chalk: perlocutionary.)

Example 3:
A: “It’s cold in here.” (Locutionary)
B: In saying “it’s cold in here” I complained about the
temperature.
C: By saying ‘it’s cold in here’ I persuaded Dara to close
the window.
*** Most linguists view illocutionary acts as speech acts.
 Performative verbs
81
o Illoctionary Force Indicating Devices (IFIDs) or performative
verbs are utterances used to display (kinds of) speech acts.
1) Enjoy yourself. (declaration)
2) Don‟t touch it! (warning)
3) I bet you five US dollars that it will rain tomorrow.
(betting)
4) I dub this ship Titanic. (naming)
5) I declare war on Zanzibar. (declaration)
6) Thank you. (acknowledgement)
7) I apologize to you for stepping on your toes. (apology)
8) I pronounce you husband and wife. (pronouncing or
declaring)
o The same utterance may have different illocutionary forces, but the
intended illocutionary forces can be recognized through performative
verbs.
 CHAPTER 4: LANGUAGE IN WRITTEN
DISCOURSE
82
SECTION A: Text(s)
• What is a Text?
• Components of texture: coherence and cohesion
• Coherence: Registerial & Generic
• Cohesive Resources: Reference, Lexical cohesion,
Conjunctive cohesion
SECTION B: Genre: Context of Culture in Text
• Register configuration: field, tenor, mode
• Staged or Schematic structure
• Realisational patterns in the text
SECTION C: Register: Context of Situation in Text
• How does Text matter?
• How context gets into text
• Register theory
 Text Analysis
CONTEXT OF CULTURE
(GENRE = PURPOSE)

CONTEXT OF SITUATION
(REGISTER = LANGUAGE
PATTERN)

DISCOURSE/SEMANTICS
(MEANING)

LEXICO-GRAMMAR
(WORDS & STRUCTURE)

PHONOLOGY(SOUND)
GRAPHOLOGY(LETTERS)
Text Analysis
CULTURE F I E L D = S U B J E C T/ T O P I C

T E N O R = PA R T I C I PA N T S
SITUATION
MODE = CHANNEL OF
C O M M U N I C AT I O N
Field Tenor

TEXT

Mode
REGISTER

GENRE
 Different kinds of genres
There are as many different genres 85 as there as recognizable social
activity types in our culture:
• Literary genres: short stories, autobiographies, sonnets, fables,
tragedies
• Popular fiction genres: romantic novels, whodunits, sitcoms
• Popular non-fiction genres: instructional manuals, new stories,
profiles, reviews, recipes, how-to features
• Educational genres: lectures, tutorials, report/essay writing,
leading seminars, examinations, text-book writing
• Everyday genres: telling stories, gossiping, chatting with friends-
Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL)
• Systemic linguists suggest that the generic identity of a text, the
way in which it is similar to other texts of its genre, lies in three
dimensions:
1. The co-occurrence of a particular contextual cluster
(Register configuration: field, tenor, mode)
2. The text‟s staged or schematic structure
3. Realisational patterns in the text
1. Register configuration: field, tenor, mode
Register theory identifies three86 main dimensions of situations
or context: field (topic), tenor (role relationship) and mode
(means of communication).
For example:
• Transactional genre: buying your coffee from the corner café
• Field: coffee
• Tenor: customer/provider
• Mode: (spoken) face-to-face
• Horoscope texts:
• Field: „Predicting romantic, material and career events‟
• Tenor: advice and warning
• Mode: (written) direct address from writer to reader
• Newspaper article
• Field: Finals of the Soccer World Cup
• Tenor: Specialist to general audience
• Mode: Written to be read
 MODE: Spoken language vs. written language
87
• Written text will be organized synoptically (Beginning, Middle, End
type of generic structure)
• Spoken text contains everyday language and less grammatical
structure
• Written text consists of more prestigious vocabulary and standard
grammatical constructions.
• Written language generally has a much higher rate of lexical density
than does spoken text.
• Spoken language has a higher level of grammatical intricacy.
Grammatical intricacy relates to the number of clauses per sentence,
and can be calculated by expressing the number of clauses in a text as
a proportion of the number of sentences in the text (Halliday 1955b).
These linguistic differences are not accidental, but are the functional
consequence (the reflect) of the situational differences in mode (spoken
and written)
• However, there are two more linguistic features that are highly
sensitive to mode variation; the degree of grammatical complexity,
and the lexical density of the language chosen.
 MODE: Spoken language vs. written language

88
Mode: typical situations of language use
Spoken discourse Written text
+ interactive non-interactive
2 or more participants one participants
+ face-to-face not face-to-face
in the same place at the same time on his/her own
+ language as action not language as action
using language to accomplish some task using language to reflect
+ spontaneous not spontaneous
without rehearsing what is going to be planning, drafting and
said rewriting
+ casual not casual
informal and everyday formal and special occasions
 MODE: Spoken language vs. written language
Spoken and written language: the linguistic implications of MODE
89
Spoken language Written language
Turn-taking organization Monologic organization
context dependent context independent
dynamic structure synoptic structure
-interactive staging -rhetorical staging
-open-ended -closed, finite
spontaneity phenomena ‘final draft’ (polished)
(false starts, hesitations, overlap, Indications of earlier drafts
interruptions, incomplete removed
clauses)
everyday lexis ‘prestige’ lexis
non-standard grammar standard grammar
grammatical complexity grammatical simplicity
lexically sparse lexically dense
 TENOR: Formal language vs. Informal language
FORMAL and INFORMAL90 LANGUAGE:
the linguistic consequences of TENOR
INFORMAL language FORMAL language
attitudinal lexis neutral lexis
(purr and snarl words)
colloquial lexis formal lexis
- abbreviation forms -full forms
- slang -no slang
politeness phenomena (Ps and Qs)
swearing no swearing
interruptions, overlap careful turn-taking
first names, nicknames, diminutives titles, no names
typical mood choices incongruent mood choices
modalization to express probability modalization to express deference
modulation to express opinion modulation to express suggestion
 FIELD: Technical situation vs. Everyday situation
• We initially defined field as the situational variable that has to do
91
with the focus of the activity in which we are engaged. Field can
also be glossed as the topic of the situation, but Martin‟s (1984:23,
1992a:536) broader definition in terms of institutional focus or
social activity type is more useful to capture the field in situations
where language is accompanying action.

Technical and everyday language:

the linguistic implications of FIELD
Technical situation Everyday situation
technical terms everyday terms
-words only ‘insiders’ understand -words we all understand
acronyms full names
abbreviated syntax standard syntax
technical action processes Identifying processes
attributive (descriptive) processes (defining terms)
CHAPTER 5: LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT AND AGE
92

• What are aspects of universal languages?

• Language Milestones
• Processes and products of L1A and L2A
• Is there a critical period for first language
acquisition?
• Is there a critical period for second language
acquisition?
 Aspects of Universal Languages
(Bauer 2007, p.241- 354)

• Turkish; language family: Altaic/Turkic, spoken by 50

93
million people in Turkey, Cyprus, Bulgaria, Greece; writing
system: Roman (since 1929); phonology (stress): word-
final; vowels: 8; marked vowel type: front rounded;
morphology: agglutinative, word-based; particular functions:
dvandva, incorporation, partial suffixed reduplication, suffix;
syntax (word order): SOV, particular syntactic phenomena:
morphological aspect, nominative/ accusative marking.

(Source: Troike, 2006, p.9)

 Language Development and Age
94

Source: Santrock, 2011, p. 62

 Is there a critical period for the first language acquisition and second
language acquisition? (Herschensohn, 2007)
L1 Acquisition L2 Acquisition
95
Phonology: - Phonomic discrimination: Babies are born Segmentals & phonemic distinguishing
Age of 1 with the ability to acquire the sound system of Syllable structures and stress: (3 stages)
any language of the world 1) full transfer of native perceptions & products
- Suprasegmentals: stress, intonation, rhythm 2) Create a systemic & UG constrained
- Babbling: consonant & vowel sequences intermediate technology
such as bababa 3) Correct values for L2 phonology
Lexicon: - The Signifier and the Signified - Initial stage of word learning
Age of 2 - Bootstrapping - Extending base vocabulary
- The path & theories of word learning - Mastering verbal argument structure
Syntax: - Protosyntax: holophrase (one word stage); - Initial stage (3 studies: Minimal Trees, Full
Age of 2-3 telegraphic phrase (2-3 word stage) transfer/full access, Valueless features)
- Optional infinitives and Null subjects: - Intermediate stage: Inflected & non-finite
We goed to the beach. (inflected verb) verbs; linked morphosyntax
No ride a bike. (root infinitive & null subject) - Endstate (Parameter setting): Null subject,
S-V realization & word order, Verb raising, Verb
- Parametric variation
Second
(I) want an apple. (Null subject)
I want (not) an apple. (Raised verb)
A book bought John. (Verb second)
Morphology - Nominal gender & verb reflection - Nominal gender and verbal inflection
Age of 3 + - Words & rules : Syntactic competence - Words and rules
 Is there a critical period for the first language acquisition and second
language acquisition? (Herschensohn, 2007)
L1 Acquisition 96 L2 Acquisition
• Existence of biological critical period (CP) • Insufficient evidence of CP (3-4 years old)
• Evidence of CP (age of 5 to 7) – mastery of • Sensitive period for L2A – ‘inclusive at best’
phonology, grammar and style (Newport, 1994).
• A critical period involves interaction
between an organismic system and
environmental input.
• L1A is, except in unusual circumstances, broadly • L2A show wide variations due to motivational,
successful cultural, and social influences that mark
• Significance of L1 transfer at early stages dissimilarities among individuals in proficiency.
• Existence of Universal Grammar (UG)
• L1 susceptible to age constraints • L2 only indirectly affected by external factors
• In L1A the process of acquisition is • The development of ability in phonology, lexicon,
spontaneous in the linguistically stable morphology, syntax and pragmatics does not follow
the pattern of L1A and does not result in equal
environment
achievement in all areas (Robinson 2002).
• Newborn infants are sensitive to both • Phonetic accuracy in L2 may be quite elusive,
phonological and lexical characteristics of the whereas mastery of word order is gained early;
ambient language that they perceive in utero (de acquisition of lexical items surpasses that of
Boysson-Bardies 1999), and that the young learner morphology, especially when nonnative features
acquires substantial vocabulary through the teen (e.g. gender) are characteristic of the L2, but not the
 Age Constraints on L2 Acquisition
Evaluate the evidence for the 97 nature and existence of a
sensitive period for L2A through Universal Grammar, Age of
onset of Acquisition (AoA) deficits (Birdsong 1999s), and
Cognitive differences.
• Adults are often incapable of mastering on L2 when presented with an
abundant of target input and a wealth of scaffolding such as instruction,
cognitive strategies, motivation and social pressure.
• L2 learners‟ deficits are often in the area of phonology and secondarily
morphosyntax with AoA after age five, a gradual offset that parallels the
incompleteness of L1 learners beyond the age of 5
• For cognition and language, cognitively challenged individuals who have
selective difficulties with morphosyntax are nonetheless able to acquire
second language, albeit with the same deficits as in their native language
(Paradis and Crago 2004).
• Findings suggest that increasing AoA for L2 correlates with declining
ultimate attainment in pronunciation and morphosyntax beginning about
the age 5 to puberty.
 Age Constraints on L2 Acquisition
98
• There is no convincing evidence in support of a critical
period terminus (end point) at puberty.
• Not enough evidence of maturational phenomena
susceptible to CP for several reasons:
1. Not a universal human development milestones like L1A;
not all individuals learn L2.
2. Environmental input/scaffolding devices –
unforeseeable and unmeasurable.
3. Threshold, duration, terminus of acquisition – variable,
unpredictable & cannot be used to define L2.
4. Individual achievement in acquisition – highly
inconsistent, unlike L1A that has perfect consistence of
final native grammar.
5. Some individual L2 adults become fluent and eloquent
speakers and/or writers of that language
indistinguishable from natives.
 Age Constraints on L2 Acquisition
99
• Herschensohn carefully explores the qualitative similarities in
both process (phonology, lexicon, syntax, and morphology) and
grammatical knowledge of L1 &L2, pointing out that
differences in final attainment, or even more core UG-related
concepts such as parameter clustering, do not necessarily
signify a qualitative difference between L1A and L2A.
• She concludes that L1A and L2A are similar, but differ in
schedule and in the variety of other factors that come into
play.
• She examines the question whether there is a critical period for
L2A.
• Within the contextual UG framework, Herschensohn
differentiates the notions of sensitive and critical period and
non-biological (non-UG) age-related factors.
• Age-related decline is not the same as a biologically
determined sensitive or CP, reviewing the literature on AoA, L2
learning in exceptional populations and endstate L2 grammar
in children and adults.
 Age Constraints on L2 Acquisition
100
• Varying in L2 acquisition, regardless of age, some
children acquiring an L2 do not become native-like
speakers, but some adults do become native-like
speakers. This lacks the clear inflection in age-related
decline, and no evidence that supports a CP for L2A.
• To sum up, Herschensohn balances between the
evidence for innate structural predispositions and the
role of environmental factors.
• High levels of motivation, linguistic training, and
education in the L2 milieu are likely to characterize
individuals who attain a high level of nativelikeness
in the L2. However, these traits alone cannot be
expected to suppress L1 effects in the L2. The key to
overcoming bilingualism effects may reside in L2 use and
L2 dominance. L1 effects are mitigated if the L1 is
infrequently used. (Birdsong, 2009, p.416)
 CHAPTER 6: PSYCHOLOGY OF L1A
101
Psychology of Second Language Acquisition
• Languages and the Brain
• Learning processes
• Information process (IP): Input, central process, and output
• Psychological approaches to SLA: Multidimensional model,
Processability, and Competition Model
• Connectionism: Behaviorism, UG
• Differences among L2 learners
• Age, Aptitude, Motivation
• Cognitive styles (FD/FI; global/particular; holistic/analytical;
deductive/inductive)
• Personality: introverted/extroverted; reflective/impulsive; anxious/self-
(

confident; shy/adventuresome; risk-avoiding/risk-taking; creative/uncreative

imaginative/un-inquisitive; empathetic/insensitive to others; tolerant of
ambiguity/closure-oriented)
• Learning strategies: metacognitive, cognitive, social/affective
• How learners acquire L2 and achieve their success differently
 Languages and the Brain
102

1. How independent are the languages of

multilingual speakers?
2. How are multiple language structures organized
in relation to one another in the brain? Are both
languages stored in the same areas?
3. Does the organization of the brain for L2 in
relation to L1 differ with age of acquisition, how
it is learned, or level of proficiency?
4. Do two or more languages show the same sort
of loss or disruption after brain damage? When
there is differential impairment or recovery,
which language recovers first?
Stages of L1 and L2 Development
103

Source: Saville- Troike, 2006, p.17

English L1 & L2 Morpheme Acquisition Order
104

Source: Saville-Troike, 2006, p.44

 Learning Process – IP & Connectionism
(according to Skehan
105
1998)

• Information Processing (IP): A cognitive framework which assumes

that SLA (like learning of other complex domains) proceeds from
controlled to automatic processing and involves progressive
reorganization of knowledge.
• Controlled processing: An initial stage of the learning process that
demands learners‟ attention.
• Automatic processing: After an initial stage of controlled
processing, automatic processing is a stage in learning that requires
less mental “space” and attentional effort on the learner‟s part.
• Restructuring: The reorganization of knowledge that takes place in the
central processing stage of Information Processing.
 Differences among L2 learners
(Source: Saville-Troike, 2006, p.82)
106

• While “brain plasticity” is beneficial to younger learners, older

learners are advantaged by greater learning capacity, including
better memory for vocabulary.
• Greater analytic ability might also be an advantage for older
learners, at least in the short run, since they are able to understand
and apply explicit grammatical rules.
• Young learners are probably more successful in informal and
naturalistic L2 learning contexts, and older learners in formal
instructional settings.
107
Left-Brain Domain Right-Brain Domain
Intellectual Intuitive
Remember names 108
Remember faces
Responds to verbal instructions Responds to symbolic instruction
Make objective judgments Make subjective judgments
Planned and structured Fluid and spontaneous
Prefers certain information Prefers uncertain information
Analytic reader Synthesizing reader
Prefers talking and writing Prefers drawing and using obj.
Prefers multiple-choice tests Prefers open-ended questions
Control feelings More free with feelings
Not good at interpreting body Good at interpreting body language
language
Rarely uses metaphors Frequently uses metaphors
Favors logical problem solving Favors intuitive problem solving
 Personalities of a Learner
109

Ambiguity Tolerance – open-minded learners

• The degree to which you are willing to accept ideas
that go against or are totally unknown in your own
belief system. Are you open-minded? Or are you
more closed to new ideas?
• Ambiguity-intolerant – narrow-minded learners
• Reflective learners produce a slower, more
calculated answer, but are more accurate in reading
• Impulsive learners produce a quick, gambling
answer, but are usually fast readers.
• Visual learners prefer reading, studying charts,
drawings
• Auditory learners like listening to tapes, listening to
lectures
 Differences among L2 learners
110
Learning strategies:
• A typology of language-learning strategies which is widely
used in SLA was formulated by O‟Malley and Chamot
(Chamot 1987):
• Metacognitive: e.g. previewing a concept or principle in
anticipation of a learning activity; deciding in advance to
attend to specific aspects of input; rehearsing linguistic
components which will be required for an upcoming language
task; self-monitoring of progress and knowledge states.
• Cognitive: e.g. repeating after a language model; translating
from L1; remembering a new word in L2 by relating it to one
that sounds the same in L1, or by creating vivid images;
guessing meanings of new material through inferencing.
• Social/affective: e.g. seeking opportunities to interact with
native speakers; working cooperatively with peers to obtain
feedback or pool information; asking questions to obtain
clarification; requesting repetition, explanation, or examples.
 How does the learner acquire L2
knowledge?
111

• Innate capacity – capacity of language

development since birth
• Application of prior knowledge
• Processing of language input
• Interaction
• Restructuring of the L2 knowledge system
• Mapping of relationships or associations:
(between linguistic forms and functions)
• Automatization: L2 frequency and practice
 Why are some learners more
successful than others?112

• Social context – learner‟s attitude and opportunity

• Social experience – quantity and quality of L2
input
• Relationship of L1 and L2 – genetic, typological and
historical relationships of L1 and L2
• Age
• Aptitude
• Motivation
• Quality of instruction
113
114
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