Watershed Hydrology

FRST 385 - FOPR 388

Lecture 7. Groundwater
 Course contents
Modules Lecture
1. Introduction to hydrology
Fundamentals of
2. Watershed concept & hydrologic cycle
Hydrology
3. Energy and mass balances
4. Precipitation
5. Soil water
6. Infiltration

Hydrologic 7. Groundwater
processes 8. Evapotranspiration
9. Runoff generation
10. Streamflow
11. Snow hydrology

Quantitative 12. Experimental design and data collection

methods 13. Frequency analysis
14. Forest operations and water resources
15. Forests and peak flows: a paradigm shift
Forest Hydrology
16. Forests and water yield
17. Forests and water quality

Lecture 7 2
 Learning objectives
1. Define groundwater and explain its role in the hydrologic cycle.
2. Describe the types of aquifers and label them on a diagram.
3. Draw a water table and/or potentiometric surface using hydraulic head from a well and/or
piezometer.
4. Explain the relationship between specific yield and specific retention.
5. List and explain at least three factors that can influence groundwater recharge.
6. Use equipotential lines to draw a flow net and illustrate the groundwater flow path.
7. Define with your own words, and put into context, all the terms in the glossary at the end.

Lecture 7 3
Lecture outline
1. Groundwater processes
1.1 Groundwater within the water and energy balances
1.2 Definition of groundwater
1.3 Importance of groundwater
1.4 Types of aquifers and other definitions
1.5 Groundwater storage and movement
1.6 Some estimates of groundwater levels
1.7 Factors that influence groundwater
2. Groundwater measurement
2.1 Piezometers and wells
2.2 Satellite-derived estimations
2.3 Mapping groundwater
2.4 Groundwater animations
Glossary of terms

4
1. Groundwater processes
 1. Groundwater processes
1.1 Groundwater within the water & energy balances Processes at the
ground layers
F – Infiltration
L – Lateral flow
Pe – Percolation
O – Overland flow
Ss – Subsurface flow
S – Streamflow
O GR – Groundwater recharge
GD – Groundwater discharge
L
F
Unsaturated
zone
Pe Ss
S
Saturated
Zone (groundwater)

GR GD

Lecture 7 6
 1. Groundwater processes
1.1 Groundwater within the water & energy balances
SOIL WATER MOVEMENT
GROUNDWATER
Lateral flow RECHARGE
Infiltration
Percolation

GROUNDWATER
DISCHARGE
PRECIPITATION
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Throughfall
Interception
Drip Evaporation /
sublimation
Transpiration
Stemflow

Direct

RUNOFF

Saturation-excess
Overland flow Streamflow
Infiltration-excess

Subsurface flow

Lecture 7 7
 1. Groundwater processes
1.1 Groundwater within the water & energy balances
Water balance
P = precipitation
GD = ground water discharge
Water balance

Input Output Storage

I = Interception
Es = evaporation from soil
P + GD – (I + Es + T + Q + GR) = S T = transpiration
ET = evapotranspiration
ET Q = streamflow
GR = groundwater recharge
F = infiltration (including percolation and lateral movement)
S = Storage

Energy balance
Energy balance

Radiative, thermal & latent energy → Rn = K* + L* + Fh Rn = net radiation energy

K* = net shortwave radiation
Kinetic energy → Ek = 0.5 mv2 L* = net longwave radiation
Potential energy → Ψ = Ψg + Ψp + Ψm + Ψo Fh = heat fluxes
Ψg = gravitational potential
Ψp = pressure potential
Ψm = matric potential
Ψo = osmotic potential

Lecture 7 8
 1. Groundwater processes
1.2 Definition of groundwater

• Water that occurs in saturated zones beneath the soil surface (Brooks et al., 2003).

USGS: http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/earthgwaquifer.html

Lecture 7 9
 1. Groundwater processes
1.3 Importance of groundwater
• 30% of world’s freshwater.
• 97% of liquid freshwater.
• Residence time between 1 – 1,000 years or more.
• Linked to hydrologic cycle: source of most water in rivers
and lakes.
• Great volume of groundwater and slow movement make
it a great buffer in the hydrological cycle by smoothing
out variations in streamflow (supply of base flow http://www.ec.gc.ca/eau-
water/default.asp?lang=En&n=300688DC-1
between precipitation inputs)
• 50% of global population depends on groundwater
directly.
• Important source of water:
• Irrigation
• Domestic water use
• Industrial water use
• 50% of drinking water in US comes from
groundwater wells

Lecture 7 10
 1. Groundwater processes
1.4 Types of aquifers and other definitions
• Aquifer: saturated permeable geological unit that can • Equipotential, piezometric or potentiometric surface:
transmit significant quantities of water under ordinary imaginary surface analogous to the water table as
hydraulic gradients (Freeze & Cherry, 1979). measured by hydraulic heads in confined aquifers
• Aquitard: saturated geological unit that cannot transmit (imagine a confined aquifer pierced with wells).
significant quantities of water under ordinary hydraulic • Artesian well: well where water naturally flows upward
gradients. (pumpless) from aquifers under pressure. A flowing
• Aquiclude: completely impermeable aquitard. artesian well results from hydraulic head above ground.
• Unconfined or phreatic aquifer: aquifer with water in
contact with atmospheric pressure.
• Confined aquifer: aquifer bounded by formations with
lower hydraulic conductivity (aquicludes).
• Perched aquifer: a saturated zone within the zone of
aeration that overlies a confining layer.
• Equipotential lines: lines connecting points with equal
hydraulic head.

Lecture 7 11
 1. Groundwater processes
1.4 Types of aquifers and other definitions

Potentiometric
surface

Aquifer

Aquitard

Aquiclude

Unconfined aquifer

Confined aquifer

Perched aquifer
Aquiclude
Potentiometric surface

Artesian well

Lecture 7 12
 1. Groundwater processes
1.4 Types of aquifers and other definitions
A, B, C and D are wells
1. Label the confined and 5. Towards which direction is
unconfined aquifers water flowing in the
A B C D confined aquifer (W or E)?

Sand 2. Draw the water table of the 6. In the summer, well A goes
unconfined aquifer dry easily, and its owner
Shale blames the owner of well B,
who has lots of water. Do
Sandstone 3. Draw the potentiometric you agree?
surface of the confined
aquifer
Granite

4. Towards which direction is

West East
water flowing in the
unconfined aquifer (W or
E)?

Lecture 7 13
 1. Groundwater processes
1.5 Groundwater storage and movement
Porosity is the primary property that determines water storage capability

Soil Porosity Infiltration rate

Well sorted Permeability, which is a
texture (%) [cm h-1] function of porosity and
connectivity (hydraulic
Sand 32 – 42 2.5 – 25 Primary porosity 
Poorly sorted conductivity), is the primary
property that determines
Sandy
40 – 47 1.3 – 7.6 water movement.
Loam

Loam 43 – 49 0.8 – 2.0

Joint and bedding planes
Clay
47 – 51 0.25 – 1.5
Loam

Silty Clay 49 – 53 0.03 – 0.5 Secondary porosity 

Fractures in crystalline rock

Clay 51 – 55 0.01 – 0.1

Lecture 7 14
 1. Groundwater processes
1.5 Groundwater storage and movement
• Not all the water stored in pore spaces becomes part of • “In a confined aquifer, a unit decrease (increase) in
flowing or moving groundwater; just as water clings to a head is reflected in the lowering (raising) of the
glass, it also clings to soil particles due to surface piezometric surface, but the aquifer remains saturated.
tension, cohesion, or adhesion. The decrease (increase) of storage accompanying the
head decrease (increase) is due to (1) compression
• Specific yield: volume of stored groundwater released (expansion) of the aquifer as the weight of the overlying
(taken into) per unit surface area per depth unit decline material is transferred to (from) the solid grams,
(increase) of water table; relates amount of water lost resulting in a slight decrease (increase) in porosity; and
(gained) from aquifer to a decrease (increase) in water (2) slight expansion (compression) of the water due to
table (for unconfined aquifers) or piezometric surface the lowered (increased) pressure (Dingman, 2002)”.
(confined aquifers).

• “In an unconfined aquifer, a decrease (increase) in

head is reflected in the lowering (raising) of the water
table and the concomitant decrease (increase) in water
content of the portion of the aquifer through which the
water table descends (ascends) (Dingman, 2002)”.

Lecture 7 15
 1. Groundwater processes
Specific Specific
1.5 Groundwater storage and movement Textural class Porosity
yield retention
Soil 55 40 15
Clay 50 2 48
• Porosity (): • Specific retention (Sr): portion of
Sand 25 22 3
maximum amount the groundwater retained as a film
Gravel 20 19 1
of water that a rock on rock surfaces and in very small Limestone 20 18 2
openings:
can contain when Sandstone
11 6 5
saturated. Sr = (Vretained / Vtotal) x 100 (semiconsolidated)
Granite 0.1 0.09 0.01
Sr =  - Sy Basalt (young) 11 8 3
• Specific yield (Sy):
portion of the
groundwater
draining under
influence of gravity:
Sy = (Vdrained / Vtotal)
x 100

Lecture 7 16
 1. Groundwater processes
1.5 Groundwater storage and movement

Lecture 7 17
 1. Groundwater processes
1.5 Groundwater storage and movement
Drawing equipotential lines:

Piezometers
Total head [m]

30 m

20 m

Datum

Lecture 7 18
 1. Groundwater processes
1.5 Groundwater storage and movement
Drawing equipotential lines:
Hydraulic head in a confined aquifer

Lecture 7 19
 1. Groundwater processes
1.5 Groundwater storage and movement
Drawing equipotential lines:

Flow-net: a constructed pattern of

orthogonal flow lines and lines of
constant hydraulic head

hi = lines of constant hydraulic head

Vj = vector direction of flow velocities

Lecture 7 20
 1. Groundwater processes
1.5 Groundwater storage and movement

• Equipotential lines (dashed) extending horizontally above

water table = elevation head, but below the water table the
equipotential lines are curvilinear, reflecting the sum of elevation
and pressure potentials:

Lecture 7 21
 1. Groundwater processes
1.5 Groundwater storage and movement Recharge area: portion of
Average global the basin where ground-
residence time: water flow is directed away
300 years. from the water table.

Discharge area: portion of

the basin where
groundwater flow is directed
toward the water table
(Dingman, 2002).

Lecture 7 22
 1. Groundwater processes
1.5 Groundwater storage and movement

Dingman (2002)

Dingman (2002)

Lecture 7 23
 1. Groundwater processes
1.5 Groundwater storage and movement

Freeze & Cherry (1979)

Lecture 7 24
 1. Groundwater processes
1.5 Groundwater storage and movement
• Hyporheic zone: where
water is exchanged
between surface and
groundwater.

• Stream water provides

oxygen and organic
matter, while ground
water provides nutrients to
the hyporheic zone.

Lecture 7 25
 1. Groundwater processes
1.6 Some estimates of groundwater levels

Lecture 7 26
 1. Groundwater processes
1.6 Some estimates of groundwater levels

Dunne & Leopold (1978)

Lecture 7 27
 1. Groundwater processes
1.7 Factors that influence groundwater
• Topography
• Geology
• Precipitation input
• Human use
• Vegetation

Dingman (2002)
Effect of topography on groundwater
Lecture 7 28
 1. Groundwater processes
1.7 Factors that influence groundwater

Effect of precipitation input on groundwater

Dingman (2002)

Lecture 7 29
 1. Groundwater processes
1.7 Factors that influence groundwater
Effect of pumping on groundwater (depletion)

Lecture 7 30
 1. Groundwater processes
1.7 Factors that influence groundwater
Effect of pumping on groundwater (depletion)

Lecture 7 31
 1. Groundwater processes
1.7 Factors that influence groundwater
Effect of pumping on groundwater (depletion) (USGS http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/earthgwdecline.html)

Lecture 7 32
 1. Groundwater processes
1.7 Factors that influence groundwater
Groundwater dissolving rock: sinkholes

http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/sinkholes.html

Lecture 7 33
 1. Groundwater processes
1.7 Factors that influence groundwater
Effect of vegetation on groundwater

kgNaturePhotography.com

Water consumption in riparian zones and wetlands

Lecture 7 34
 1. Groundwater processes
1.7 Factors that influence groundwater

• In general, forest harvesting leads to a rise in water table elevation

(Winkler et al. 2010).
Water table * See Winkler et al. (2010) for
Annual
Study site* Location precipitation
Forest level original study sources. CC =
disturbance increase
[mm]
[cm] clearcut; PC = partial cut; MPB
Carnation Creek Vancouver Island, BC 2,100 – 4,800 CC 30 – 50 = mountain pine beetle.
Carnation Creek Vancouver Island, BC 2,100 – 4,800 CC 50 – 150
Vanderhoof Central BC 496 CC + MPB 10 – 30
TROLS Central AB 468 PC 26
St. Lawrence lowlands,
Beurivage forest 957 CC 7 – 52
QC
St. Lawrence lowlands,
Villroy 510 PC + CC < 22
QC
Pine Creek Central Idaho 890 CC 90
Unnamed Gainesville, Florida 1,150 CC 21 – 49
Collie River Basin Western Australia 820 – 1,120 CC + PC 100 – 400

Lecture 7 35
2. Groundwater measurement
 2. Groundwater measurement
2.1 Wells and piezometers

Wells

Piezometers
http://www.hubbardbrook.org/mirrorlake_tour/stop9/stop9-hydro.htm

http://serc.carleton.edu/details/images/9133.html

Lecture 7 37
 2. Groundwater measurement
2.2 Satellite-derived estimations

Groundwater

Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE)

Lecture 7 38
 2. Groundwater measurement
2.2 Mapping groundwater
Constructing groundwater flow nets from well data
* Lab 4

https://engineering.purdue.edu/~h2o/COURSES/1/section10.htm

Lecture 7 39
 2. Groundwater measurement
2.2 Mapping groundwater

Water table contours and

flow lines changed by a
cone of depression around
a pumped well

http://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/test-3-/deck/1577039

Lecture 7 40
 2. Groundwater measurement
2.3 Groundwater animations
The Borden aquifer (MacFarlane et al., 1983)
Measurements: 1974 - 1980

April 27, 1979

http://www.egr.msu.edu/igw/Digital%20Library/DigitalLibrary_final/updates/1.html

Lecture 7 41
 2. Groundwater measurement
2.3 Groundwater animations

Groundwater
contamination

http://www.egr.msu.edu/igw/Digital%20Library/DigitalLibrary_final/updates/2.html

Lecture 7 42
 2. Groundwater measurement
2.3 Groundwater animations

http://www.egr.msu.edu/igw/Digital%20Library/DigitalLibrary_final/updates/11.html

Time scales

Lecture 7 43
 Glossary of terms
Aquifer Potentiometric surface
Aquitard Pressure potential
Artesian well Recharge area
Confined aquifer Specific retention
Discharge area Specific yield
Equipotential line Unconfined aquifer
Flow line Water table
Gravitational potential Well
Groundwater
Hydraulic head
Hyporheic zone
Perched aquifer
Permeability
Piezometer
Porosity

Lecture 7 44
 Acknowledgements
Image sources
• All images used in this document are either originals by the author or comply with fair dealing under Canadian Copyright Act.
• Unless explicit, click on each image to identify its source and acknowledge copyright holder or author.
• This document cannot be distributed or copied partially or as a whole for purposes other than personal study of students registered in the course.

Contributors
• Dr. Younes Alila.
• Dr. Andres Varhola.

Bibliography

Brooks K.N., Ffolliot P.F., Gregersen H.M, DeBano L.F. 2003. Hydrology and the management of watersheds. Iowa State Press. 574 p.

Brutsaert W. 2005. Hydrology: An introduction. Cambridge University Press. 605 p.

Chang M. 2006. Forest Hydrology: An introduction to water and forests. Second Edition. CRC Press. 474.

Dingman S.L. 2002. Physical Hydrology. Second Edition. Prentice Hall. 646 p.

.
Lecture 7 45
Thank you!!!