Introduction to Computers

1. What is Computer?

Defining the word Computer, you might have more than ten definitions depend on how this computer is used
and where this computer is used. But for our level we can use the following general definition; -

A computer is an electronic device that accept input, process them and give out a desired output. It has the
ability to store, retrieve, and process data.

DATA
A word DATA is originated from Latin word which means “to give "
Data Is a given fact with no precise meaning from which additional fact can be inferred.
Data can also be defined as raw facts from which they can be processed to reveal their meaning. E.g. text,
symbols, image, number etc.

PROCESSING
‘Processing’ is the set of instruction given by the user or the related data to output the meaningful
information. Which can be used by the user? The work of processing may be the calculation, comparisons
or the decision taken by the computer.
INFORMATION
‘Information ’is the end point or the final output of any processed work. Information is the result of
processing raw data to reveal its meaning

2. HISTORY OF COMPUTER

THE EARLY DAYS (1,000 B.C. TO 1940)

Computers are named so because they make mathematical computations at fast speeds. As a result, the
history of computing goes back at least 3,000 years ago, when ancient civilizations were making great
strides in arithmetic and mathematics. The Greeks, Egyptians, Babylonians, Indians, Chinese, and Persians
were all interested in logic and numerical computation. The Greeks focused on geometry and rationality,
the Egyptians on simple addition and subtraction, the Babylonians on multiplication and division, Indians
on the base-10 decimal numbering system and concept of zero, the Chinese on trigonometry, and the
Persians on algorithmic problem solving.
These developments carried over into the more modern centuries, fueling advancements in areas like
astronomy, chemistry, and medicine.
(All other history from abacus to UNIVAC-I describe in previous Chapter)

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

FIRST GENERATION (1942 - 1955)

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often
enormous, taking up entire rooms. First generation computers relied on machine language to perform
operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time.
The Mark-I, EDSAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC-I and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation
computing devices. It was very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity,
generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.
Vacuum tubes used to calculate and store information, these computers were also very hard to maintain.
First generation computers also used punched cards to store symbolic programming languages. Most

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people were indirectly affected by this first generation of computing machines and knew little of their
existence.

IMPORTANT MACHINES:
Mark-I, EDSAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC-I and ENIAC
ADVANTAGES:
1. After long history of computations, the 1G computers are able to process any tasks in milliseconds.
2. The hardware designs are functioned and programmed by machine languages (Languages close to
machine understanding).
3. Vacuum tube technology is very much important which opened the gates of digital world
communication.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Size of that machines are very big
2. Required large amount of energy for processing
3. Very expensive
4. Heat generated and need air conditioning.
5. Not portable (never take from one place to other)
6. Comparing with 5G computers, these computers are slow in speed.
7. Not reliable
8. In order to get proper processing, maintenance is required continuously.

SECOND GENERATION (1959 - 1965)

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation computer. Transistor is a device
composed of semiconductor material that amplifies a signal or opens or closes a circuit. Invented in 1947 at
Bell Labs, transistors have become the key ingredient of all digital circuits, including computers. Today's
latest microprocessor contains tens of millions of microscopic transistors.
Prior to the invention of transistors, digital circuits were composed of vacuum tubes, which had many
disadvantages. They were much larger, required more energy, dissipated more heat, and were more prone
to failures. It's safe to say that without the invention of transistors, computing as we know it today would
not be possible.

The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 50s. The
transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper,
more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still
generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the
vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly,
languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming
languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These
were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic
drum to magnetic core technology. The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic
energy industry.

IMPORTANT MACHINES:
IBM 7074 series, CDC 164, IBM 1400 Series.
ADVANTAGES:
1. If we compare it with G1 computer, less expensive and smaller in size.
2. Fast in speed
3. Less head generated as G1 computers generate more.
4. Need low power consumption
5. Language after machine language for programming, in G2 assembly language (COBOL, FORTRON)
is introduced for programming.
6. Portable.

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DISADVANTAGES:

1. Maintenance of machine is required.

2. Air conditioning required still as heat causes to process slowly.
3. These computers are not used as personal system.
4. Preferably used for commercial purposes

THIRD GENERATION (1965 - 1971)

The development of the Integrated Circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically
increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards
and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different
applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time
became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

IMPORTANT MACHINES:
IBM System/360 & IBM 370, PDP-8, DEC, UNIVAC 1108, UNIVAC 9000.

ADVANTAGES:
1. Smaller in size
2. Low cost then previous
3. Low power consumption
4. Easy to operate
5. Portable
6. Input devices introduced and that make user easy to interact with it like keyboard, mouse etc
7. External Storage medium introduced like floppy & tape.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. IC chips are still difficult to maintain
2. Need complex technology.
FOURTH GENERATION (1975 -1980)

The Microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were
built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm
of the hand.
The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer—from the central
processing unit and memory to input/output controls—on a single chip.
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh.
Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers
and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks
, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the
development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

IMPORTANT MACHINES:
Intel processors, AMD processor based machines
ADVANTAGES:
1. Smaller in size
2. High processing speed
3. Very reliable
4. For general purpose

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5. More external storage mediums are introduced like CD-ROM, DVD-ROM.
6. GUIs developed for interaction

FIFTH GENERATION (1980 ONWARDS)

Fifth generation computing devices, based on Artificial Intelligence, are still in development, though there
are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today.
The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.
Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in
years to come.
The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are
capable of learning and self-organization.

IMPORTANT MACHINES:
ULAIC Technology, Artificial intelligence etc
PROPERTIES
1. Program independent
2. Have thinking and analysis by its own
3. Voice reorganization & biometric devices
4. Self-organization and learning

3. Computers in our daily life

Nowadays, we cannot imagine our life without computers and the fact is that they have become so important
that nothing can replace them. They seem to be everywhere today. Since 1948 when the first real computer
has been invented our life has changed so much that we can call it real digital revolution.

First computers differed from today's ones. They were so huge that they occupied whole rooms or buildings
being relatively slow. They were not faster than modern simple watches or calculators. Nowadays they are
also used by scientist and they may also be as huge as the old ones but they are millions times faster. They
can perform many complex operations simultaneously and scientist practically can't do without them. Thanks
to them people has access to enormous amount of information. Gathering data has never been simpler than
now. They are not only used in laboratories but also in factories to control production. Sometimes it is
computers who manufacture other computers.

But not only in science and industry computers are being used. Thanks to them modern medicine can
diagnose diseases faster and more thoroughly. Also in banking system computers have become irreplaceable.
They control ATMs, all data is stored on special hard disks and paper isn't used in accountancy any more.
Furthermore, architects, designers and engineers can't imagine their work without computers. This machines
are really everywhere and we depend on them also in such fields as criminology. They help police to solve
crimes and collect evidence.

Moreover, computers are wide-spread in education. Except their classic tasks such as administration and
accountancy they are used in process of learning. Firstly, they store enormous amount of data which helps
students to gain an information. Secondly, thanks to special teaching techniques and programs they improve
our skills of concentration and assimilation of knowledge. They have become so popular that not knowing
how to use those means to be illiterate.

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 ADVANTAGES:

3.1. Storage

Computers saves storage place. Imagine how much paper would have to be used, how many trees would
have to be cut just to store information which is today on hard disks. Data stored on just one CD in paper
form would use room of dozens square meters and would weight thousands of kilos. Nowadays,
techniques of converting data from paper to digital form have also tremendously developed. You can
simply rewrite the text using a keyboard. If you are not good at it you can use a scanner to scan necessary
documents. At least there are special devices which can transfer our voice into text. Thanks to computers
banks, private and government companies, libraries, and many other institutions can save millions of
square meters and billions of dollars. Nowadays we have access to billions of information and due to the
computer's capabilities we actually don't need to worry not only how to store them but also how to process
them.

3.2. Calculate and process information faster

Computers can calculate and process information faster and more accurate than human. This to say
computer can simplify our works, for example a job of which your cam work for a week, with computer
you can finish it within a day. They are a lot of jobs you can simplify different types of jobs from
designing to writing.

3.3. Entertain

Computers are user-friendly. We can watch videos and listen to the music having only PC. We don't need
video player, TV and stacking hi-fi any more. Furthermore, we don't have to buy PC's which can take
much room due to their other necessary components and wires. We can always buy laptop or palm top
which is even smaller, and use them outside anywhere we want. Also can use computers to play different
games, so apart from watching TV or video or listen to music, a user can also play games.

3.4. Communication

During the relative short era of computers, we have developed languages and rules for communication
between them. Users can communicate among others using computers via internet. Among other means
of communications users can send Emails to others, chatting and even browsing some information’s.

4. Classes of computers
1 Classes by size
1.1 Microcomputers (personal computers)
1.2 Minicomputers (midrange computers)
1.3 Mainframe computers
1.4 Supercomputers
2 Classes by function
2.1 Servers
2.2 Workstations
2.3 Information appliances
2.4 Embedded computers

Classes by size
Microcomputers (personal computers)
Microcomputers are the most common kind of computers in use as of 2014. The term “microcomputer” was
introduced with the advent of systems based on single chip microprocessors.
These computers include:
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 Desktop computers – A case and a display, put under and on a desk.
 In-car computers (carputers) – Built into a car, for entertainment, navigation, etc.
 Game consoles – Fixed computers specialized for entertainment purposes (video games).
Smaller microcomputers are also called mobile devices:

 Laptops and notebook computers – Portable and all in one case.

 Tablet computer – Like laptops, but with a touch-screen, entirely replacing the physical keyboard.
 Smartphones, smartbooks, PDAs and palmtop computers – Small handheld computers with limited
hardware.
 Programmable calculator– Like small handhelds, but specialized on mathematical work.
 Handheld game consoles – The same as game consoles, but small and portable.
Minicomputers (midrange computers)
Minicomputers (colloquially, minis) are a class of multi-user computers that lie in the middle range of the
computing spectrum, in between the smallest mainframe computers and the largest single-user systems
(microcomputers or personal computers). The term superminicomputer or supermini was used to distinguish
more powerful minicomputers that approached mainframes in capability. Superminis were usually 32-bit at
a time when most minicomputers were 16-bit. The contemporary term for minicomputer is midrange
computer, such as the higher-end SPARC, POWER and Itanium-based systems from Oracle
Corporation, IBM and Hewlett-Packard.
Mainframe
Alternatively referred to as a big iron computer, a mainframe is a large
central computer with more memory, storage space, and processing power
than a standard computer. They are typically utilized by governmental and
corporate organizations for added security as well as processing large sums
of data; such as consumer statistics, census data or electronic transactions.
Their reliability and high stability allow these machines to run for a very
long time, even decades.
In the picture above is an example of an early mainframe computer that was the size of a room and took
multiple people to operate. Today, your smartphone is several time more powerful than this early room sized
mainframe computer. However, is not more powerful than the quantum computers, super computers, and
data centers of today.
A computer or array of computers that act as one collective machine capable of processing enormous amounts
of data. Supercomputers are used for very complex jobs such as nuclear research or forecasting weather
patterns

Workstation
A name given to a single computer that is connected to another computer or network. A workstation is only
needed for a single user to connect to the network. For example, almost all users who utilize a computer at
their job or school are using a workstation. They are special computers designed for technical or scientific
applications. Intended primarily to be used by one person at a time, they run multi-user operating systems.

Supercomputers.
A Supercomputer is focused on performing tasks involving intense numerical calculations such as weather
forecasting, fluid dynamics, nuclear simulations, theoretical astrophysics, and complex scientific
computations. A supercomputer is a computer that is at the frontline of current processing capacity,
particularly speed of calculation. The term supercomputer itself is rather fluid, and the speed of today's
supercomputers tends to become typical of tomorrow's ordinary computer. Supercomputer processing speeds
are measured in floating point operations per second, or FLOPS. An example of a floating point operation is
the calculation of mathematical equations in real numbers. In terms of computational capability, memory
size and speed, I/O technology, and topological issues such as bandwidth and latency, supercomputers are
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the most powerful, are very expensive, and not cost-effective just to perform batch or transaction processing.
Transaction processing is handled by less powerful computers such as server computers or mainframes.

Computer

Analog Digital Hybrid

Super Computers Mainframe Computers Mini Computers Micro Computers

Classes by function
Servers
Server usually refers to a computer that is dedicated to provide a service. For example, a computer dedicated
to a database may be called a "database server". "file servers" manage a large collection of computer files.
"Web servers" process web pages and web applications. Many smaller servers are actually personal
computers that have been dedicated to provide services for other computers.
Information appliances
Information appliances are computers specially designed to perform a specific "user-friendly" function—
such as playing music, photography, or editing text. The term is most commonly applied to mobile devices,
though there are also portable and desktop devices of this class.
Embedded computers
Embedded computers are computers that are a part of a machine or device. Embedded computers generally
execute a program that is stored in non-volatile memory and is only intended to operate a specific machine
or device. Embedded computers are very common. Embedded computers are typically required to operate
continuously without being reset or rebooted, and once employed in their task the software usually cannot
be modified. An automobile may contain a number of embedded computers; however, a washing machine
and a DVD player would contain only one. The central processing units (CPUs) used in embedded computers
are often sufficient only for the computational requirements of the specific application and may be slower
and cheaper than CPUs found in a personal computer.

Components of Computer Systems.

1. Input: this is the process of entering data and programs into the computer system.

2. Control Unit (CU): The process of input, output, processing and storage is performed under the supervision
of a unit called 'Control Unit'. It decides when to start receiving data, when to stop it, where to store data,
etc. It takes care of step -by-step processing of all operations inside the computer.
3. Memory Unit: Computer is used to store data and instructions.
4. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The major operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, logic and comparison.
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5. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information. The ALU
and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit (CPU). You may call CPU
as the brain of any computer system.

Characteristics of Computer System

The computer performs basically five major operations of functions irrespective of their size and make.
These are
1) It accepts data or instruction by way of input,
2) It stores data,
3) It can process data as required by the user,
4) It gives results in the form of output, and
5) It controls all operations inside a computer.

5. The Four Operations of a Computer System

The main and also basic function of a computer is to run programs. The programs they run can help to
improve humans' every day lives. But, there are four basic functions of a Computer which are Input,
Processing, Storage and Output.

5.1. Input

The input hardware allows you to enter data and instructions into the computer. The primary devices used
are the keyboard and mouse. Other input devices are Scanner, Light pen, Joy Stick, Digital Cameras and
Microphones.

5.1.1. Keyboard

This is most commonly used device which acts as input device. Its structure is
like typewriter. It contains no. of keys which have some specific ASCII values.
Like ‘A’ has ASCII value 65. When this is pressed, it is converted into 65 &
this 65 is sent to CPU in the form of Binary language (i.e. 1000001). Then
operations are done on this data.

5.1.2. Mouse

The mouse is a device that allows you to control the movement of the insertion
point on the screen. The operator places the palm of the hand over the mouse
and moves it across a mouse pad, which provides traction for the rolling ball
inside the device. Movement of the ball determines the location of the I beam on
the computer screen. When the operator clicks the mouse the I beam becomes
an insertion point which indicates the area you are working on the screen. You
can also click the mouse and activate icons or drag to move objects and select text.

5.1.3. Bar Code Reader

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 It is a device which is used to read the code from the products which are usually in the form of Bars.
It contains a light sensitive detector which identifies the values of the bars on the
product & converts them into numeric code.
These bar readers are used in Shopping malls in a very large scale

5.1.4. Digital Camera

As the name specifies, these camera stores the data digitally, which then can be
stored in the computer & can be stored for a long time. But it has very limited
storage capacity. These are very popular because of less expensive photographs
& Speed

5.1.5. Light Pen

It is a pointing device which contains a photocell mounted at its tip. It senses the
light from the screen when it becomes closer to the screen, & generates a pulse.
So for identifying a particular location on the screen these light pens are very
useful. But this is not in very much use these days.

5.1.6. Scanner

The scanner is an input device like the photocopier machine which makes the
electronic copy of the picture or document which can be further edited

5.1.7. Mic's or Microphones

The scanner is an input device like the photocopier machine which makes the
electronic copy of the picture or document which can be further edited.

5.2. Processing

The central processing unit or (CPU) is the "brain" of your computer. It contains the electronic circuits
that cause the computer to follow instructions from ROM (read only memory) or from a program in RAM
(random access memory). By following these instructions information is processed. The CPU contains
three parts Arithmetic Logic Unit, Memory and Control Unit.

5.2.1. Arithmetic Logic Unit

ALU is where the "intelligence" of the computer is located. It can add and compare numbers. To
multiply 2 x 4 the computer would add 2 + 2 + 2 + 2. The ALU makes decisions by determining if a
number is greater, less, or equal to the other number. Processing is completed in nanoseconds, which
is a billionth of a second.

5.2.2. Memory

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 Two types of memory contained on a chip are RAM (Random Access Memory) or ROM (Read Only
Memory). ROM memory has been installed on your computer by the manufacturer and can not be
altered. ROM is the memory that determines all the basic functions of the operation of your machine,
such as startup, shut down, and placing a character on the screen.
RAM is temporary memory, which displays the information
you are working on. RAM remembers what you see on your screen
while you are working. Today's applications required large amounts
of temporary memory, which may require you to upgrade and
add more RAM memory.

5.2.3. Control Unit

This is the part of the unit, which directs information to the proper places in your computer, such as
calculation of information by the ALU unit or to store and print material.

5.3. Storage Devices

Storage Devices are the data storage devices that are used in the computers to store the data. The computer
has many types of data storage devices. Some of them can be classified as the removable data Storage
Devices and the others as the non removable data Storage Devices.

The most important computational unit is the CPU, which requires a large amount of data for executing
various instructions. This data is in the form of bits and bytes. This binary digital data is stored on the
storage devices or memory. Initially, all the storage devices were referred to as memory, but these days,
memory means the semiconductor storage device called the Random Access Memory or RAM. Early
computers used delay lines, magnetic drums, William tubes etc. for storing data.

These devices provided an extremely low access rate. But with the invention of transistors, radical
changes were introduced in the memory implementation techniques. Depending upon the storage
capacity, access rate and volatility, data storage can be divided into primary storage and secondary
storage.

The memory is of two types; one is the primary memory and the other one is the secondary memory.

5.3.1. Primary memory

The primary memory is the volatile memory and the secondary memory is the non volatile memory.
The volatile memory is the kind of the memory that is erasable and the non volatile memory is the
one where in the contents cannot be erased. Primary storage or the commonly referred Random
Access Memory is the memory which is directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU constantly reads
instructions from this memory. The capacity of RAM in terms of data storage is less, but it offers a
very fast access rate, thus making it pretty expensive. It offers minimum latency, hence suitable for
transactional environment databases. Primary storage also consists of processor registers and
processor cache.

Processor Registers:
Processor registers, located within the CPU are used to load instructions for execution by the CPU.
Registers hold data word of size 32 or 64 bits. They are the fastest means of data storage. But they
are capable of storing data of a very small size.

Processor Cache:
Processor cache is the part of RAM and is used for speeding up the executions. It copies the most
frequently used data from the main memory and stores it. When the CPU needs the particular data
item, it can simply access the cache memory which is closely located, instead of accessing the much

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 slower main memory.

Though, primary storage allows faster access, it is highly volatile in nature, that means, it clears up
during the booting. To prevent this, a small bootstrap program (BIOS) is implemented. BIOS loads
the booting instructions from the non-volatile main memory and executes them to boot RAM. The
problem of volatility can be avoided using Read Only Memory (ROM). Though ROM retains the
program instructions it does not allow to add or change them.

5.3.2. Secondary memory

The secondary memory is used to store the data permanently in the computer. Secondary storage is
commonly referred to as hard disk. It is a non-volatile storage and is capable of storing large amounts
of data. The term 'secondary' refers to the inability of the CPU to access it directly. The data in the
secondary storage is accessed by the CPU through intermediary devices like the processor cache. The
computer uses its secondary storage via the various input/ output channels. As secondary storage is
non-volatile, it is used for safe or offline storage of data. The data in secondary memory is organized
into files, directories and drives. The drives are periodically formatted to provide the abstraction as
required by the FileSystem.
The commonly used secondary storage devices include flash drives, USB
sticks, punch cards, floppy disks, CDs, magnetic tapes,. Though, secondary
storage provides very slow access, it is much cheaper than the primary storage
and is capable of storing much larger volumes of data.

Modern computer operating systems implement virtual memory to efficiently

use the available space on the primary memory. As for secondary memory, it is still an important
medium of storing data and recovering it in times of crisis.

5.4. Output Devices

After processing the data the computer displays the result, it gives an output. The devices which are used
to display the data to the user either in the form of hard copy or soft copy are called output devices.

5.4.1. VDU (Visual Display Unit)

This is also called monitor. It is used to get the data in the form of soft copy. Their functioning is
exactly similar to the television. There are different types of VDU

5.4.1.1.Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

CRT, or Cathode Ray Tube, technology is the oldest technology among visual-display units.
Invented in the late 1800s and first used in televisions in the 1940s, CRTs were the dominant
visual-display unit until the late 1990s, when they began to be replaced by LCD technology.

In CRT monitors, a funnel-shaped glass tube projects electron beams

back and forth across the inside of the screen, illuminating phosphor dots
in a series on many lines that appear on the outside of the screen--these
lines compose an entire screenful of imagery. CRTs are the largest and
heaviest of monitor types, usually sporting large display surfaces and
smaller, boxier back ends (to house the tube).

Screen surfaces on CRT displays are curved; in general appearance, these

monitors resemble non – flat screen television sets, and their screens

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 feature a 4:3 ratio (square-shaped), rather than widescreen format. CRTs use the most power of
all displays (around 150W for a 17-inch monitor), cannot be used with laptops and have a subtle
"flicker" in their display, which causes eyestrain. However, CRT displays feature simple and solid
technology, can be seen from a wide viewing angle and are manufactured at significantly lower
cost than alternative display units.

5.4.1.2.Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD’s)

Liquid crystal displays (LCD’s) began as display units for

calculators and laptop screens, but started to quickly replace
CRT monitors in the latter part of the twentieth century. In LCD
technology, light shines through a combination of liquid crystals
and polarized glass to create an onscreen image. LCD screens are
flat rather than curved and generally housed in slimmer, smaller
and lighter casings than CRT displays. LCD offers a higher
resolution and better image contrast than CRT, and because LCD technology doesn't flicker, it
causes less eyestrain. These displays often come in widescreen format as televisions, and both
widescreen and 4:3 ratios as monitors. LCD’s generate less heat and consume as little as a third
of the power of CRTs. However, LCD’s feature a higher price and a smaller viewing angle than
CRT screens.
5.4.1.3.Light Emitting Diodes (LED)

An LED display is a flat panel display, which uses light-emitting diodes as a video display. An
LED panel is a small display, or a component of a larger display. They are typically used outdoors
in store signs and billboards, and in recent years have also become commonly used in destination
signs on public transport vehicles or even as part of transparent glass area. LED panels are
sometimes used as form of lighting, for the purpose of general illumination, task lighting, or even
stage lighting rather than display.

5.4.1.4.Thin Film Transistor (TFT)

TFT LCD (Thin film transistor liquid crystal display) is a variant of liquid crystal display (LCD)
which uses thin-film transistor (TFT) technology to improve image qualities such as
addressability and contrast. TFT LCD is an active matrix LCD, in contrast to passive matrix
LCD’s or simple, direct-driven LCD’s with a few segments.

TFT LCD’s are used in appliances including television sets, computer monitors, mobile phones,
handheld video game systems, personal digital assistants, navigation systems and projectors

5.4.2. Printer

These devices give the hard copy of the output. There are in different types of printers depending on
their mechanism. Impact - Have mechanical contact in between paper & printing head. Non Impact -
No mechanical contact between paper & printing head

5.4.2.1.Impact Printers

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 An impact printer is a type of printer that operates by striking a metal or
plastic head against an ink ribbon. The ink ribbon is pressed against the paper,
marking the page with the appropriate character, dot, line, or symbol.
Common examples of impact printers include dot matrix, daisy-wheel
printers, and ball printers.

Dot matrix printers work by striking a grid

of pins against a ribbon. Different characters are printed by using
different pin combinations. Daisy-wheel printers use a circular wheel
with "petals" that each have a different character or symbol on the
end. In order to print each character, the wheel spins to the appropriate
petal and a hammer strikes the petal against the ribbon and the page.
Similarly, ball printers use a spherical ball with raised characters on the outside. The ball spins to
each character before printing it on the page.

While impact printers still have some uses (such as printing carbon copies), most printers are now
non-impact printers. These printers, such as laser and inkjet printers are much quieter than impact
printers and can print more detailed images.

5.4.2.2.Impact Printers

Early printers, such as dot matrix and daisywheel printers were called impact printers, since they
operated by striking an ink ribbon against the paper. Most modern printers, including inkjet and
laser printers, don't include an ink ribbon and are considered to be non-impact printers.

Non-impact printers are generally much quieter than impact printers

since they don’t physically strike the page. For example, inkjet printers
spray tiny drops of ink onto the page, while laser printers use a
cylindrical drum that rolls electrically charged ink onto the paper. Both
of these methods are non-impact and provide an efficient printing process
that produces little sound. The low impact nature of inkjet and laser
printers also means they are less likely to need maintenance or
repairs than earlier impact printers.

5.4.2.3.Speakers

Speakers receive the sound in the form of electric current from the sound card & convert it to
sound format. These are used for listening music, chatting, seminars for presentations etc.

5.4.3. Video projector

A video projector is an image projector that receives a video signal

and projects the corresponding image on a projection screen using a
lens system. All video projectors use a very bright light to project the
image, and most modern ones can correct any curves, blurriness, and
other inconsistencies through manual settings. Video projectors are
widely used for many applications such as, conference room
presentations, classroom training, home theatre and concerts.
Projectors are widely used in many schools and other educational settings, sometimes connected to
an interactive whiteboard to interactively teach pupils.

5.4.4. Plotter

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 The plotter is a computer printer for printing vector graphics. In the past,
plotters were used in applications such as computer-aided design, though
they have generally been replaced with wide-format conventional printers.
It is now commonplace to refer to such wide-format printers as "plotters,"
even though they technically are no

6. Memory of a computer

The computers use code based on ones (1) and zeros (0) numbers called Binary numbers. The hard disk and
other storage devices are basically disks with hundreds of thousands of tiny magnets. When you "save" the
hard drive "writes" in computer code what needs to be saved. There is a needle like device that hovers over
the hard disk and changes the polarity of the magnets, where a + polarity is a 1, and a negative polarity is a
0. I may have the polarity and numbers backwards, but the idea is the same. Your computers basic systems
can read these codes and processes them to what you see on the screen. This is why you don't ever want to
get magnets near your computer or attach "non-shielded" speakers to your computer.

A computer numeric processor is made up of many decision circuits, each of which may be either off or on.
These two states are represented by a zero or one. In order to count higher than one, such bits (BInary digiTS)
are strung together. A group of eight is known as a byte (techno-weenies are known for holding puns in high
regard). One byte can represent numbers from zero (00000000) to 255 (11111111), or 2^8 = 256 distinct
states. (The carat stands in for raising the first number to the exponent of the second.) Of course, bytes may
also be combined to represent larger numbers. The computer represents all numbers and characters internally
in this fashion.

Bit=a 1 or 0
Byte=8 bits
Kilobyte=1024 bytes
Megabyte=1024 kilobytes
Gigabyte=1024 megabytes
Terabyte=1024 gigabytes

7. Computer hardware and Software

Computer hardware equals the collection of physical elements that comprise a computer system. Computer
hardware refers to the physical parts or components of a computer such as monitor, keyboard, hard drive
disk, mouse, printers, graphic cards, sound cards, memory, motherboard and chips, etc all of which are
physical objects that you can actually touch.
Computer software, or just software, is a collection of computer programs and related data that provides
the instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it. Software refers to one or more computer
programs and data held in the storage of the computer. In other words, software is a set of programs,
procedures, algorithms and its documentation concerned with the operation of a data processing system.
Program software performs the function of the program it implements, either by directly providing
instructions to the digital electronics or by serving as input to another piece of software

7.1. Types of software

Software includes all the various forms and roles that digitally stored data may have and play in a
computer (or similar system), regardless of whether the data is used as code for a CPU, or other
interpreter, or whether it represents other kinds of information. Software thus encompasses a wide array

14
of products that may be developed using different techniques such as ordinary programming languages,
scripting languages, microcode, or an FPGA configuration.

Practical computer systems divide software systems into three major classes:

a) System software,
b) Programming software and
c) Application software

7.1.1. System software

System software is computer software designed to operate the computer hardware, to provide basic
functionality, and to provide a platform for running application software. System software includes
device drivers, operating systems, servers, utilities, and window systems.

System software is responsible for managing a variety of independent hardware components, so that
they can work together harmoniously. Its purpose is to unburden the application software programmer
from the often complex details of the particular computer being used, including such accessories as
communications devices, printers, device readers, displays and keyboards, and also to partition the
computer's resources such as memory and processor time in a safe and stable manner.

7.1.1.1.Examples of System Software (Operating Systems)

Microsoft Windows Operating System

Microsoft Windows is a family of proprietary operating systems

designed by Microsoft Corporation and primarily targeted to Intel
architecture based computers, with an estimated 88.9 percent total
usage share on Web connected computers. Microsoft Windows
originated in 1985 as an operating environment running on top of
MS-DOS, which was the standard operating system shipped on most Intel architecture
personal computers at the time

Microsoft has different versions of Windows Operating Systems starting from Windows 8,
Windows 7, Windows Vista Windows XP Windows 2000 Windows Me, Windows 98,
Windows NT 4.0 and Windows 95.

OS X

OS X (formerly "Mac OS X") is a line of open core graphical

operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Apple Inc., the
latest of which is pre-loaded on all currently shipping Macintosh
computers. OS X is the successor to the original Mac OS, which
had been Apple's primary operating system since 1984. Unlike its
predecessor, OS X is a UNIX operating system built on technology
that had been developed at NeXT through the second half of the
1980s and up until Apple purchased the company in early 1997. The operating system was
first released in 1999 as Mac OS X Server 1.0

Other versions of OS X are Mac OS X v10.0 "Cheetah", OS X 10.8 "Mountain Lion", Mac
OS X v10.7 Lion.

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 Linux and GNU

Linux (or GNU/Linux) is a Unix-like operating system that was

developed without any actual UNIX code, unlike BSD and its variants.
Linux can be used on a wide range of devices from supercomputers to
wristwatches. The Linux kernel is released under an open source license,
so anyone can read and modify its code. It has been modified to run on a
large variety of electronics. Although estimates suggest that Linux is used
on 1.82% of all personal computers, it has been widely adopted for use in
servers and embedded systems (such as cell phones). Linux has
superseded UNIX in most places and is used on the 10 most powerful
supercomputers in the world. The Linux kernel is used in some popular distributions, such
as Red Hat, Debian, Ubuntu, Linux Mint and Google's Android.

Google Chromium OS

Chromium is an operating system based on the Linux kernel and

designed by Google. Since Chromium OS targets computer users
who spend most of their time on the Internet, it is mainly a web
browser with limited ability to run local applications, though it has
a built-in file manager and media player. Instead, it relies on
Internet applications (or Web apps) used in the web browser to
accomplish tasks such as word processing, as well as online storage for storing most files.

BSD and its descendants

A subgroup of the UNIX family is the Berkeley Software

Distribution family, which includes FreeBSD, NetBSD, and
OpenBSD. These operating systems are most commonly found on
webservers, although they can also function as a personal computer
OS. The Internet owes much of its existence to BSD, as many of the
protocols now commonly used by computers to connect, send and
receive data over a network were widely implemented and refined in BSD. The World Wide
Web was also first demonstrated on a number of computers running an OS based on BSD
called NextStep.

7.1.2. Application software

Application software is developed to perform in any task those benefits from computation. It is a set
of programs that allows the computer to perform a specific data processing job for the user. It is a
broad category, and encompasses software of many kinds, including the internet browser being used
to display this page.

7.1.2.1.Examples of Application Software

Word Processing Software: This software enables users to create and edit documents. The most
popular examples of this type of software are MS-Word, WordPad, Word Perfect and Notepad
among other text editors.

Database Software: Database is a structured collection of data. A computer database relies on

16
database software to organize data and enable database users to perform database operations.
Database software allows users to store and retrieve data from databases. Examples are Oracle,
MS Access, etc.

Spreadsheet Software: Excel, Lotus 1-2-3 and Apple Numbers are some examples of
spreadsheet software. Spreadsheet software allows users to perform calculations using
spreadsheets. They simulate paper worksheets by displaying multiple cells that make up a grid.

Multimedia Software: They allow users to create and play audio and video files. They are
capable of playing media files. Audio converters, audio players, burners, video encoders and
decoders are some forms of multimedia software. Examples of this type of software include Real
Player and Media Player.

Presentation Software: The software that is used to display information in the form of a slide
show is known as presentation software. This type of software includes three functions, namely,
editing that allows insertion and formatting of text, methods to include graphics in the text and a
functionality of executing slide shows. Microsoft PowerPoint is the best example of presentation
software.

Enterprise Software: It deals with the needs of organization processes and data flow. Customer
relationship management or the financial processes in an organization are carried out with the
help of enterprise software.

Information Worker Software: Individual projects within a department and individual needs of
creation and management of information are handled by information worker software.
Documentation tools, resource management tools and personal management systems fall under
the category of this type of application software.

Educational Software: It has the capabilities of running tests and tracking progress. It also has
the capabilities of collaborative software. It is often used in teaching and self-learning.
Dictionaries like Britannica and Encarta, mathematical software like Matlab and others like
Google Earth and NASA World Wind are some of the well-known names in this category.

Simulation Software: Used to simulate physical or abstract systems, simulation software finds
applications in both, research and entertainment. Flight simulators and scientific simulators are
examples of simulation software.

Content Access Software: It is used to access content without editing. Common examples of
content access software are web browsers and media players.

Application Suites: An application suite is an important type of application software. It consists

of a group of applications combined to perform related functions. OpenOffice.org and Microsoft
Office are the best examples of this type of application software. These application suites, as you
know, come as bundles of applications like word processors, spreadsheets, presentation software,
etc. Applications in the suite can work together or operate on each other's files.

Software that aid Engineering and Development of Products: These software are used in the
design and development of hardware and software products. Integrated development
environments (IDE) and computer language editing tools falls under this type of application
software. Interestingly, software products are developed using other software, and software
communicate with one another through software. Application programming interfaces which aid

17
 the communication of two or more software, are examples of this application software type.

7.1.3. Programming software

Programming software includes tools in the form of programs or applications that software
developers use to create, debug, maintain, or otherwise support other programs and applications. The
term usually refers to relatively simple programs such as compilers, debuggers, interpreters, linkers,
and text editors, that can be combined together to accomplish a task, much as one might use multiple
hand tools to fix a physical object. Programming tools are intended to assist a programmer in writing
computer programs, and they may be combined in an integrated development environment (IDE) to
more easily manage all of these functions.

7.1.3.1.Examples of Programming software

Examples of programming software are C++, or Visual C, or Visual Basic, or Visual C++, or
Java, or Python, or C, or B, or BASIC.

8. Working with Mouse

In computing, a mouse is a pointing device that functions by detecting two-

dimensional motion relative to its supporting surface. Physically, a mouse
consists of an object held under one of the user's hands, with one or more
buttons.

The mouse sometimes features other elements, such as "wheels", which allow the
user to perform various system-dependent operations, or extra buttons or features that can add more control
or dimensional input. The mouse's motion typically translates into the motion of a pointer on a display, which
allows for fine control of a graphical user interface.

There three types on how to use a mouse while working, Click, Right Click, Double Click and Drag. Click
or clicking is used to pick or select items. Right Click is used to display a shortcut menu on different item.
Double click is used to open Files, Folders, Driver destinations and programs.

8.1. Types of Mouse (Mice)

Mechanical mice

Mechanical mouse devices began to become main stream with the invention and
production of ball mice. The ball mouse – pictured right – typically features two
built-in rollers that are able to detect the movement of the ball. That movement is
then translated by computer software into the motion of a mouse pointer along
the X and Y axes.

A ball-based mechanical mouse generally requires a flat surface or mouse mat and
has a nasty habit of collecting dust.

Optical mice

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 Optical mice, introduced in the late 90’s, offer a number of advantages –
they’re able to work on many surfaces, and offer greater precision than a
mechanical mouse.

Here’s how they work. The modern optical mouse is likely to feature a tiny
camera or optoelectronic sensor that is able to capture over a thousand
frames per second. Usually equipped with a red light-emitting diode (LED),
an optical mouse illuminates a surface and captured images are fed back to a digital signal processor
(DSP) for translation into movement. Using complex algorithms, changes in a sequence of images are
translated into movement on the X and Y axes. With movements detected hundreds of times each second,
the motion of the on-screen pointer appears very smooth.

With the advance of computing power, optical mice became cheap to produce and have since become far
more popular than their mechanical predecessors. Optical mice have the advantage of featuring no
moving parts and no large openings to collect dust – meaningless all-round wear and tear. Optical mice
are also more accurate and – depending on the surface - don’t require a mouse mat.

Laser mice

In recent years, laser mice have been introduced as a logical

successor to optical mice. Using very similar technology, laser mice
feature one notable change – they utilize an infrared laser diode as
opposed to a colored light-emitting diode (LED).

By using an infrared laser, these mice are able to capture images at a far-greater resolution (denoted as
dots per inch or dpi), consequently resulting in greater accuracy and improved precision.

A laser mouse, then, clearly has its advantages – but be aware that it’s a device that targets certain
markets. The precision of a laser pointer is ideal for professionals working with computer graphics, or
indeed gamers. For the everyday user, an optical mouse is likely to be cheaper and plenty sufficient.

9. Working with Windows Operating System

9.1. Starting a computer running Windows XP operating system

Starting your computer is also known as booting the computer. It is

important to switch your computer on in the correct way because
the computer will check the peripheral devices on start up.
Starting the computer will also start the operating system.

If the power switch on the system unit is off (no light), then you
need to turn on the computer parts in the correct sequence

9.1.1. Sequence for starting a computer

a) Check peripheral device connections.

b) Turn on power at the power outlet.
c) If the monitor has a separate switch, turn it on.
d) Switch on the printer.
e) Check to see if there is a floppy disk in the floppy disk drive if your computer has one.
Eject the disk to ensure the computer starts from the hard drive.
f) Switch on the system unit. If using a desktop PC the power switch is usually a button on
the front or side of the system unit. If using a laptop the power switch is usually at the top
of the keyboard.
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 g) The computer will perform a start-up routine. When the start-up routine has completed
then the operating system will start.

9.2. Logging on

The computer you are using may have been set up so that you need to log on to the computer in order to
be able to access the software and stored data, and commence using it. This is a security feature that is
often in place for computers in the workplace, school, college or other large organisation.
When you log on you are connecting the computer with a
network of other computers in the organisation.
If you need to log on you will see a box on the screen asking you
for two items of information that you need to type in:

a) username
b) Password

Usernames and passwords are set (for each authorised user) by the IT Administrator for the organisation.
You are a teacher or IT Department (in an organisation) will provide you with these details.

9.3. Security conditions

Your username and password determines what information and features of the computer and network
you have access to, and this is determined by the IT security policy of the organisation.

Therefore, it is important to note the conditions of use that apply to you when you log on to a computer
with your username and password. These conditions appear on the screen before you are asked to enter
your name and password. You must click on the OK button after you have read the conditions. This
enables you to get to the log on screen where you enter your name and password.

9.4. Shutting down a computer running Windows XP operating system

It is good practice to use the correct shut down procedure when you want to turn off your computer so
that you do not lose data. If you still have any software applications or files open they will be displayed
at the bottom of the screen. Each of the applications and files must be closed. You may get a message
asking you to confirm whether files need to be saved. Make sure you save any work you have done before
you turn off the computer.

Depending on whether or not you have had to log on to start using a computer, you will need to follow a
different sequence shutting down the computer.

9.5. Logging off

20
If you have had to log on to the computer when you started the
session, then you need to log off when you finish your session on
the computer.

Logging off means you are disconnecting the computer from the
network and no one else will be able to access the same computer
unless they also have a log on (username and password). You must
log off the computer regardless of whether or not you will be
turning off the power.

If you don’t log off the computer, then you will be preventing other
people from using the same computer and being able to log on with
their own name and password. In the workplace, failure to log off
will probably also mean that other people (who may be
unauthorised to use your computer) can access all the files that you have access to. This could mean a
serious breach of security in an organisation.

9.5.1. To log off a computer:

a) Close all files (remember to save your latest work if necessary).

b) Close all software programs.
c) Remove floppy disks or other storage media from drives if necessary.
d) Click the Start button on the taskbar (at the bottom left corner of the screen) to see the
Start menu.
e) Click on Log Off (at the bottom of the menu).
f) A message box will appear on the screen asking you to confirm that you want to log off.
Click on Log Off.
g) A final message box will appear telling you ‘It is now safe to turn off your computer.’

You can now switch off the computer and the power outlet if you want to shut down the computer.

9.6. Sequence for shutting down a computer

Follow this sequence if you do not have to log off first.

a) Close all files (remember to save your latest work if necessary).

b) Close all software programs.
c) Remove floppy disks or other storage media from drives if necessary.
d) Click on Start on the taskbar. Select Turn Off computer from the Start menu.
e) Check that Turn off is selected.

21
 f) Click on OK to confirm.
Your computer may automatically turn the power off but if not you will get a message like ‘It is
now safe to turn off your computer.’
g) Switch off the computer and the power outlet.

9.7. User Accounts

A user account defines the actions a user can perform in Windows. On a stand-alone computer or a
computer that is a member of a workgroup, a user account establishes the privileges assigned to each
user.

9.7.1. Types of user accounts

There are two types of user accounts available on your computer: computer administrator and limited.
The guest account is available by default for users with no assigned account on the computer.

Computer administrator account

The computer administrator account is intended for someone

who can make system wide changes to the computer, install
software, and access all non-private files on the computer.
Only a user with a computer administrator account has full
access to other user accounts on the computer. A user with a
computer administrator account:

• Can create and delete user accounts on the computer.

• Can change other users' account names, pictures, passwords, and account types.
• Cannot change his or her own account type to limited unless there is at least one other user
with a computer administrator account. This ensures that there is always at least one user
with a computer administrator account on the computer.
• Can manage his or her network passwords, create a reset password disk, and set up his or her
account to use a .NET Passport.

Limited account

The limited account is intended for someone who should be prohibited from changing most computer
settings and deleting important files. A user with a limited account:
• Generally, cannot install software or hardware, but can access programs that have already
been installed on the computer.
• Can change his or her account picture and can also create, change, or delete his or her
password.
• Cannot change his or her account name or account type. A user with a computer administrator
account must make these kinds of changes.
• Can manage his or her network passwords, create a reset password disk, and set up his or her
account to use a .NET Passport.

Note

22
 Some programs might not work properly for users with limited accounts. If so, change the user's
account type to computer administrator, either temporarily or permanently.

Guest account

The guest account is intended for use by someone who has no user account on the computer. There
is no password for the guest account, so the user can log on quickly to check e-mail or browse the
Internet. A user logged on to the guest account:
• Cannot install software or hardware, but can access applications that have already been
installed on the computer.
• Cannot change the guest account type.
• Can change the guest account picture.

Note

You might see an account with the name "Owner" when you first log on. The owner account, with
computer administrator privileges, is created during installation if no user accounts are set up at that
time. You can rename this account with a user's name.

10. Working with Windows Desktop

Windows XP is an operating system that lets you use different types

of applications or software. For example, it allows you to use a word
processing application to write a letter, and a spreadsheet
application to track your financial information.

Windows XP is a graphical user interface (GUI). It has pictures

(graphical) that you use (user) to communicate (interface) with the
computer. This type of system is popular because it's logical, fun
and easy to use.

This operating system has multitasking capabilities, meaning it can

run several applications at the same time. Multitasking allows you
to view this lesson on the Internet at the same time that you practice
using other applications with Windows XP.

By the end of this lesson, learners should be able to:

a) Discuss the parts of the Windows XP desktop

b) Discuss the parts of the Start menu
c) Locate the Taskbar
d) Locate the Recycle Bin
e) Log off and switch users

10.1. The Windows XP Desktop

Like previous versions of Windows, Windows XP uses a desktop for the standard interface. Think of the
desktop as workspaces where you can access everything you need to operate your computer, such as
system components, applications, the Internet, etc.

10.2. The desktop contains:

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  Start button: one of the most important tools you will use while working with Windows XP. The
Start button allows you to open menus and start applications.
 Taskbar: primarily used to switch between open windows and applications. Learn more about
using the Taskbar in a later lesson.

 Icons (or graphical pictures): represent applications, files, and other parts of the operating system. By
default, Windows XP provides you with one desktop icon, the Recycle Bin. Learn more about the Recycle
Bin in a later lesson. Your desktop's appearance may vary from the example shown below, especially if
you bought a computer with XP preinstalled.

10.3. The Start Menu

To begin exploring Windows XP, click the Start button.

When you click the Start button, the Start menu appears. The Start menu is your gateway to the
applications that are on your computer. The left side of the Start menu
lists programs, and the right side allows access to common Windows
folders (My Documents, for example). It also provides access to Help
and Support, Search, and Run.
If you select All Programs, a pop-up menu appears. Pop-up menus like
this are called cascading menus. If a cascading menu is available, a
small black triangle appears next to the name of the application or
function.

10.4. To explore the Start menu:

a) Click the Start button.

b) Move the mouse pointer to each option, and view the
various cascading menus.
c) Click (or roll your mouse pointer over) All Programs.
d) Move the mouse pointer to the right and view other cascading menus.
e) To exit the menus, click outside the menu area or press Esc on your keyboard.

The Start menu remembers items you've recently opened and places the icon on the Start menu so
you can easily open it next time you open the Start menu. For example, if you recently opened
Microsoft Word using Start All Programs Microsoft Word, the next time you open the Start
menu, simply click the Word icon on the left side of the Start menu.

10.5. Understanding Icons

The small pictures on the desktop are called icons. One type of icon is an object icon.
Examples of object icons are My Computer, Recycle Bin, and Internet Explorer. These
icons allow you to open files and programs on your computer.

Shortcut icons allow you to open an application quickly. These icons appear on your
desktop and with little arrow in the left corner. Desktop shortcuts are links to files and
programs. You can add or delete shortcuts without affecting the programs on your
computer. You'll learn about creating shortcuts in a later lesson.

10.6. To open a program using an icon:

a) Place your mouse over the icon.

24
 b) Text appears identifying its name or contents.
c) Then, double-click the icon.

10.7. Understanding the Taskbar

The taskbar is the small blue bar you see at the bottom of your desktop. It contains the Start menu and
the Quick Launch bar, which contains icons for Internet Explorer, Windows Media Player, and Show
Desktop. Click an icon to open a program. Click Show Desktop to quickly view your desktop without
closing any programs or windows.

The box on the right is called the Notification Area. Here, you'll find the clock and several other icons
depending on what you have installed on your computer. Other icons appear in the Notification Area
detailing the status of your activity. For example, when you're printing a document, a printer icon appears.
Microsoft also uses the Notification Area to remind you when software updates are available for
download.

When you open or minimize a window or program, a rectangular button appears on the taskbar that
shows the name of the application. These buttons disappear when you close a window.

10.8. Log off and Switch Users

More than one person may use your computer. For example, many family members may use the same
computer at home while several coworkers may be able to access your computer on a computer network.
Windows XP allows everyone who uses your computer to have separate computer accounts. A computer
accounts tracks each person's unique settings, documents, and email accounts.

Windows XP even enables you to log off the computer so someone else can log on without having to
restart the computer.

10.8.1. To log off/switch users:

a) Click the Start menu and click Log Off.

b) A dialog box appears asking you if you want to Switch User or Log Off.
c) Switch User allows someone else to log on to the computer. If you choose to Switch User,
your applications will continue to run in the background while the new user logs on.
d) If you choose Log Off, your applications will close.
e) In any case, you're taken to a Windows XP logon screen where you're prompted to enter
your username and password.

11. How to change your Windows XP Desktop Wallpaper

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Wallpapers are images that appear in the background on your Desktop, behind all your
icons. To change your Desktop wallpaper, do the following:

a) Click anywhere on the Desktop that is not an icon, but click once with your
right hand mouse button
b) A menu pops up. The one below
c) Click on Properties, once with your Left mouse button
d) The following dialogue box pops up

This is the Display Properties dialogue box. As you can see, there are
tab strips for Themes, Desktop, Screensaver, Appearance, and
Settings. Click on the Background tab strip and the dialogue box will
change to this one:
There is a list of wallpapers we can use. Click on one, and you get a
preview of what it will look like. Scroll down to see more wallpapers. If
you're satisfied, click the OK button to set your wallpaper.

You can use your own images. You are not limited to the ones on the list.
If you have an image somewhere on your computer, and you want to use
that instead of the ones on the list, you can click the Browse button, in the
image above. Doing so will bring up the Browse Dialogue box:

On the left image, no background files are showing. You can click one
of the folders on the left to search for a picture, or use the "Look In"
drop down box at the top. When some background image are showing,
click on one to select it. The name of the file you have selected will
then appear in the File name text box.

Click the "Open" button to return to the Display Properties dialogue box.
A preview of your image will be displayed. If you're happy with your
selection, click the "Apply" button then OK. Your desktop will change
to your selected image.

12. Using Windows Explorer

Windows Explorer displays the hierarchical structure of files, folders, and drives on your computer. It also
shows any network drives that have been mapped to drive letters on your computer. Using Windows
Explorer, you can copy, move, rename, and search for files and folders. For example, you can open a folder
that contains a file you want to copy or move, and then drag the file to another folder or drive.

There are other places in Windows where you can view and work with files and folders. My Documents is a
convenient place to store documents, graphics, or other files you want to access quickly. You can also view
My Network Places, which lists other computers that are connected to your local area network (LAN) When

26
you delete files or folders from your hard disk, Windows places them in the Recycle Bin, where you can
retrieve them, until you empty the Recycle Bin. Files or folders deleted from a floppy disk or a network drive
are permanently deleted and are not sent to the Recycle Bin.

12.1. Open Windows Explorer

To open Windows Explorer, click Start, point to All Programs, point to Accessories, and then click
Windows Explorer.

12.2. To copy a file or folder

a) Open My Documents
If the file or folder you want to copy is not located in My Documents or its subfolders,
use Search to find it. To open Search, click Start, and then click Search.
b) Click the file or folder you want to copy.
c) Under File and Folder Tasks, click Copy this file or Copy this folder.
d) In Copy Items, select the drive or folder you want to copy to, and then click Copy

12.3. Selecting more than one file or folder

a) Open My Documents
b) To select consecutive files or folders, click the first item, press and hold down SHIFT,
and then click the last item.
c) To select nonconsecutive files or folders, press and hold down CTRL, and then click
each item.
d) To select all the files and folders in the window, on the Edit menu, click Select All

12.4. Copy or Move Files or Folders

a) Open a destination with a file/Folder or files/Folders to copy

b) If you have to copy one file or Folder, just click a file or folder to select it.
c) If you have to copy more than one file or folder, click the first file or folder from the list
of file or folder to copy or move, then if the files or folders are in series hold down shift
key and click the last file or folder in a group. But if the files or folders are not is series
(scattered), click the first file or folder, hold down Control key (CTRL) and while holding
down a key continue clicking to select other files or folders in a group.
d) Then if you want to copy Click Copy Command (Right click), if you want to move click
cut command.
e) Click to select a destination you want to put the copies files of folders.
f) Then click Paste

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12.5. To create a new folder

a) Open My Documents.
b) Under File and Folder Tasks, click Make a new folder.
c) A new folder is displayed with the default name, New Folder, selected
d) Type a name for the new folder, and then press ENTER

12.6. To move files by dragging

a) Open Windows Explorer

b) Find the file or folder you want to move
c) Make sure the destination for the file or folder you want to move is visible. For example,
if you are moving a file from the My Documents folder to the desktop, you might need to
resize Windows Explorer so the desktop is visible.
d) Drag the file or folder to the destination

12.7. Deleting Files or Folders

a) Select a file (s) or folder (s) to delete

b) Press delete key on your keyboard or right click a file or folder then choose delete from a
drop down menu

Note:
If you are deleting files or folders from all location from a Hard Disk, files are stored in a
Recycle bin folder, so later if you want can restore them by opening recycle bin folder ,
click to select a file or folder and choose Restore from a menu.

But if you are deleting files or folders from a any movable storage device like Flash Disk
or External Hard Disk, the files and folders will be permanently deleted from a system.

12.8. To change the name of a file or folder

a) Open My Documents
If the file or folder you want to rename is not located in My Documents or its subfolders,
use Search to find it. To open Search, click Start, and then click Search.
b) Click the file or folder you want to rename.
c) Under File and Folder Tasks, click Rename this file or Rename this folder

Note:

Some programs cannot interpret long file names. The limit for programs that do not support
long file names is eight characters. File names cannot contain the following characters: \ / :
* ? " < > |. You can also rename a file or folder by right-clicking it and then clicking
Rename.

12.9. To check size of a file of space in a storage device

a) Click to select either a file or a destination drive (eg. Flash Disk)

b) Right click it and choose Properties

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13. Save a file

When you save a file, you can save it to a folder on your hard disk drive, a network location, disk, DVD, CD,
the desktop, flash drive, or save as another file format. You should save the file frequently while you
are working on it to avoid losing data because of an unexpected power failure or other problem.

By default, the Microsoft Office programs save a file in a default working folder. To save the copy in a
different location, click a different folder in the folder list. See Save as a copy or to a different location to
learn more.

a) Click the Microsoft Office Button , and then click Save, or press CTRL+S.
b) If you don't see the Microsoft Office Button , click Save on the File menu.
c) If you are saving the file for the first time, you are asked to give it a name.

14. Computer Malware

Malware, short for malicious (or malevolent) software, is software used or created by attackers to disrupt
computer operation, gather sensitive information, or gain access to private computer systems. It can appear
in the form of code, scripts, active content, and other software. 'Malware' is a general term used to refer to a
variety of forms of hostile or intrusive software.

Malware includes computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses, spyware, adware, and other malicious programs.
Malware is not the same as defective software, which is software that has a legitimate purpose but contains
harmful bugs that were not corrected before release. However, some malware is disguised as genuine
software, and may come from an official company website. An example of this is software used for harmless
purposes that is packed with additional tracking software that gathers marketing statistics.

Malware has caused the rise in use of protective software types such as anti virus, anti-malware, and
firewalls. Each of these is commonly used by personal users and corporate networks in order to stop the
unauthorized access by other computer users, as well as the automated spread of malicious scripts and
software.

14.1. Classes of Malicious Software

Two of the most common types of malware are viruses and worms. These types of programs are able to
self-replicate and can spread copies of themselves, which might even be modified copies. To be classified
as a virus or worm, malware must have the ability to propagate. The difference is that a worm operates
more or less independently of other files, whereas a virus depends on a host program to spread itself.
These and other classes of malicious software are described below.

14.1.1. Viruses

A computer virus is a type of malware that propagates by inserting a copy of itself into and becoming
part of another program. It spreads from one computer to another, leaving infections as it travels.
Viruses can range in severity from causing mildly annoying effects to damaging data or software and
causing denial-of-service (DoS) conditions. Almost all viruses are attached to an executable file,
which means the virus may exist on a system but will not be active or able to spread until a user runs
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 or opens the malicious host file or program. When the host code is executed, the viral code is executed
as well. Normally, the host program keeps functioning after it is infected by the virus. However, some
viruses overwrite other programs with copies of themselves, which destroys the host program
altogether. Viruses spread when the software or document they are attached to is transferred from one
computer to another using the network, a disk, file sharing, or infected e-mail attachments.

14.1.2. Worms

Computer worms are similar to viruses in that they replicate functional copies of themselves and can
cause the same type of damage. In contrast to viruses, which require the spreading of an infected host
file, worms are standalone software and do not require a host program or human help to propagate.
To spread, worms either exploit vulnerability on the target system or use some kind of social
engineering to trick users into executing them. A worm enters a computer through vulnerability in
the system and takes advantage of file-transport or information-transport features on the system,
allowing it to travel unaided.

14.1.3. Trojans

A Trojan is another type of malware named after the wooden horse the Greeks used to infiltrate Troy.
It is a harmful piece of software that looks legitimate. Users are typically tricked into loading and
executing it on their systems. After it is activated, it can achieve any number of attacks on the host,
from irritating the user (popping up windows or changing desktops) to damaging the host (deleting
files, stealing data, or activating and spreading other malware, such as viruses). Trojans are also
known to create back doors to give malicious users access to the system.

Unlike viruses and worms, Trojans do not reproduce by infecting other files nor do they self-replicate.
Trojans must spread through user interaction such as opening an e-mail attachment or downloading
and running a file from the Internet.

14.2. Antivirus or anti-virus software

Antivirus or anti-virus software is software used to prevent, detect and remove malware (of all
descriptions), such as: computer viruses, Trojan horses, worms, adware and spyware.

A variety of strategies are typically employed. Signature-based detection involves searching for known
patterns of data within executable code. However, it is possible for a computer to be infected with new
malware for which no signature is yet known.

14.3. Examples of Ant virus

There is a lot of computer antivirus around, but these are just few of them, AVG, kaspersky, Avast,
Microtrend Avira, NORTON, Mcafee and others

15. Connecting a Computer (PC)

After you unpack your new computer, you may need help with its setup. Your computer comes with a
monitor, keyboard, and mouse. You should connect these items before you turn on your new computer.

Your computer will offer several types of connection ports, but USB ports are becoming the most common.
Wireless keyboards and mouse use a small transmitter that you insert into a USB port, for example.

Use the following table in conjunction with the figure to identify device-to-PC connector ports.

15.1. VGA Port

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A Video Graphics Array (VGA) connector is a three-row 15-pin DE-15 connector. The 15-pin VGA
connector is found on many video cards, computer monitors, and high definition television sets. On laptop
computers or other small devices, a mini-VGA port is sometimes used in place of the full-sized VGA
connector. In Personal Computers (PC) a VGA Card is used to connect a Monitor

VGA Port (Female)

VGA Cable head (Male)

15.2. USB port

A USB port is a standard cable connection interface on personal computers and consumer electronics.
USB ports allow stand-alone electronic devices to be connected via cables to a computer (or to each
other).

USB stands for Universal Serial Bus, an industry standard for short-distance digital data communications.
USB allows data to be transferred between devices. USB ports can also supply electric power across the
cable to devices without their own power source.

In a Personal Computers USB Ports are used to connect devices like USB Mouse and USB Printers. Other
devices like Flash Disk and Cameras also can use USB Connectors.

USB Ports

USB Cable terminal

15.3. Audio Ports or Sound Card

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A sound card (also known as an audio card) is an internal computer expansion card that facilitates the
input and output of audio signals to and from a computer under control of computer programs.
The term sound card is also applied to external audio interfaces that use software to generate
sound, as opposed to using hardware inside the PC. Typical uses of sound cards include
providing the audio component for multimedia applications such as music composition,
editing video or audio, presentation, education and entertainment (games) and video
projection. In Personal Computers a sound card is used to plug Left and Right speakers as
well as Microphone.

Sound card, ports for left and right speakers and the microphones

Male Cable head from devices like speakers, microphones and headphones

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