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Contents

Introduction

Section 1 ICT Theory

1 Types and components of a computer system
2 Input and output devices
3 Storage devices and media
4 Networks and the effects of using them
5 The effects of using ICT
6 ICT applications
7 Systems life cycle
8 Safety and security
9 Audiences
10 Communication

Section 2 Practical
11 File management
12 Images
13 Layout
14 Styles
15 Proofing
16 Graphs and charts
17 Document production
18 Data manipulation
19 Presentations
20 Data analysis
21 Website authoring

Answers to exam-style questions

Index
Introduction

Welcome to the Cambridge IGCSE® ICT Study and Revision Guide. This book
has been written to help you prepare fully for your ICT Examination. Following
the ICT syllabus, it covers all the key content as well as sample questions and
answers and practice questions to help you check your understanding and to
learn the key points for gaining the best examination grade of which you are
capable.
How to use this book
Key objectives
 A summary of the main information.

Examiner’s tip
Tips that give you advice to help you give the perfect answer.

Sample exam questions

Exam-style questions for you to think about.

Student’s answers

Model student answers to see how the question might be answered.

Examiner’s comments
Feedback from an examiner showing what was good and what could be
improved.

Exam-style questions
Exam questions for you to try to see what you have learned.
CHAPTER 1
Types and components of a
computer system
Key objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to revise:
• software
• hardware
• main components of a computer system
• operating systems
• different types of computer system
• emerging technologies.
Key terms
Term Definition
Application Programs that allow the user to do specific tasks on a
software computer.
System Programs that allow the hardware to run properly and
software allow the user to communicate with the computer.
CPU Central Processing Unit. The part of a computer that
interprets and executes commands from computer
hardware and software.
Microprocessor Single integrated circuit which is at the heart of most
computers; incorporates the functions of a CPU on a
single circuit board.
Operating Software running in the background of a computer; it
system manages many functions, such as user interface,
error handling, memory management and managing
user accounts.
Software and hardware
Hardware consists of all the physical components of a computer system, while
software refers to the programs used for controlling the operation of a computer
or for processing electronic data.

Figure 1.1 Examples of hardware and software

Application software
Software that is designed so a user can perform a specific function on a
computer is known as application software. With this software a user is able to
browse the internet, watch a video, write an email, and much more.

Word processor
This is used to manipulate text documents and text entered via a keyboard; the
software has such features as editing, saving and manipulating text; copy and
paste; spell checker and thesaurus; importing photos, text and spreadsheets;
translation of text into other languages.

Spreadsheet
Used to organise and manipulate numerical data; data is organised in cells in a
grid of lettered columns and numbered rows; common features include: formulae
to carry out calculations; ability to produce graphs; data replication; ability to do
modelling and ‘what if’ scenarios.

Database
Used to organise, manipulate and analyse data; uses one or two tables to organise
the data; tables are made up of records; common functions include ability to
carry out queries on data and produce reports, and add, delete and modify data in
tables.

Control/measuring
Designed to allow computer/microprocessor to interface with sensors to allow:
physical quantities in the real world to be measured; control of processes by
comparing sensor data with pre-stored data and sending out signals to alter
process parameters (for example, open/close a valve).

Apps
Type of software that usually runs on tablets or mobile phones; examples include
music streaming, GPS and camera facility (but there are thousands of Apps
available).

Photo editing
Allows user to manipulate digital photos, for example change the brightness,
contrast, colour saturation, remove ‘red eye’, and so on.

Video editing
Allows user to manipulate videos, for example, addition of titles, colour
correction, creating transitions between video clips, and so on.

Graphics manipulation
Allows bit map and vector images to be changed; allows the manipulation of
lines, curves and text depending on the format of the original image.
Systems software
Compiler
A program that translates high-level language code into machine code so that it
can be run on a computer (that is, it produces object code from original source
code).

Interpreter
This is software that directly executes a program without previously compiling it
into a machine language.

Linker
A program that takes one or more object files (modules) produced by a compiler
and combines them into a single program that can be run on a computer.

Operating system (OS)

Software running in the background of a computer; it manages many functions
such as user interface, error handling, memory management and managing user
accounts.

Device driver
Software that enables one or more hardware devices to communicate with a
computer’s operating system; as soon as a device is plugged in, the operating
system looks for the correct device driver.

Utilities
Software designed to carry out specific tasks on a computer, such as anti-virus,
anti-spyware, file management and disk defragmenter.
Internal computer hardware
Motherboard
A printed circuit board that allows the processor and other computer hardware to
function and communicate with each other; acts as a ‘hub’ that other computer
devices connect to.

RAM
Random Access Memory; an internal chip where data is temporarily stored (data
is lost on switching off the computer, which gives it the name volatile memory);
RAM can be read from or written to and stores the data or part of the operating
system currently in use.

ROM
Read Only Memory; memory used to store data that needs to be permanent (data
is kept even when the computer is switched off, which gives it the name non-
volatile memory); data on the ROM cannot be altered or deleted, which is why it
is used to store computer configuration or the BIOS.

Video card
Allows the computer to send graphical data to a video display device such as a
monitor, television or projector; it is made up of a processor, RAM, cooling
mechanism/heat sink and connections.

Sound card
An integrated circuit board that provides the computer with the ability to
produce sound via speakers or headphones; uses FM synthesis or wavetable
synthesis to translate digital data into analogue data (to drive the
speakers/headphones).

HDD/SSD
Hard disk drive and solid state drive; devices built into a computer to allow data
to be stored for later use or to store application software, photos, videos and
more; SSD is a more modern system with no moving parts, whereas HDD uses
rotating magnetised platters and read/write heads.

CPU
Central processing unit; part of the computer that interprets and executes
commands from computer hardware and software; usually part of the
motherboard.

Microprocessor
The CPU is often referred to as a microprocessor; it is a single integrated circuit
made up of the control unit, arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) and RAM.
Operating systems
One program manages the hardware and software of a computer, and makes it
possible for programs to function; it is known as the operating system.

Command line interface

In a CLI, the user interfaces with the computer by typing in commands; the
syntax of each command must be exactly correct – thus it can be a slow, error-
prone process; however, the user is in direct communication with the computer
and not restricted to some pre-determined options.

Graphical user interface

In a GUI, the user interacts using a pointing device (such as a mouse) and icons
on a computer screen; clicking on an icon launches an App; GUI is often part of
a WIMP (windows, icon, menu and pointing) environment; the user doesn’t have
to learn any commands and it is, therefore, easier/quicker for a novice to use.
Common errors
It is very common to see confusion between RAM and ROM; it is important to
know the key differences between these two types of primary memory.
ROM is memory used to store data temporarily, such as the data or part of the
operating system currently in use.
RAM is memory used to store data temporarily; ROM stores data
permanently, and this data cannot be altered or deleted.
It is also common to see the following three terms confused: linkers, compilers
and interpreters. For example:
A linker translates a program into machine code.
A compiler converts a program written in high-level code into machine code;
compilers use programs called linkers which use some of the object files
(modules) produced by a compiler and combine them into a single program
that can then be run on a computer.

Sample exam questions

a Name three examples of application software and give a feature of
each.
b Explain the function of the following:
i motherboard
ii video card
iii sound card.
Student’s answer
a Control software: measures physical quantities from real world using
sensors; controls a process by comparing sensor readings with pre-
stored data and sends out signals to, for example, open or close a
valve.
Database: organising, manipulating and analysing of data; made up
of tables containing records; allows queries and reports to be
produced.
Photo editing software: allows manipulation of digital photos; can
change brightness, contrast, remove ‘red eye’, and so on.
Examiner’s comments
a The candidate has wisely chosen three very different examples of application
software. Only one feature was asked for in the question, but the candidate
has given examples as well as features – this is always a wise precaution in
case the chosen feature is inadequate or vague in its description.
Student’s answer
b i Motherboard: allows processor and other computer hardware to
function and communicate with each other; acts as a ‘hub’ that
other computer devices connect to.
ii Video card: allows a computer to send graphical data to a video
display unit such as a monitor, TV or projector.
iii Sound card: provides a computer with the ability to produce sound
via a speaker or headphones; uses FM or wavelength synthesis
to translate digital data into analogue data to drive the speakers.
Examiner’s comments
b The candidate has given more than would be needed to gain the full marks;
the question only asks for the function so it is a little vague about how much
detail is actually required.

Examiner’s tip
To determine the depth of answer required, always look at the mark
allocation and the space given to write the answer. Try not to exceed
the amount of space allocated. If you do make a mistake or need more
space, be very careful to indicate to the examiner where the rest of
your answer is written. Most papers are now marked online, so
examiners only see the page where your answer is written unless you
guide them to another page.
Types of computer

Some advantages and disadvantages of computer types.

Computer Advantages Disadvantages

Desktop • have better • not portable due to
specification (for separate components
example, faster being used
processor) for • because they aren’t
given price than portable, it is necessary
the others to copy data/files on to
• since not portable, memory sticks or to the
less likely to be cloud, for example
damaged/stolen • more cumbersome due
• more stable to trailing wires, desktop
internet connection space
since it is often
hard-wired

Laptop • lightweight and • easier to break or steal

self-contained, since portable
 therefore portable • limited battery life or
and no trailing need to carry heavy
wires adaptor
• lower power • keyboards and pointing
consumption than devices can be awkward
desktop to use
• can be used
anywhere if there
is a Wi-Fi hotspot
Tablet • very fast ‘power • limited memory
up’ • typing on a touch screen
• fully portable; can be very slow and
small and light error-prone
• no need for input • transfer of files can be a
devices since uses slow process
touch screen and • need to use an App store
Apps for most software
• uses solid state
devices; therefore,
produces little heat
Smartphone/watch • always on your • small screen makes
person since it is pages difficult to read
small and • small keyboard makes
lightweight data entry slow and
• can make phone error-prone
calls as well as • Apps, such as camera
‘surf’ the net App, can drain battery
• can be used quickly
anywhere since • small memory size
uses Wi-Fi and • not all website features
4G/5G can be displayed
• battery life is much • slow data transfer
longer than laptops
Mainframe computers are still used today in spite of the massive increase in
processing power and memory of desktop computers. They are recognised by
their ability to carry out massive ‘number crunching exercises’ and to store
massive amount of data.
Common errors
Unlike other devices, desktop computers require electricity to operate.
All computers require electricity to operate, however while a desktop
computer must be connected to a power supply directly, laptops, tablets and
smartphones have built-in batteries that, once charged, allow them to be used
when no power supply is available.

Sample exam questions

a Describe four features you would expect to find on tablets and
smartphones.
b Choose suitable devices for each of the following applications. In
each case, give a reason for your choice. You must choose a
different device for each application.
i A reporter ‘in the field’ sending data back immediately to head
office.
ii A person wishing to monitor their health/exercises while ‘on the go’
wherever they are.
iii A bank wishing to number-crunch a lot of data at the end of the
month, for example accounts.
Student’s answer
a Sensors, such as accelerometers, to detect orientation of the device.
Front-and back-facing cameras to allow photos/videos to be taken,
but also allow video calls to be made.
Bluetooth connection to printers and other devices which allows
wireless connectivity.
Sophisticated speech-recognition systems (for example, ‘Siri’) and
security devices such as fingerprint scanning before device can be
used.
Examiner’s comments
a Other features are possible; it is important that the given features are less
likely to be found on laptops or desktops. The candidate has correctly
expanded on their answers rather than just naming a feature.
Student’s answer
b i Tablet: lightweight and can use 4G/5G or Wi-Fi to send data back to head
office instantly; less bulky and easier to use than a laptop and also better
battery life.
ii Smartwatch: can wear the device on the wrist at all times gathering data to
allow health/activity monitoring throughout the day.
iii Mainframe computer: large amounts of data need very fast processors and
large amounts of memory so that all the data can be processed quickly.
Examiner’s comments
b i As long as the named device can be fully justified (for example, use of a
smartphone rather than a tablet since you are more likely to have it on
your person because of its small size and weight, and can make phone calls
to head office) there is no one answer to the first part of this question.
ii In the second part, a mobile phone could again be used provided it wasn’t
used in the first part.
iii In the third part, it is unlikely that another device could be used, although it
may be possible to justify the use of a desktop due to ever-increasing
memory size and faster processors.

Examiner’s tip
Always read the question very carefully. In part a, it is important not to
give more than four features since only the first four will be marked and
marks could be lost if earlier examples were incorrect. In part b, the
question asked for different devices in each given application – it is,
therefore, important not to repeat your devices otherwise marks will be
lost.
Emerging technologies

Figure 1.2 Examples of emerging technologies

Artificial Intelligence (AI) biometrics

This uses dynamic profiling, for example, the system learns by using AI each
time a person’s fingers are scanned; hence it doesn’t matter if the finger is placed
in exactly the right position each time. This is also true of other biometrics and
means biometric security systems are becoming increasingly more reliable.

Vision enhancement
LVES (low-vision enhancement systems) allow images to be projected inside a
headset placed in front of the user’s eyes. An example of its use includes helping
the visually impaired.
NVE (night vision enhancement) uses infrared light to enable an image to be
seen in apparent darkness; it makes use of an image intensifier tube which
converts light into electrons – these electrons collide with a phosphor-coated
screen resulting in an image. This technology is used by the military when
identifying objects at night.

Robotics
Robots are used in many industrial applications to carry out repetitive tasks (for
example, car body assembly line) – this enables consistency of production and
greater productivity.
Recent applications are the use of drones which can be used for military (for
example, reconnaissance) and commercial (for example, delivery of goods to a
customer) use.
Robots are also being used to carry out certain surgical procedures.

Quantum cryptography
This refers to a technology that ensures the security of data transmission over
fibre optic cables; it is based on the use of photons (light) and their physical
quantum properties to produce a virtually unbreakable cryptography system. It
relies on the fact that photons oscillate in various directions and can be used to
produce a random bit (0s and 1s) sequence. This technology can be used by
companies or government organisations where security of data is paramount.

Computer-assisted translation (CAT)

CAT is a type of language translator that uses software to help in the translation
process. It makes use of terminology databases (which grow and learn following
translations) and translation memories (which automatically insert known
translations for certain words or phrases). Many multinational companies
encounter language problems when dealing with offices in foreign countries –
CAT can be used to overcome many of these language difficulties.

3-D and holographic imaging

This is a technology that allows 3-D images to be produced; requires a source of
laser light, interference of light, light diffraction and light intensity recording. A
holographic image is produced where laser light beams meet after being
reflected off a number of mirrors. There are many applications of this
technology, such as in the medical field (for example, for training purposes
where actual images of human organs in 3-D can be seen) or in the film and
television industry to produce special effects (for example, holograms of
performers used in music videos).

Virtual reality
This is an artificial environment created by software. It makes use of data
goggles, sensor suits, data gloves or data helmets to get a feeling of ‘being
there’. This technology has many uses in training, plant design and complex
computer games.
Common errors
Virtual reality is frequently confused with Artificial Intelligence (AI).
AI gives the user a feeling of ‘being there’.
AI learns from changing circumstances, whereas virtual reality is an
artificially created environment used to give a feeling of ‘being there’.

Sample exam questions

a A distribution company is considering the use of drones to deliver
parcels to its customers. Discuss the relative advantages and
disadvantages to the customer and general population of doing this.
b Describe three applications where virtual reality could be used.
Student’s answer
a Advantages:
no need to use delivery companies, which means faster delivery and
no need for customer to be at home when delivery occurs
better for the environment since drones will be battery powered
fewer lorries on the road, which means fewer traffic jams, less
pollution, less noise, and so on.
Disadvantages:
privacy issues since drones will need cameras and GPS to safely
land and navigate to their destination
safety issues – can drones be operated safely out of ‘line of sight’
security issues – sabotage, terrorist attacks, and so on (for example,
smuggling items into prisons, use of weapons, and so on).
Examiner’s comments
a This is a good answer since there is a balance of advantages and
disadvantages; since (at the time of writing) this is not yet a reality in many
countries, the candidate has correctly tried to predict some of the issues.
Student’s answer
b Training and education (for example, medical procedures)
Entertainment (for example, computer games and simulations)
Fashion (for example, fashion shows can be ‘rehearsed’ before
doing the real thing)
Scientific and engineering applications (for example, seeing inside a
nuclear reactor or performing a dangerous chemical reaction).
Examiner’s comments
b The candidate gave more than three examples; this is unnecessary since it is
likely only the first three would be marked – however, giving examples is
always a good idea.

Examiner’s tips
• Always read the question very carefully.
• In part b, it is not necessary to give more than three applications
since only the first three will probably be marked and marks could be
lost if earlier examples were incorrect.

Exam-style questions
1 In the table below there are seven computer terms. By ticking (✓) the
correct column, indicate whether each term is an example of
application software, system software or part of an operating system.
[7 marks]

2 a Explain the two terms: command line interface (CLI) and graphical
user interface (GUI).
[2 marks]
b Give one advantage and one disadvantage of using a CLI and of
using a GUI.
 [4 marks]
3 John travels around the world to check out hotels for his travel
company.
Explain the use of the following devices to help John to give his
feedback and to keep in contact with his travel company back home:
laptop computer
tablet
smartwatch.
[6 marks]
4 There are seven descriptions given below, on the left. In the right-
hand column, write down the name of the computer term being
described.
[7 marks]

Description Computer term

Uses infrared light and visible light so that an object
can still be seen even when it is apparently dark
Unmanned flying devices that can be used for army
surveillance or delivering items to customers
without the need for a delivery van
System based on the fact that photons oscillate in
various directions and can be used to produce a
random sequence of bits when sending data over
fibre optic cables
System that uses terminology databases and
translation memories to convert text written in one
language into text in a different language
Technology that uses laser light, interference of
light and diffraction of light to produce a 3-D life-like
image of an object
Artificial environment that uses data goggles,
sensor suits, data gloves or data helmets to create
‘the feeling of being there’
Systems used to do massive number crunching,
equipped with very powerful processors and
massive memories
CHAPTER 2
Input and output devices
Key objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to revise:
• the different types of common input devices, including their
advantages and disadvantages
• the types of direct data entry devices
• the different types of common output devices, including their
advantages and disadvantages.
Key terms
Term Definition
Input device Hardware to provide data and control signals to a
computer system from the outside world
Output Hardware that shows the results of data processing
device from a computer system, either in human-readable
format or as control signals to another device
Pointing Input device that is used to control the movement of a
device cursor or pointer on a computer screen; used to select
from menus or to launch applications
Sensor Device that inputs data to a computer/microprocessor,
usually in analogue format; the data is a measurement
of some physical quantity
Direct data Data entered into a computer system via an input
entry device requiring little or no human intervention
Control System using sensors and microprocessor/computer
applications where data sent to the microprocessor/computer is
compared to pre-set data; the microprocessor/computer
sends out signals to control devices (for example, to
switch a pump on or off) to ensure incoming data is
within these pre-set data levels at all times
Measurement System using sensors and microprocessor/computer,
applications where data sent to the microprocessor/computer is
compared to pre-set data; unlike a control application,
the microprocessor/computer takes no action but simply
warns the user that the sensor data indicates that what
is being monitored is out of acceptable range (this can
be a warning light, siren or output on a screen or
printer)
Input devices

Figure 2.1 Examples of input devices

Keyboard
This is the most common input device, where a user simply enters data by
pressing keys; some keyboards are ergonomic in an effort to reduce the risk of
RSI (repetitive strain injury) when doing a lot of typing. It is a slow and error-
prone method of input but requires little or no training; keyboards can be
‘virtual’ when used on tablets or smartphones. Concept keyboards are often used,
where icons can replace letters thus reducing the number of possible inputs.
Numeric keypads are a type of keyboard where numbers and mathematical
symbols only are used.

Pointing devices
These are used to control the movement of a pointer or cursor on a screen and to
enable selection from a menu or to launch applications. The most common
pointing devices are the mouse (including optical and wireless), touchpad (found
on laptops) or trackerball (often found in control rooms or in some luxury cars to
select functions such as radio or sat nav).
They are generally easier to use than a keyboard in many applications but can
cause issues with people who have certain disabilities. Pointing devices tend to
be used in a WIMP environment.

Remote control
Used to control the operation of certain devices wirelessly (that is, remotely);
special buttons are used to operate televisions, video/CD players, air con
systems, multimedia, and so on.

Joysticks
These are similar in some ways to pointing devices; a control stick is used to
make movement in X-Y directions and they often have a button on the top of the
stick for gaming purposes (for example, to fire a rocket).
This is related to the driving wheel which is also used in games and
simulations; sensors are used to pick up the left and right movement of the
steering wheel.

Touch screens
These allow the selection from a menu or the launching of applications by
touching the screen in the correct place; this is done using the finger or a special
conductive stylus.
Touch screens are generally much easier to use than a keyboard or mouse, but
screens can get very dirty from people’s fingerprints. They are often used in
ATMs, mobile phones and public information systems (for example, at an airport
or railway station).

Scanners
These are used to enter data/information in hard-copy (paper) format into a
computer (for example, a page from a book or a photographic print). The hard-
copy data is converted into an electronic form that can be stored in a computer
memory.
Scanners allow old/valuable books to be stored for future use or allow
documents to be pasted into an electronic document; damaged photos and pages
can be restored/recovered using this method.

Digital cameras
These have largely replaced traditional film-based cameras; the image is stored
on a solid state memory card and can be transferred to a computer/printer using a
USB cable, Bluetooth or by inserting the memory card directly into the device.
The quality of the photos is now comparable to the best film-based cameras;
they have the distinct advantage that unwanted photos can easily be deleted
without the need to pay for any film developing.
Digital video cameras ‘stitch’ together a number of still photos; dedicated
video cameras exist or ordinary digital cameras can be used to take video
footage (although the quality is rarely as good as from a dedicated video
camera). When using an ordinary digital camera to make videos, another
drawback is the amount of memory used. Most smartphones also have a camera
facility but they rarely have many of the desirable features found on a dedicated
camera.

Webcams
These connect directly to the computer and don’t save the images; data is
transmitted directly to the computer for use in video conferencing or in video
calls; the quality varies a lot depending on the lens and electronics.

Microphones
These are used to convert sound into electrical signals which, once converted to
digital, can be stored on a computer. Used in voice/speech recognition systems,
for creating voiceovers in videos/presentations, and so on.

Graphics tablets
These are used with a stylus to produce freehand drawings which can be input
into a computer and stored for later use, for example, computer-aided design
(CAD) work. They are useful where artistic skills are needed, for example, in
creating cartoon characters, logos, and so on.

Light pens
This technology works with cathode ray tube (CRT) screens only; it allows menu
selection, moving items by dragging them across the screen with the pen and
drawing directly on the screen using the pen. Light pens only work at the
moment with CRT screens, but touch screens now work with a conductive stylus
and allow similar actions to be done.

Sensors
These are devices that input physical analogue quantities into a computer (for
example, pH values, temperatures, moisture levels, and so on). An ADC
(analogue to digital converter) is usually required so that data is produced which
can be understood by the computer.
Common errors
It is very common to see students make incorrect claims about webcams.
Webcams store images which are later transmitted.
Webcams capture images which are then sent to the computer directly; these
images are then transmitted directly during a video chat, for example.
It is also common to see students making incorrect claims about sensors.
Devices such as switches and valves are switched off and on by the sensors.
Sensors gather data which is constantly relayed back to a computer. After
analysing this data the computer will determine whether to open or close a
valve or switch.

Sample exam questions

a Compare the use of a mouse and a touch screen as a form of input.
b Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using a keyboard as
an input device.
Student’s answer
a Mouse: cursor or pointer on a screen is controlled by moving the
mouse; selections are made by moving the pointer over an icon and
then clicking right mouse button; scroll down buttons are used to
move top to bottom to make editing faster.
Touch screen: by simply touching an icon on the screen it is selected
or an application is launched; touch screens can be used with a
conductive stylus.
Examiner’s comments
a The candidate has given a fairly good description of how to use a mouse and
how to use a touch screen. However, marks could be lost since the question
asked for a comparison to be made. Therefore, it would be sensible to add the
following:
‘Mouse: needs a fairly large desk area to accommodate a slip-free mat;
continuous use of a mouse can lead to some forms of RSI; can become
unresponsive when dirty or battery starts to run out when using wireless
and/or optical mouse.
Touch screens: can become dirty due to user’s fingerprints; both can be
difficult to use with certain disabilities.’
Sometimes a mark would be allocated for drawing a conclusion, for example:
‘Mouse is a good device for home use, but commercial applications (for
example, an information kiosk at an airport) would be better suited to a touch
screen since fewer instructions needed, or a mouse could get lost or become
very unresponsive.’
Student’s answer
b Advantages: novices find a keyboard easier to use without any
training; it is the standard input device and is universally used; good
for word processing and entering data into spreadsheets.
Disadvantages: slow and error-prone data entry method; take up a
lot of desk space where space is limited; can lead to conditions such
as RSI if used a lot.
Concept keyboards are used if allowed inputs are limited. RSI issues
can be partially reduced by using ergonomic keyboards. Keyboards
make it easy to verify input since the input is shown directly on a
screen. While slow and error-prone, the keyboard continues to be
one of the easiest input devices for people to use.
Examiner’s comments
b The candidate has given a fairly good answer here. They have offered
additional information on concept keyboards and ergonomic keyboards and
have made an attempt at a comparison with other devices. They could have
also made some reference to virtual keyboards used on tablets and mobile
phones and also mentioned other input devices such as a microphone to
overcome RSI issues – however, this would all depend on how many marks
were allocated to the question.

Examiner’s tips
• The depth of answer required needs a review of the mark allocation;
if the question is worth 2 marks only, then don’t try and write several
lines of explanation as this will be a waste of time. But if the question
carries 6 marks, for example, then a much more in-depth answer
would be required. Basically, read the question and look at the
possible marks and the space provided before starting to compose
your answer.
• In discussion or comparison questions, it is normally necessary to
consider the pros and cons to make a balanced argument. It is
always worth trying to come to some conclusion – but it must be
based on your discussion points to have any validity.
Direct data entry
Direct data entry (DDE) usually refers to entering data into a computer with
minimal or no human intervention; thus eliminating errors, speeding up the data
entry process and, in many cases, automating the data entry process. The most
common examples of DDE include:
• magnetic stripe readers and chip and PIN readers
• contactless card readers
• RFID readers
• MICR
• OMR
• OCR
• barcode readers
• QR readers.

Magnetic stripe readers, and chip and PIN readers

These readers either read the magnetic stripe on the back of a card or scan the
chip embedded on the front of the card. Magnetic stripes contain the account
number, sort code, expiry date and start date, for example. However, a chip
would contain additional information such as the PIN (these are known as EMV
cards). As a data processor, the chip uses cryptography which makes it much
safer than magnetic stripe technology.
It is also true that, unlike a magnetic stripe, the chip and PIN system doesn’t
need to be connected to a phone or the internet to process a payment; with chip
and PIN, terminals can work offline using the chip only and then authorise
charges in bulk at the end of the day. Remember, however, that chip and PIN
doesn’t use radio frequency identification (RFID) technology. Both magnetic
stripe and chip and PIN systems are used at ATMs or for making shop/restaurant
purchases, with data captured automatically from either stripe or chip.

Contactless card readers

Contactless card payment allows payments of up to $50 at each transaction
(although this limit will vary from country to country) without the need to key in
a PIN. The cards have a small chip that emits radio waves and only works within
a few metres of the terminal. The transaction is much faster than other methods
and also uses 128-bit encryption which makes it safe – a unique number is
generated for each transaction.

Radio frequency identification readers

Radio frequency identification (RFID) systems use radio waves to read and
capture information stored on a tag, which can be read from several metres away.
The tag is made up of a microchip (to store and process data) and an antenna (to
receive/transmit data). They can be passive (use readers’ radio wave energy) or
battery powered (using a small embedded battery). They are used, for example,
in the tracking of items (for example, livestock on a farm), admission passes
(security device) or in libraries (to track book loans).
The RFID tag is read automatically which, since there is no need to physically
scan the tag, makes them ideal for the applications mentioned above.

Magnetic ink character recognition/reader

Magnetic ink character recognition/reader (MICR) is used to read the characters
on the bottom of cheques (checks) which have been printed in iron-impregnated
ink; each character is read/scanned by the reader and is converted into an
electronic form which can then be interpreted by a computer. MICR characters
are difficult to forge and can even be written over (for example, by somebody’s
signature) without affecting the reading/scanning process – this is because it is
the magnetic properties that are read rather than the characters themselves. They
also have the advantage that the characters are both human and machine
readable. However, the system is rather expensive and limited in its applications.

Optical mark recognition/reader

Optical mark recognition/reader (OMR) reads marks written in pencil or pen in
specific places on a form. Forms can be filled in using a lozenge ( ) or a line
between two points ( ).
The position of possible marks on the form is stored in the computer’s
memory and marks made by a person filling in the form are compared to the
stored positions. OMR can be used in multiple-choice exam papers (where
correct mark positions for each answer are stored, enabling automatic marking of
the exam paper) or questionnaires (where position of marks corresponds to a
number of possible options stored in memory – thus enabling automatic data
analysis). It is a very fast and accurate data entry method but doesn’t allow for
expansion of answers in a questionnaire, for example.
Optical character recognition/reader
Optical character recognition/reader (OCR) scans text and converts it into a
computer-readable format; it can read typed characters or handwritten
characters. Although faster (and more accurate) than typing in answers, the
system is slower and less accurate than OMR. Some handwriting can cause
problems for OCR readers. However, OCR allows people to expand on their
answers in questionnaires and the forms are much less expensive to produce and
there is no need to scan in and store a template.

Barcode readers
Barcodes are a series of vertical light and dark lines of varying thickness that
represent data (either numerical or alphanumerical).

The barcode can be read by a hand-held scanner or fixed scanner (for

example, at a supermarket checkout). Scanners use either red laser light or red
LED light to read the barcodes. They are used mainly in supermarkets (to fetch
prices of goods or for automatic stock control) or libraries (on books and library
cards). It is not a foolproof system since barcodes can be forged or damaged.

Quick response codes

This is another type of more sophisticated barcode which uses a matrix of dark
squares on a light background.
QR codes can hold considerably more data than standard barcodes.
QR codes are read by a camera on a tablet or smartphone and the data
interpreted, for example, it could contain a website which is automatically
loaded up, or advertising data such as special offers or contact details. There is
no need for the user to type anything in, the processing is done automatically.
Common errors
It is very common to see students make incorrect claims about PINs used with
magnetic stripes.
When using magnetic credit/debit cards, the PIN is stored on the magnetic
stripe on the reverse of the card.
The PIN is stored on the embedded chip in the credit/debit card; however,
information such as an account number and sort code is stored on a magnetic
stripe.
It is also common to see students making the following errors about barcodes:
The prices of goods are stored on the barcode of the goods being scanned.
Barcodes represent data which identifies the item on which the barcode is
fixed. A scanner reads the barcode and sends the data to a computer. This
data is then used to locate the item in the stock database; the price is located
from the stock file and sent back to the checkout terminal.

Sample exam questions

a A bank decides to use barcodes on cheques rather than magnetic
ink characters. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of doing
this.
b Compare OMR and OCR as a method to collect data from
questionnaires.
Student’s answer
a Barcodes would be less expensive to produce and readers/scanners
would also be cheaper; barcodes are easier to forge than MICR;
MICR characters are both human and machine readable; barcodes
cannot be read if damaged or written over, whereas MICR
characters can still be read even if written over; cheques with
barcodes could be scanned or photocopied and used fraudulently;
MICR characters are limited.
Examiner’s comments
a The candidate correctly gave at least one disadvantage and one advantage of
both methods. This is essential when answering questions of this type to
ensure a good balance and also improves the chances of gaining good marks.
Student’s answer
b OMR: reads filled-in lozenges or pen/pencil marks; information given
is limited to questions and doesn’t allow any expansion of answers;
reads marks on pages and compares to stored template, therefore
questionnaire choices are easily recognised and processed; needs
expensive forms; however, more accurate information gathering
needs more ‘filling in’ instructions for target group.
OCR: possible to read handwriting, therefore possible to allow
extension to answers on the questionnaire; poor handwriting may
cause problems when reading questionnaires; it is a complex
recognition system; needs fewer completion instructions than OMR;
less accurate and slower than OMR.
Examiner’s comments
b The candidate has given a fairly good answer here. They have tried to tailor
the answer to the given application. It is very common to see generic answers
which will gain some credit, but examiners will often look for answers which
refer to the application given in the question.

Examiner’s tip
Where a scenario/application is given, it is essential to try and adapt
your knowledge to the scenario. This will give a more relevant answer
and, in many cases, increase your marks. For example, if you were
asked to give the benefits of using OLED technology to make
television/monitor screens and you wrote ‘OLED makes uses of plastic
technology’, you would probably gain 1 mark. But if you wrote ‘OLED
uses plastic which makes the screens much lighter and also allows
them to be formed into any shape, for example, curved for improved
viewing or for making smartwatch screens which can wrap around the
wrist’, then you might gain 3 marks since you have tailored your answer
to the application of TVs/monitors.
Output devices

Figure 2.2 Examples of output devices

Monitors
Monitors (or screens) can be either CRT (cathode ray tube) or LCD/LED (liquid
crystal display/light emitting diode) – the latter types are often referred to as TFT
(thin film transistors). LCD/LED has almost entirely replaced CRT in both the
computing and commercial (television) fields. LCD screens need some form of
back-lighting; this used to be CCFL (cold cathode fluorescent lamp) but now
uses LED instead. The use of LEDs allowed for even thinner screens with better
contrast and colour definition; they also use less electricity and don’t produce as
much heat. However, even this technology is now looking dated as new OLED
(organic light emitting diode) screens are being developed. This allows the use
of very thin plastic screens, with no need for any back-lighting, larger viewing
angles and even more energy efficiency (the full list of advantages and features
can be found in the Cambridge IGCSE ICT Coursebook).

Multimedia projectors
These projectors are used to project the output from a computer on to large
screens or white walls. This makes them invaluable for presentations or
advertising. They are referred to as multimedia since they allow for sound,
animation and video as well as static displays.

Printers
The four most common printers are:
• laser
• inkjet
• dot matrix
• 3-D.
Both laser and inkjet produce high-quality outputs, but laser is better if a large
number of copies needs to be printed (they have larger ink cartridges, larger
buffers and much bigger paper trays – although new inkjet printers are being
developed with large ink reservoirs on the side of the printer). Inkjet printers
work by ejecting droplets of ink from a reservoir and build up the text/images
line by line as the paper advances.
Laser printers use the properties of static electricity and use dry toner rather
than liquid ink; the ink is fixed to the paper by passing it over a heated drum.
This type of printer produces the whole page at once as it revolves around a
printing drum. Laser printers produce ozone gas and tiny toner particulates in the
air.
Dot matrix printers use older technology where a character is built up by an
array of dots, for example:

Dot matrix printers are noisy, poor quality and slow. However, they allow the
use of continuous multi-part stationery and they are less affected by hostile
atmospheres (for example, damp or dirty air).
3-D printers are the new exciting technology ready to create the next industrial
revolution. These create solid objects by building them up layer by layer (using
powdered resin, plastic or metal, for example) – the solid object is usually a
working model. They are showing great promise in medical applications and for
producing items no longer in production (for example, parts for vintage cars or
invaluable museum exhibits).

Speakers
These devices convert output from a computer into sound; digital data is
converted to electrical signals (using a digital to analogue converter – DAC)
which drive the speakers.

Actuators
Actuators are used in control applications involving microprocessors/computers,
sensors, analogue to digital convertors (ADC) and DAC. They are transducers
which take signals from computers and convert them into some form of motion
(for example, motor, pump, switch or valve). See Chapter 6 for more on this
topic.
Common errors
It is very common to see students confuse the operation of laser and inkjet
printers.
Unlike dot matrix and inkjet printers, laser printers don’t use ink when
producing documents.
Laser printers use dry ink (called toner) unlike inkjet (which use liquid ink)
and dot matrix (which use an inked ribbon).
Many candidates also make incorrect statements about dot matrix printers.
Dot matrix printers are suitable for certain applications because they are
noisy.
Dot matrix printers are very noisy in operation; this makes them suitable for
applications where noise isn’t an issue, for example, on a factory floor.

Sample exam questions

a Describe the differences in televisions which use LCD/LED or OLED
technology.
b An office produces designs for new toys. It is necessary to produce
working models and also to give a presentation to senior managers
which includes a cost breakdown and describes the development
requirements. The presentation will also consider advertising of the
new toys. Describe which printers would be needed by the design
office, giving a reason for your choice in each case.
Student’s answer
a OLED screens are thinner and lighter and are, therefore, more
flexible than LCD/LED.
OLED technology is much lighter since it can use plastic layers
instead of glass.
OLEDs give a brighter, more white, light than LEDs.
OLEDs don’t need any back-lighting, unlike LCD screens.
OLEDs use less power and, therefore, produce less heat.
Since the layers are made of plastic, OLED screens can be made
into any shape.
OLED screens have a larger field of view than LCD screens.
Examiner’s comments
a The answer given probably raises more points than necessary; it would
depend on the mark allocation for the question. No comparisons were made in
the answer; just facts. However, there was no need to make any comparisons
since the question simply asked for a description of the differences.
Student’s answer
b 3-D printer – to produce working prototypes of the new toys; this will
be cheaper and quicker than more conventional methods; 3-D
printers also allow several prototypes to be made, making it quicker
to modify toys and see the results.
Laser printer – these will be used to produce advertising brochures
and leaflets; also to produce documentation and reports to hand out
to the management team.
Examiner’s comments
b 3-D and laser printers were the obvious choice here. Dot matrix printers
would be low quality and noisy in an office; inkjets would be slow to produce
a number of leaflets/brochures for handing out to potential
customers/distributors. Laser printers could also be used in the production of
the packaging for the toys.
However, the candidate could have suggested making photos of the toys (using
an inkjet printer) or producing quality control documents/customer orders on
the factory floor (where a dot matrix printer could have been suggested). As
long as the choice of printer is very clear (and correct) then credit would have
to be given for such answers.

Examiner’s tips
• When answering questions such as part a, it is often useful to find
some blank paper to jot down all your advantages/differences before
putting together your final answer; this could, in the long run, save
you time and help produce a more coherent response.
• Open-ended questions, such as part b, need care when considering
your answer. Make sure you can justify your choice of device and you
should be okay to gain the marks; but if your justification doesn’t
match the device, then marks will inevitably be lost.
• Take care when making comparisons. Instead of the vague, ‘Laser
printers are faster than inkjet printers’, write a clear statement: ‘Laser
printers are faster at printing many pages’, followed by a valid reason:
‘because they have larger printer buffers and so can produce many
pages faster than an inkjet printer; but for a single page the printing
speed of both printers is almost the same’.

Exam-style questions
1 Give the most suitable input device for each of the following
applications. A different device needs to be given in each case.
a Entry of data into a spreadsheet or word processor
b Selection of a menu item on a monitor by the use of a conductive
 stylus or finger
c Converting the written page from a textbook into an electronic
format which can be stored on a computer
d Used in voice-recognition systems as part of security to enter a
building
e Measurement of temperature in a glasshouse and sending the
value to a computer as part of a monitoring system
f Design of a freehand logo for input into a computer
[6 marks]
2 a A customer pays for some items in a shop using a contactless card
payment method.
Describe the steps taken when making payment.
[3 marks]
b Some of the goods in the shop are tracked using an RFID system.
i What is meant by RFID?
[1 mark]
ii Name two of the components that make up an RFID system.
[2 marks]
iii Give two other uses of RFID technology.
[2 marks]
3 a Compare the use of OCR and OMR as a method for obtaining and
analysing data from questionnaires given out to the general public.
[4 marks]
b Copy the table. Tick (✓) the correct column to indicate the best
method of direct data entry for each of the three applications.
[3 marks]
4 The following is a list of stages when text, written in magnetisable ink,
is passed over a magnetic ink character reader (MICR). The stages
below are not written in the correct order.
Copy and complete the table that follows, showing the five stages in
their correct order.
[5 marks]
A As each character passes over the head it produces a unique
waveform
B Characters are then passed over the MICR read head
C Ink on the paper is first magnetised
D MICR text is passed over an MICR reader
E The waveform is recognised by the computer system

Stage Description of stage

1
2
3
4
5

5 Many computer screens and televisions use OLED technology.

a Give four advantages of using OLED technology rather than
LCD/LED technology.
[4 marks]
b Explain why CRT monitors are being phased out.
[2 marks]
6 Describe in detail the relative advantages and disadvantages of
using:
laser printers
inkjet printers
dot matrix printers.
[7 marks]
CHAPTER 3
Key objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to revise:
• backing storage
• why we have to back up data
• the types of access used by storage devices
• the three common types of secondary storage:
magnetic
optical
solid state.
Storage devices and media

Key terms
Term Definition
Back-up The copying of files to a different media in case of
data problems with main storage; back-ups are often stored at
a different location.
Serial How data/records are located by starting at the beginning
access of the file and reading through all records in order until the
required one is found, for example, used on magnetic
tapes.
Key field This is a field in a record which will uniquely identify each
record, for example, an account number.
Field This is one of the pieces of data which makes up a
record, for example, the date of birth in a customer’s
record.
Record A group of fields which are all related to each other, for
example, date of birth, address, name and account
number are all fields which together make up a
customer’s record.
File A group of records make up a file; these can be data files,
text files, directory files, and so on.
Master file A collection of records which contain the main data such
as name, address, reference number, and so on.
Transaction A collection of records which are used to update a master
file file; these files will contain changes from a period of time,
for example, new orders, new address, and so on.
Direct The ability to locate the required record without the need
access to read or scan any of the previous records, for example,
used on magnetic disk.
Magnetic A system that uses magnetic properties of a coating of
storage iron or nickel alloys to store/read data in the form of 0s
media and 1s.
Optical A system that uses the optical properties of laser light
storage (blue or red) to store and read data, for example used on
media CDs and DVDs.
Solid state A system that works by controlling the movement of
electrons within a NAND or NOR chip; data is stored as
0s and 1s in millions of tiny transistors within the chip;
most systems use NAND and are often referred to as
flash memories.
Backing up of data
Data is backed up to safeguard against loss of data (for example, due to
equipment failure or a malicious act). If data is lost or corrupted it can be
restored using the backed-up data. Back-up files are often stored in a different
location to the main storage in case of fire, for example.
Backing up of data, however, would not necessarily allow recovery following
a virus infection since the virus may also have been copied during the backing-
up procedure. This means when the recovered files are loaded back on to main
storage, infected files may also be loaded from the back-up media.
Data stored on storage media is accessed either using serial access or direct
access. Magnetic tapes use serial access, but most other back-up systems use
direct access. Direct access is a considerably faster way of locating data and
must be used, for example, in a real-time application (for example, booking seats
on a flight).
It is important to consider the size of files when backing up data. For example,
a photograph may occupy 10 MB of storage; this means a memory stick with 4
GB capacity, for example, could store a maximum of approximately 400
photographs.
Common errors
It is very common to see students make incorrect claims about why back-up files
are made.
Backing up computer files gives protection against a virus attack.
Following a virus attack, backed-up files can be used to restore or recover
any infected files; however, care needs to be taken to ensure that the backed-
up files are not also infected with the virus – this can be done by running a
virus scan on the backed-up files before they are recovered.

Sample exam questions

a A song stored on a CD is, on average, 4 MB in size. A user wishes to
transfer 8000 such songs on to a memory stick. Estimate the
minimum size of memory stick, in GB, that the user will need to use.
b Describe three ways that data could be lost from a storage device
such as a hard disk drive.
Student’s answer
a 8000 × 4 = 32 000 MB needed to store all 8000 songs.
1000 MB = 1 GB
Therefore, the user needs a minimum of 32 GB storage on the
memory stick.
Examiner’s comments
a The candidate has correctly shown all the stages in the calculation to find the
size of the required memory stick.
Student’s answer
b Equipment failure, for example, head crash on a hard disk drive (a
head crash occurs when the read/write used in the hard disk drive
unit touches the surface of the disks – this can often cause damage
and lead to loss of data).
Accidental loss of data, for example, incorrect procedure used when
removing a memory stick.
Malicious loss of data, for example, a virus or hacker deleting key
exec files.
Examiner’s comments
b Three very different situations have been described – this is important since
repeating answers usually loses marks.

Examiner’s tips
• When asked to carry out a calculation always show all the steps in
case you make an error; credit will always be given for the method
used even if the final answer is incorrect. Not showing all your steps
(and just giving a final answer) could result in losing all your marks if
the final answer is incorrect.
• When asked to give more than one reason for something happening,
make sure each example is significantly different to avoid repeating
yourself and losing marks.
Secondary storage media

Figure 3.1 Examples of secondary storage media

Magnetic storage media

These include magnetic tape and magnetic hard disk drives (HDD). These
methods rely on the magnetic properties of certain coatings (made from iron
and/or nickel alloys) to allow the storage of binary data (0s and 1s).
HDD can be fixed (internal) or portable. In both cases, they use rotating disks
(known as platters) which are made from glass, ceramic or aluminium coated in
a magnetic material. HDDs are still a very common form of main storage on
desktop computers (storage of the operating system, applications software and
user’s files). Portable disk drives usually connect to a computer using one of the
USB connections.
Magnetic tape is an old technology that uses thin strips of plastic coated in
magnetic material wound on a metal or plastic reel. The tape passes at high
speed over a read/write head. They have a much slower data access time than
magnetic disks, but are still used in a number of commercial applications where
their massive storage capacity and reliability (long term) is very important.

Optical storage media

Optical storage is usually associated with CDs and DVDs. Laser light is used to
read and write data on the surface of a polycarbonate disk. CDs and DVDs use a
single spiral ‘track’ to store data, working from the centre to the edge.
DVDs use dual layering (that is, two recording layers sandwiched between
two polycarbonate disks), which increases storage capacity when compared to
CDs. They also use laser light which has a shorter wavelength than that used on
CDs, which further increases their storage capacity. DVDs are used to store
movies and to supply applications software. CDs are generally being phased out,
but some home users still use them to store music files.
CDs and DVDs are termed ‘R’ (record once only) or ‘RW’ (allows several
read and write operations). CD-Rs and DVD-Rs are used in home applications
since they need less expensive read/write equipment. Often CD-Rs and DVD-Rs
are finalised, which allows them to be used on any CD or DVD player – once
finalised, a CD or DVD effectively becomes a CD-ROM or DVD-ROM since it
can no longer be recorded on. There is a distinct difference in the way data is
stored using home equipment and industry equipment. Home devices use a light
sensitive dye on the CD/DVD surface which is used to store the 0s and 1s;
industrial devices use metal alloy coatings where the data is stored as ‘pits’ and
‘bumps’.
DVD-RAM is an old technology which is being phased out. Unlike normal
DVDs, these use several concentric ‘tracks’ which allow simultaneous read and
write operations to take place; these are being replaced by solid state memories.
DVD-RAM uses similar technology to DVD-RW, with high energy lasers used
to write data and low energy lasers used to read the data.
Blu-ray disks are often used instead of DVDs. Unlike DVDs, they use a blue
laser source and also a single polycarbonate disk. The wavelength of blue laser
light is about 40% shorter than red laser light. Consequently, they can store
considerably more data than DVDs and are used to store movies and any
application that requires their higher storage capacity.
Optical storage media are slowly being phased out as new technologies (such
as solid state memories) become a more reliable and cheaper alternative. The
longevity of data stored on optical media is still uncertain; only with time will it
become clear whether or not storage on CDs or DVDS/Blu-ray is stable in the
long term.

Solid state media

These have no moving parts and all data is retrieved at the same rate no matter
where the data is stored on the device. They rely on the control of the movement
of electrons within NAND or NOR chips. Data is stored as 0s and 1s in millions
of tiny transistors within the chip. NAND technology is less expensive than
NOR technology, therefore it is the type most commonly used.
When used as SSD (solid state drives) they are more reliable, thinner and
lighter than HDDs. Solid state technology is also used in memory sticks/pens
and in flash memory cards.
Common errors
There is often confusion between data transfer rate and data access time.
The data transfer rate for magnetic tape is very slow which is why magnetic
disk drives are used.
Data transfer rate is ‘the speed at which data is sent from the media to the
computer’, whereas data access time is ‘the time taken to find the data on the
media’. Even systems with slow data access time (for example, magnetic
tapes) can still have very fast data transfer speeds.
There is often confusion between the terms ‘R’ and ‘ROM’ when referring to
CDs/DVDs.
A DVD or CD using the letter ‘R’ indicates that it is READ ONLY.
The letter ‘R’ indicates that it is possible to write to the CD/DVD once only;
the CD/DVD only becomes a ROM once it has been ‘finalised’. ‘ROM’
indicates that the CD/DVD can only be read from and not written to.

Sample exam questions

a Describe the main differences between DVD and Blu-ray disks for
the storage of movies.
b Describe four advantages in using SSDs rather than HDDs in laptop
computers.
Student’s answer
a DVDs use red laser light whereas Blu-ray uses blue laser light.
The laser light used in Blu-ray disks is considerably shorter than the
laser light used in DVDs.
Blu-ray uses only one polycarbonate disk whereas DVDs use a
sandwich of two thinner disks.
The track pitch on Blu-ray disks is less than half the track pitch used
on DVDs.
DVDs suffer from birefringence (the laser beam is split, causing
reading errors due to two recording layers).
Examiner’s comments
a The exact values of lasers (such as 405 nm wavelength of blue laser light or
0.3 µm track pitch) is not required at this level. It is sufficient to use ‘shorter’
or ‘smaller’ in any comparison, as the student has done.
Student’s answer
b SSD is much lighter than HDD (no moving parts or disks).
SSD has a lower power consumption than HDD (this lengthens
battery life on portable devices).
SSD has a lower power consumption than HDD (this produces less
heat).
SSDs are very thin compared to HDDs due to no moving parts (this
means laptop computers can be made very thin).
Examiner’s comments
b The four advantages given were correctly specific to laptop computers. Other
advantages (for example, more reliable, faster access time or ‘don’t need to
get up to speed’) are not specific to laptops and would be unlikely to gain any
credit.

Examiner’s tips
• Don’t try and remember things like wavelength of laser light, or other
such specifications – such technical knowledge would never be
tested at IGCSE level.
• Part b is a good example where reading the question is so important;
giving advantages relevant to laptops is key to gaining the maximum
marks for this question. Answers not specific to the named
application would probably lose marks since, by naming an actual
application, the question is giving a strong hint about how it should be
answered.

Exam-style questions
1 a Explain the difference between data transfer rate and data access
time when using a secondary storage device.
[2 marks]
b Explain the differences between DVD-R and DVD-RW.
[3 marks]
2 Which computer terms are being described below:
a The copying of data to another media in case the original data is
lost or corrupted.
b Data/records on the media are located by starting at the beginning
of the file and reading all of the records until the required one is
found.
c An item in a computer record which is used to uniquely identify
each record.
d The ability to locate a required record on a file without the need to
 read/scan any of the preceding records.
e Collection of records used to update a master file, for example,
change of address, new working hours for the week, and so on.
[5 marks]
3 Describe the main differences between the technology used in optical
media and solid state media. You should give at least two examples
of the technology used for both types of media.
[5 marks]
CHAPTER 4
Networks and the effects of using
them
Key objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to revise:
• networks and network devices
• IP and MAC addresses
• Wi-Fi and Bluetooth
• setting up small networks
• LAN, WAN and WLAN
• accessing networks (including security aspects)
• Data Protection Acts
• use of faxes and emails
• video, audio and web conferencing.
Key terms
Term Definition
Modem modulator-demodulator; this is a device that converts
digital signals into analogue signals and vice versa.
ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line; asymmetric
means that the download speed and upload speed
using the internet will be different.
IP address Internet Protocol address; this is a unique number
assigned when a device connects to the internet; it can
change each time a device connects.
MAC address Media Access Control address is a number that
identifies a device uniquely; it is usually set at
manufacturing stage and is part of the network
interface card (NIC).
Wi-Fi Wireless communication.
Bluetooth A short-range wireless communication.
WAP Wireless Access Point; a network transmitter and
receiver which allows wireless connection to a network
within range of the access points; most networks will
have a number of WAPs.
Spread- Used in wireless systems, for example, in a Bluetooth
spectrum system; if a selected communication channel is
frequency already being used, another channel is chosen at
hopping random.
LAN Local Area Network
WAN Wide Area Network
WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
Social/digital Those people who have the necessary IT skills and/or
divide money to purchase computer equipment have a big
advantage over those who do not.
Data packet Group of data being transmitted (packet contains IP
address, ID number, for example).
Authentication System used to verify that data comes from a secure
and trusted source.
Data Legislation set up to protect the rights of the individual
Protection Act about whom data is obtained, stored and processed.
VoIP Voice over Internet Protocol; allows communication
(both verbal and video) using the internet.
Webinar Web conferencing.

Figure 4.1 Diagram of a computer network, illustrating some of the network devices
Networks
When a set of computers have been connected together for the purpose of
sharing resources or data, this is known as a computer network.
Network devices
Modems
A modulator-demodulator is used to convert digital data into analogue data (to
allow the data to be transmitted along existing telephone lines); it also converts
analogue data into digital data so that incoming data can be understood by the
computer. Broadband modems use ADSL; the asymmetric part in this name
refers to the fact that the rate at which data can be downloaded is different to the
rate at which data can be uploaded. ADSL allows telephone lines to be shared by
telephones and computers at the same time.

Hub
This is a device used to connect devices together to form a LAN; it takes the data
packet received at one of its ports and sends it to every computer on that LAN.

Switch
This is similar to a hub; but this device checks the incoming data packet and
works out the destination address and sends the data packet to the computer with
that address only.

Router
These are devices that enable data packets to be routed between the different
networks, for example, to join a LAN to a WAN. Many routers are wireless in
operation.
Routers inspect data packets received over the internet; since all devices on
the same network have the same part of an IP address (for example,
109.108.158.1, 109.108.158.2, and so on) the router can send data to the
appropriate switch. The switch will then deliver the data packet using the
destination address.
Each data packet contains: header, sender and receiver IP addresses, number
of data packets in the message and identification number of the packet.

Gateway
This is a network point (node) which acts as an entrance to another network; if a
network node needs to communicate outside its own network, it must use a
gateway.
Network Interface Card
A Network Interface Card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to connect to a
network.

Network cables
Network cables are still used because they allow faster data transfer rates and are
usually more secure than wireless connectivity.

IP address
Every time a device connects to a network (for example, the internet) it is given
an IP (Internet Protocol) address, for example, 109.108.158.34. If the device logs
off, the next time it connects to the network it is supplied with a new IP address.
Devices which never disconnect (for example, web servers) retain the same IP
address.
An IP address identifies where on the network a device is located.

MAC address
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses are unique to each device; this address
is fixed at the manufacturing stage (although it is possible to change the value –
this is outside the scope of the syllabus). The MAC address identifies which
device is connected at a given IP address.

Wi-Fi
This is wireless connectivity. Networks use WAP (wireless access points) to
allow users to gain access to the network from anywhere within range. A WAP is
a transmitter/receiver which allows a device to communicate with the network.
Most networks will have several WAPs, for example, an airport may have
hundreds of WAPs to allow passengers to connect to the airport’s network from
anywhere within the terminal buildings.

Bluetooth
This is also a form of wireless connectivity but it has a very limited range.
Bluetooth is often used by tablets, mobile phones and cameras. With this system,
the communicating pair of devices will randomly choose 1 of 79 possible
channels; if the channel is already in use, a different one is again chosen at
random – this is known as spread-spectrum frequency hopping.

Local Area Networks

Local Area Networks (LANs) are relatively small networks where all the
components are geographically close together (for example, in one building).
The devices on a LAN are connected to hubs or switches; one of the hubs or
switches will be connected to a router and modem to allow the LAN to be
connected to the internet. If two or more LANs are connected together they use a
bridge to enable this connection.

Wide Area Networks

Wide Area Networks (WANs) are large networks where the devices are a long
way away from each other geographically (for example, in a different city or
country); the internet is the most well-known WAN. Since WANs are connected
over long distances, they use the public communications network (for example,
telephone lines or satellites).

Wireless Local Area Network

A wireless LAN (WLAN) doesn’t use any wires or cables to connect devices to
the network; wireless nodes (WAPs) are connected into the network at a number
of fixed positions and users connect to the network via these nodes.
(NOTE: the advantages and disadvantages of the above network devices are
covered in more detail in the Cambridge IGCSE ICT Coursebook.)
Setting up a network
When setting up a small network the main tasks can be summarised:
• Purchase of all the necessary hardware and software.
• Set up an IP account if internet connection is required.
• Configure all of the hardware and software.
• Install the required software on the server and ensure the network licences
have been bought.
• Set up network privileges (for example, network manager).
Accessing the internet
Users can connect to the internet using desktop computers, laptops, tablets or
smartphones/watches. Each device has a number of advantages and
disadvantages:

Device Advantages Disadvantages

Desktop • faster processors • not very portable; can be
computers • full-size keyboard and used in one fixed
pointing devices position only
• more stable internet • requires expensive
connection (usually dongles if the device
wired) needs to access the
• all web page features are cellular phone network
available
Laptop • mobile device (single • don’t have a very good
computers unit) battery life
• touchpad is easier to • much heavier and
navigate than on bulkier than tablet or
tablet/mobile phones smartphone
• better keyboards than • processors not as fast
tablets and mobile as equivalent desktop
phones computer
• all web page features are • more expensive than
available desktop computer for
similar specification
Tablets, • very portable and • small screens and
mobile lightweight devices keyboards can cause
phones and • a person is more likely to problems (slower, more
smartwatches have a error-prone data entry)
phone/tablet/watch on • small screens often
their person than a laptop make web pages more
 computer difficult to read and
• easier to use on the move navigate
than a laptop computer • not all websites work
• usually have access to properly on tablets and
either 4G/5G cellular smartphones
network or Wi-Fi • signal not as stable as
wired laptop/desktop
computer
Common errors
It is very common to see confusion between the terms WAN and WLAN.
A WLAN is a wide area network.
A WLAN is a wireless LAN network; whereas a WAN is a wide area network
which may or may not have wireless connectivity.
Confusion between the uses of hubs, switches and routers is very common.
A hub sends an incoming data packet to the correct device on a network. If
the hub is connected to the internet it is called a router.
A hub is a device used to connect devices together to form a LAN; it takes the
data packet received at one of its ports and sends it to every computer on that
LAN; a switch is an ‘intelligent’ hub which sends the data packet only to the
correct device on the network. However, routers enable data packets to be
routed between the different networks.
IP addresses and MAC addresses are often confused.
An IP address is assigned to a device at the manufacturing stage.
An IP address is assigned to a device by the ISP every time it connects to the
network. This allows the location of the device to be determined. MAC
addresses are unique to each device; this address is fixed at the
manufacturing stage and is usually part of the NIC installed in the device.

Sample exam questions

a Explain the use of the following network devices:
hub
switch
router.
b An airport wishes to allow free internet access to all passengers
using any of its terminal buildings. Discuss how this can be done.
In your discussion, mention any precautions that need to be taken by
airport management and passengers when setting up and accessing
the airport network.
Student’s answer
a Hub: used to connect a number of devices together to form a LAN;
takes a received data packet and sends it to all the devices on the
network.
Switch: as with hubs, connects a number of devices together to form
a LAN; each data packet is checked for destination address and data
is sent only to the device with this destination address.
Router: allows data packets to be routed between different networks,
for example, allows a LAN (or group of LANs) to join a WAN; they
check data packets and send them to appropriate switch from where
they are sent to the correct device with packet destination address; if
the address doesn’t match any of the computers connected to that
switch, it passes to another switch until the correct device is found.
Examiner’s comments
a The candidate has given a fairly comprehensive answer to the question. They
were only required to explain the terms with no need for any comparisons to
be made. The addition of diagrams, such as the one below, could prove to be
very useful in the explanation (provided it doesn’t contradict the text!).
Student’s answer
b Airport can make use of WAPs or ‘hot spots’.
Several WAPs will be located around the airport, allowing
passengers to access the network wirelessly.
Passengers need to be aware of security issues when using a
shared network.
Passengers should ensure they log off correctly before leaving the
network.
Airport management need to be aware of potential virus
transmissions and hacking …
… they will need to set up firewalls that block undesirable websites
… they need to make sure the network has no connections to other
networks within the airport that handle security or passenger
information (for example, flight lists)
… they need to make sure it is impossible for passengers to gain
access to the network that handles flight traffic control.
Examiner’s comments
b This answer needs careful thought. The first part is relatively easy since it
only concerns the use of ‘hot spots’. The second part hinges on security of the
passengers accessing an open network and the care needed by airport
management to prevent unauthorised access to security data and traffic
control systems.

Examiner’s tip
You will sometimes be asked questions which go beyond your
experiences. But if you apply your knowledge of similar situations to the
new situation, this shouldn’t pose any real problems. In part b, the
candidate wouldn’t be expected to have covered airport security, but
common sense and applying security issues from other applications
should allow a good attempt at new, searching questions such as this.
Network issues and
communication
Security
Policing the internet
The Cambridge IGCSE ICT Coursebook covers most of the arguments about
whether or not the internet should be policed. The arguments for include:
• To prevent undesirable/dangerous material being accessible to anyone.
• To prevent search engines finding potentially dangerous/undesirable websites.
• Protection of children and the vulnerable.
The main arguments against include:
• It would be expensive to implement.
• It would be difficult to enforce globally.
• Material can already be found elsewhere … the internet just makes it easier to
find.
• Freedom of information.
• Laws already exist to protect people against many illegal internet activities.

Authentication
Authentication is used to verify that data comes from a secure and trusted
source. Items of authentication include:
• digital certification (see Chapter 8)
• biometrics (see Chapter 8)
• magnetic stripe cards and identity cards.
Identity cards can be contactless (see Chapter 2) and also contain holographic
images – a holographic image can appear to move or change colour when
viewed from different angles. This makes the illegal replication of the image, for
example, by photocopying, much harder.
Passports now usually include an RFID tag, photographs and a holographic
image. This helps in airport security to check the validity of the passport and that
the passenger is who they claim to be.

Viruses
To help mitigate the risk of viruses, antivirus software should be installed on a
computer and constantly run in the background to allow the detection of old and
new viruses. Most antivirus software has the following features:
• Checking of all files/programs before being loaded or run.
• Use of a database of known viruses to identify potential risks; for this reason,
antivirus software needs to be updated on a regular basis.
• Use of heuristic checking (checks software for behaviour that could indicate a
new virus).
• Problem files/programs are quarantined and can be automatically removed or
the user can be asked what action they want to take.
• Full scans need to be done at least once a week in case any viruses are time-
dependent (for example, only become active on July 4th, and so on).
Other protection against viruses includes using only safe websites, not
opening emails that appear suspicious or come from unknown sources; checking
for security risks such as phishing and pharming (for more information on this,
and on viruses more generally, see Chapter 8).
Communication
Faxes and emails
Electronic faxing and traditional paper-based faxing both still exist. With paper-
based systems, the document is first scanned and then the electronic version is
sent over the telephone network to another fax machine where it is printed out.
Electronic faxing allows a fax to be sent from a computer and is sent to an email
account rather than being printed out. This second method is more secure since
the document doesn’t ‘sit’ on a fax machine where it can be read by anybody
passing by.
Emails are probably one of the most common form of communication. They
have the advantage that it is much easier (and quicker) to send the same message
to multiple recipients compared to traditional postal systems. Although emails
are certainly not instantaneous, they are much faster than conventional post and
are also a lot cheaper (no need to buy stamps, paper and envelopes). However,
the syntax and spelling of an email address must be exact. If not a non-delivery
message will be received since the address is incorrect or it could be sent to the
wrong person – with potential security issues. However, if normal post is used,
this is less of a problem; for example, if an address is: ‘25 North Street’ and it is
written on the envelope as ‘25 Nort Street’ the letter would probably still arrive
at the correct destination.

Video conferencing
This is a method of communication that uses sound and video. In many cases it
removes the need for people to travel to meetings. This is, therefore, safer and
less expensive (no travel and accommodation costs), and time isn’t lost while
important staff are out of the office travelling to meetings. The disadvantages
include: possible time lag in communications, expensive hardware to set up and
maintain, potential time zone issues and ‘loss of perks’ due to removal of travel
to parts of the world. Required equipment and software includes:
• webcams
• large television screens (the larger the better)
• microphones (not headphones)
• speakers (not headphones)
• CODEC (this encodes/decodes data and also compresses data for
transmission)
• echo cancellation software (to prevent unwanted feedback and to synchronise
sound and vision).

Audio conferences
This type of communication uses telephones (it is possible to use internet
telephones or computers equipped with microphone and speakers). The organiser
of the meeting is issued with two PINs by the telephone company. One of the
PINs is for their personal use; the second one is sent to all the other delegates
along with the time/date of the audio conference. A few minutes before the
conference, the organiser calls the meeting number and keys in their PIN, the
delegates do the same thing using the PIN sent to them by the organiser, and all
are connected on the same telephone call.

Web conferences
These are sometimes referred to as ‘webinars’. This method uses computers
connected to the internet to allow delegates to communicate by speaking or
instant messaging. A ‘whiteboard’ is used where all delegates can see what is
happening during the meeting. The whiteboard allows messages, videos and
presentations to be seen by everybody. When one of the delegates wants to talk,
send a message or show a video/presentation, they send their request and a ‘flag’
appears on the organiser’s computer; this allows them to control who can talk or
write, since it is necessary for the organiser to ‘click on’ the delegate next to the
flag to allow them to actively participate.
Common errors
It is very common to see candidates making incorrect claims about emails.
Once an email has been sent, it instantly appears with the intended recipient.
Emails are much quicker to send then physical letters, but there can be delays
before an email is delivered, and the email may stay in somebody’s inbox for
several days before they read it.
It is common to see:
‘Video conferences can be called at any time.’
Video conferences can be called at short notice but that is not the same thing
as ‘called at any time’. Short notice means sending an invitation such as:
‘Sorry for the short notice, but can we call a video conference tomorrow at
15:00 please?’ Calling a video conference at any time means just going into
the video room and starting a conference without checking peoples’
availability or diary. These are not the same thing.
Several candidates make incorrect claims about video conferencing:
Video conferencing can be done from the comfort of your own home.
Video conferencing requires a dedicated room with specialist hardware and
software. A room also needs to be set up for video conferencing with, for
example, proper acoustic panelling in order to work properly. A video call
from a smartphone or using VoIP does not require this, and can be done from
home. This is not the same as video conferencing.

Sample exam questions

a Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using emails
compared to sending out mail using conventional post.
b Discuss the advantages of holding a webinar for training purposes.
Student’s answer
a Environmental issues (less paper used, less fuel used driving to the
post office, …).
Emails are much quicker to send.
Emails can be read anywhere in the world if left in the inbox.
More secure than normal post (messages can be encrypted).
Easier to send to multiple recipients.
Recipient can copy/paste message into a document.
Sending emails to a foreign country is much cheaper than postage.
One drawback is the need to buy a computer and pay for an ISP.
If the internet is down, messages can’t be sent.
It is possible to send parcels using normal post, something that can’t
be done using emails.
The recipient may not have a computer.
It doesn’t necessarily save money or paper if recipient prints out the
message.
Examiner’s comments
a The candidate has given at least two advantages and two disadvantages. It is
important to give a good, balanced response in questions asking for
advantages and disadvantages. Marks can be lost if both sides of the
argument are not given.
Student’s answer
b No need to travel to a venue for training – saving time and money.
Safer than travelling to venue.
Can bring in ‘experts’ and ‘special guests’ whenever needed without
having to bring them to the training venue.
Doesn’t need special equipment unlike video conferencing.
Easy to use – instant messaging, VoIP, shared videos, and so on.
Organiser has control and can make sure only one person ‘talks’ at
once.
Possible to use tablets and mobile phones, allowing training to take
place anywhere.
Examiner’s comments
b This is a good, solid answer. Only the advantages were asked for, so be careful
not to include disadvantages. The question does not stipulate what webinars
are being compared to, so any comparisons made must clearly indicate what
they are being compared to.

Examiner’s tips
• Marks are frequently lost in questions involving comparisons. For
example, in part a, if the candidate had written ‘It is easy to send the
same message to a number of recipients’ they wouldn’t get any
marks. The key word here is easier, that is, ‘It is easier to send the
same message …’
• Marks are frequently lost for not making the comparison. It is actually
easy sending the same message to a number of people using
standard post but it just takes longer and needs more effort, that is, it
is not as easy. Be careful with English here!

Exam-style questions
1 a Which devices are being described below? Copy and complete the
table.
[7 marks]

Description Network device

A device that takes a data packet received at
one of its input ports and sends the data
packet to every computer connected to the
LAN.
A device that converts digital data to
analogue data (and vice versa) to allow the
transmission of data across existing
telephone lines.
A device that connects a LAN to another
 LAN that uses the same communication
protocols.
A device that takes a data packet received at
one of its input ports and works out its
destination address; the data packet is then
sent to the correct computer on the LAN
only.
A device that enables data to be directed
between different networks, for example, to
join a LAN to a WAN; the main function is to
transmit internet and transmission protocols
between two networks.
A network point (node) that acts as an
entrance to another network.
Hardware which forms part of any device
that needs to connect to a network; it often
contains the MAC address generated at the
manufacturing stage.

b Describe four of the tasks to be done when setting up a small

network for the first time.
[4 marks]
2 a Explain the three terms:
i LAN
ii WAN
iii WLAN
[3 marks]
b Copy and complete the tables. In each table, tick (✓) one of the
boxes to indicate your answer.
i Which of the following is a disadvantage of using a WLAN rather
than a normal LAN?
[1 mark]

Printer queues can cause a big problem

 If the main server breaks down, the whole network goes
down
Data transfer rate is much slower
All computers can have access to the same software
and files

ii Which of the following is the meaning of the term MAC?

[1 mark]

Medium access card

Media address command
Modem addressing card
Media access control

iii Which of the following isn’t part of a data packet?

[1 mark]

Sender’s IP address
Time and date the data packet was sent
Identity number of the data packet
Header to identify the data packet

3 a Copy and complete the following sentences using one of the words
or phrases given below (note: four of them will not be used):

i Checking of software for types of behaviour that could indicate a

possible virus is known as …
ii When a user knows that a file/program which has been identified
as infected with a virus is, in fact, not infected, this is known as a
 …
iii A 3-D image formed from laser light; the image produced where
the two laser light beams meet on a photographic plate is known
as …
iv People who have the necessary IT skills and money to purchase
and use computers, which gives these people an advantage
over those who do not is called …
v Verification that data comes from a secure and trusted source on
the internet is called …
vi System to protect the rights of the individual about whom
information is obtained, stored and processed is known as …
vii The type of subscriber telephone line where download rate of
data is different to upload rate of data is called …
[7 marks]
b Give two reasons why the internet should be policed and two
reasons why it shouldn’t.
[4 marks]
CHAPTER 5
The effects of using ICT
Key objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to revise:
• the effects of ICT on employment
• the effects of ICT on working patterns
• microprocessor-controlled devices used in the home.
Key terms
Term Definition
Full-time A full-time employee has ongoing employment and
working works, on average, around 38 hours each week. The
actual hours of work for an employee in a particular job
or industry are agreed between the employer and the
employee.
Part-time Staff work fewer hours per week than full-time staff; this
working is due to either fewer hours per day or fewer days per
week.
Flexi-time Staff can start work and finish work at different times to
normal staff; however, they must work the full hours for
the day.
Job sharing The full-time job is divided between two workers, who
work half the weekly hours each; their combined hours
are equal to the hours of a full-time member of staff.
Compressed The employee works the full hours for the week but
hours works longer days than normal; thus they could
compress five days of normal working into four days of
longer hours.
Employment
ICT has had a large effect on employment in the following areas:
• manufacturing
• retail
• banking
• office work.
This has led to a number of job losses.
Manufacturing
The use of robotics has taken over many manual tasks previously done by
employees, for example, in the manufacture of cars, electronic equipment, and
so on. Robotics leads to greater productivity, more consistency, non-stop
working and no strike action. However, robots are expensive to buy and maintain
and are unable to respond to unusual circumstances which are outside their
programming.
There are positive job opportunities for computer technicians, programmers,
systems analysts and network managers, however, as well as more jobs for
quality control, and so on.
Retail and banking
Websites now allow people to buy online rather than visiting the shops in town.
This has of course resulted in the closure of some shops, particularly those that
have been unable to adapt and offer both online shopping and high street
shopping. The same is true of banking, where many people bank online and even
manage accounts and make payments using smartphone/tablet banking Apps.
Office work
Administration, human resources and payroll have been severely affected by
ICT. This is due to the use of software such as spreadsheets, word processors and
databases.
Word processors have removed the need for filing clerks and work can also be
moved to countries where labour costs are lower.
Spreadsheets have allowed salary/wage calculations, analysis and production
of graphs to be done automatically. Data from ‘clocking in’ devices and from
databases allows for a fully automatic salary system. Education can also make
use of this software to monitor the progress of students.
Databases have allowed personnel departments to do cross-checking of staff
skills, making recruitment and promotion much easier and quicker.
The software has reduced the need to have as many staff but has opened up
opportunities in training, web designing, improved customer relations, and so on.
Working patterns
Introduction of ICT into the workplace has led to a number of changes in
working patterns for staff:

(Note: shift work is different; this is where a company works 24/7 and they
have, for example, three shifts of eight hours over each 24-hour period – each
member of staff does a full-time job but their hours vary depending on which
shift they are doing.)
If full-time working is defined as eight hours per day (40 hours per week)
from 8 a.m. to 4 p.m., then:
• part-time working could be five hours per day (for example, 10 a.m. to 3 p.m.)
• flexi-time could be eight hours from 11 a.m. to 7 p.m. each day
• job sharing could be:
worker 1: 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. Monday and Tuesday and 8 a.m. to 12 noon on
Wednesday
worker 2: 12 noon to 4 p.m. on Wednesday and 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. Thursday and
Friday.
Microprocessor-controlled
devices in the home
Labour-saving devices are now operated using embedded chips
(microprocessors), for example, automatic ovens, washing machines and
dishwashers. These are all regarded as labour-saving devices and have the
advantages that:
• people don’t need to stay at home while food is cooking or clothes/dishes are
being washed
• people have more leisure time
• it leads to a healthier lifestyle (smart fridges and freezers, for example)
• it is possible to operate appliances remotely using smartphone/tablet Apps
when away from home.
The main drawbacks are that they:
• tend to make people lazy
• can lead to an unhealthy lifestyle (ready-made microwave meals)
• can mean people become less fit due to less exercise
• result in loss of certain skills.
Other devices, not termed labour-saving, also have inbuilt microchips which
make them work more efficiently and also give them features which would be
impossible without the technology. These include: televisions, cameras, air
conditioning units and CD/DVD players, for example.
Figure 5.1 Examples of labour-saving devices
Common errors
• It is very common to see confusion between the terms ‘part-time’, ‘flexi-time’
and ‘compressed hours’; the best way to avoid confusion is to look at the
examples given above.
• Many candidates regard televisions and cameras as labour-saving devices. To
decide if an appliance falls into this category, just ask the question: ‘Is there
any advantage in having embedded chips so that the appliance can be operated
when nobody is at home?’

Sample exam questions

a Normal full-time staff work from 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. Monday to Friday.
Explain the meaning of the following terms, giving examples:
part-time working
compressed hours
flexi-time working.
b Explain how ICT has affected jobs in the car manufacturing industry.
Student’s answer
a Part-time: staff work fewer hours per day than full-time staff, for
example, 1 p.m. to 5 p.m. each day.
Compressed hours: staff work the full hours for the week but work
from, for example, 9 a.m. to 7 p.m. each day Monday to Thursday;
they don’t work on Fridays.
Flexi-time: staff work the full eight hours per day but start and finish
at different times compared to full-time staff, for example, 8 a.m. to 4
p.m. each day.
Examiner’s comments
a The candidate has correctly chosen timings that reflect the different work
patterns. The examples given tie up with the descriptions, which is of course
very important.
Student’s answer
b Greater unemployment.
Need to retrain staff in other work or to ‘work with’ robots.
Many jobs in areas such as quality control now exist.
There is a better working environment (cleaner and not as noisy).
Possible moving of jobs to other countries.
Examiner’s comments
b The candidate has given both advantages and disadvantages; it is very
important to try and give as balanced an answer as possible.

Examiner’s tip
When giving examples as part of your answer, always make sure that
the examples don’t conflict with any descriptions, otherwise marks
could be lost even if your descriptions are correct.

Exam-style questions
1 a Describe two advantages and two disadvantages of using robots
in manufacturing.
[4 marks]
b Give three advantages of using microprocessors in labour-saving
devices used in the home.
[3 marks]
2 a Explain the following terms:
part-time working
flexi-time working
job sharing
compressed hours.
[4 marks]
b Describe the advantages to a company and its staff of adopting
flexible working patterns.
[3 marks]
c Describe three disadvantages to the general public of having
electronic devices fitted with embedded microprocessors which can
be controlled using an App from, for example, a smartphone.
[3 marks]
CHAPTER 6
IC T applications
Key objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to revise:
• communication applications
• data handling applications
• school management systems
• measurement applications
• microprocessors in control applications
• modelling applications
• manufacturing
• booking systems
• banking applications
• expert systems
• computers in medicine
• computers in libraries
• automatic stock control
• recognition systems
• monitoring and tracking systems
• use of satellites in GPS, GIS and media communications.
Key terms
Term Definition
Tweening The generation of intermediate frames between images –
this gives the impression that the first image evolves
slowly into the second image.
Morphing The procedure where one image is changed into another
image in a smooth way (morphing uses tweening to give
the transition effect).
Rendering The generation of an image from a model using software.
SIM card Subscriber Identity Module chip – allows a device to
connect to the mobile cellular network.
Radio This is an ‘icon’ (for example, a circle) which is used to
buttons represent an option on an online form; (for example:
female male) – only one of the options may be
chosen.
ADC Analogue to Digital Converter
DAC Digital to Analogue Converter
Sensor Device that inputs data to a computer/microprocessor,
usually in analogue format; the data is a measurement of
some physical quantity.
(Computer) Creation of a model of a real system in order to study the
modelling behaviour of the system; the model is based on
mathematical representations and algorithms.
e-ticket An electronic ticket, for example, in the form of an email
or QR code sent to a mobile phone/tablet – it acts in the
same way as a paper ticket.
ATM Automatic Teller Machine
EFT Electronic Funds Transfer
IBDE Inter-Bank Data Exchange – an encrypted filing system
used by banks.
EFTPOS Electronic Funds Transfer (at the) Point-Of-Sale
Knowledge A type of database used in an expert system which allows
base for the collection, organisation and retrieval of knowledge
from human experts.
Rules base Knowledge is represented as a set of rules; each rule
shows a connection between the data stored in the
knowledge base; makes use of IF … THEN structure to
determine the next step to take.
Inference This interprets input data by checking the data against the
engine rules and logic stored in the knowledge base.
Explanation This explains to the user the reasoning process carried
system out by the expert system when arriving at its conclusions.
CT scan Computed Tomography scanning system.
MRI scan Magnetic Resonance Imaging scanning system.
Prosthetics Imitation limbs to replace damaged or lost limbs in
humans.
ANPR Automatic Number Plate Recognition system.
GPS Global Positioning Satellite
GIS Geographic Information System
Communication, data handling
and school management
applications
Communication applications
Paper-based systems
Flyers, posters and newsletters can easily be produced using word processors,
desktop publishing and a standard printer. They can then be distributed in a
number of ways to target the required audience.
Brochures can be a single folded sheet or a stapled booklet – these may
require professional printing since they often need to use glossy paper. Posters
can be a very large size so that they can be placed on advertising hoardings on
the side of the road, for example.

Websites
Rather than printing advertising material, websites can be used instead. This
requires the company to develop its own website or pay to have its adverts on
another company’s website. Although producing paper-based advertising
material is expensive, hiring a website developer is also an expensive
consideration. However, advertising material that is presented in an electronic
format is much easier and quicker to update, and won’t need to be reprinted.
Websites can also have a global audience, for example, advertising on social
networking sites, and can make use of multimedia elements.

Multimedia presentations
Presentations on a multimedia projector have many advantages; they can include
a number of multimedia elements such as animation, video and sound, and they
can also be interactive. Such elements mean that presentations and adverts can
be tailored for selected audiences. Large screens
are used so they can also be very eye catching, but such equipment can be
expensive. Multimedia presentations like this can be found in shopping malls,
offices and classrooms.

Music scores
Music can communicate a lot to an audience. A catchy or well-known song can
increase the impact of an advert significantly, while the score of a film can, for
example, tell the audience if the on-screen character is happy, sad or in danger.
Music scores make considerable use of ICT:
• Use of sampling, mixers and synthesisers
• Generating music scores by use of software
• There is no real need to understand music notation to produce music.

Cartoons and animation

Animation (which makes use of techniques such as tweening, morphing and
rendering) is now produced on computers using very sophisticated software.
Cartoons and animation can add humour and it is also possible to do things with
cartoon characters that are not possible with humans. Indeed, the ‘humanisation’
of animals is a very common and successful technique used in advertising (just
look at the many television and cinema adverts that use this). Animation tends to
be moving whereas cartoons tend to be static, but the two terms often overlap. It
is, however, very important that the animation or cartoon doesn’t distract the
customer so much that the actual message in the advert is lost.

Mobile phones
Mobile phones have become one of the major ways for people to communicate.
It is now difficult to imagine a world without them. Due to their small size they
can be carried around anywhere and they allow communication from almost any
part of the world. They allow phone conversations, video calls, text messaging,
sending/receiving emails and many other features. They either use the 4G/5G
cellular network or wireless ‘hot spots’.

Internet telephony
Phoning somebody using a computer has also become increasingly popular. This
uses Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) technology and can allow conversations
using an internet phone connected to a computer or using the built-in
microphone and speakers. Data is sent over the internet in the form of data
packets. It is possible to connect to somebody on a landline phone, mobile phone
or another computer using this technology. One of the big advantages is the very
low cost of the calls; but sometimes the quality is poor (echoing, drop out and
loud interference noises are the main issues).

Business cards/letter heads

Many websites offer to produce business cards and headed notepaper. These give
companies a more professional look and can also contain important information,
such as contact numbers, and be used as a form of advertising.
Data handling applications
Surveys
Questionnaires and surveys are often used in market research. Questionnaires
can be either paper-based or online. If printed forms are used, the information is
read using either OCR or OMR input devices (explored in detail in Chapter 2). If
online, the form will use radio buttons, dropdown menus or restricted text boxes
to gather the data.

Address lists
Computers, tablets and smartphones are used to store personal data such as
telephone numbers, birthdays, email addresses, and so on. By storing such data
electronically, it is much easier to group people together based on one parameter
(for example, grouping family members together for data of a personal nature).

Clubs and society records

Information about members of clubs or societies is often stored on electronic
databases. This makes it easier to contact people when a particular event comes
up – the database would filter out certain information so that only the
appropriate people would be sent invitations, for example. Mail merging would
be used to find email addresses or postal addresses. It is important to remember
that the information stored would need to conform to the appropriate Data
Protection Act.
Record keeping is a similar application where customer details would be held
on a database. For example, if a particular author has just published a new book,
a book shop could easily contact customers who’d previously purchased titles by
that author in order to inform them of the latest book release.

School reports
Computers can be used in schools to store personal details, academic
performance or attendance records. This makes it much quicker to produce end-
of-term reports, and can also make them look more professional.
School management systems
As mentioned earlier, computers can be used in schools in a variety of ways.
These include:
Common errors
Candidates generally have difficulty deciding the best way to advertise products
and services: leaflets, websites, telephone advertising, shopping mall
presentations or on television/cinema. A greater awareness of advertising in your
own area could help eliminate such errors in exams.

Examiner’s tip
It’s hard to decide the best way to advertise products and services.
Think about the adverts and advertising you see in your local area to
get some ideas!

Sample exam questions

a A company manufactures toys. It needs to decide whether to
advertise its new toys using flyers and brochures or to advertise
using its own website. Explain the relative advantages and
disadvantages of the two methods.
b The same company also wants feedback on its new toy designs from
the general public. It can either use paper questionnaires (using
OMR to collect the data) or have an online form using its own
website. Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of the
two methods.
Student’s answer
a Flyers:
• can be produced using a word processor and desktop publishing
and using the company’s own printer
• can ensure only the target audience receives the advertisements
• can be inserted into weekly/monthly magazines
• paper documents need no special equipment to read them
• paper documents can easily be thrown away as junk mail
• there is the cost of delivery to consider
• advertising is limited to local area.
Website:
• available to a global audience
• possible to include multimedia elements
• can include links to other websites
• can make use of ‘hit counters’ to see how many times its website
was visited
• much easier and quicker to update the website when new
products are developed
• expensive to set up and maintain
• not everybody has access to a computer or knows how to use one
• there are the usual risks of hacking and pharming which could
affect its website.
Examiner’s comments
a The answer required some explanation of the advantages and disadvantages
of both methods. The candidate has correctly given at least two examples of
each, leading to a fairly well-balanced response.
Student’s answer
b Paper:
• paper forms can be handed out anywhere
• a very quick method of gathering information
• OMR stops customers adding additional useful information
• there is the risk of errors in the filling out the questionnaires
• can’t tailor the questionnaire to the individual.
Online:
• a very quick way of gathering and analysing data
• allows for automatic analysis
• can be tailored to suit the individual based on previous responses
• easier for customer to amend an error
• potentially more expensive to set up
• need some way to get people to visit the company’s website in the
first place
• hacking could lead to forms being ‘modified’.
Conclusion: I would use the online method to gather information
since it is faster to analyse the data and the information is probably
more accurate.
Examiner’s comments
b Again a number of advantages and disadvantages are given, leading to a
reasonably balanced answer. An attempt at a conclusion was made (the
question asked candidates to discuss) based on the answers already given –
this would make their conclusion valid.

Examiner’s tip
Questions involving ‘discuss’ should usually have some form of
conclusion. But for this conclusion to be valid, the candidate should
have clearly covered all the pros and cons and not made a one-sided
argument.
Measurement, control and
modelling applications
Measurement applications

Figure 6.1 Example measurement devices

Measurement applications use sensors and microprocessors/computers to

monitor a process. Sensors take measurements from the real world (for example,
temperature, light, rate of rotation, and so on) and send the data to the
microprocessor/computer. Most often an ADC is needed as the sensor data is
usually in analogue form.
The data is then checked against pre-stored data in memory and the files are
updated together with some form of output, such as on screen, printouts or
warning sounds/lights. The microprocessor/computer will take no action to
change any of the conditions during the measurement process.
Here are three examples:

Example 1: weather stations

• Sensors are used to measure rainfall, temperature, wind speed, wind direction,
air pressure and air humidity.
• Data is gathered 24/7, converted to digital and then sent to a computer.
• The computer processes the data using stored data/previous weather patterns
and predicts the weather for the next few days.
Example 2: monitoring patients’ vital signs in a
hospital ward
• Sensors are used to read key data such as pulse rate, heart rate, temperature.
• Data is converted to digital (by an ADC) and sent to a computer.
• Sensor data is compared to pre-determined values stored in the computer’s
memory.
• The results are output on a screen as numbers or as a moving graph.
• Alarms are activated if any parameter being measured is outside an acceptable
range.
• Monitoring of the patient continues until the sensors are removed from the
patient.

Example 3: river pollution

• This is similar to the examples above; this time pH, temperature and oxygen
content of the river are measured using sensors placed at different places in the
river.
• The data is collected over a set period and is stored in a data logger at the side
of the river; this data is either gathered by scientists (by downloading results)
or it is automatically transmitted to the main computer in the environmental
laboratory.
• Data stored in the memory from previous days is compared to the newly
gathered data and graphs are produced showing the trends in each of the
measured parameters.
Computers are used to do monitoring since they ‘won’t forget to take
readings’, they can take more frequent readings 24/7, they can automatically
analyse data and produce graphs, and they are also inherently safer (for example,
removes the chance of somebody falling in the river).
Control applications

Figure 6.2 Example control devices

As with measurement applications, control applications use sensors,

microprocessors/computers and other devices, such as actuators. Again, the
sensor data is sent to a microprocessor/computer (usually after conversion to
digital using an ADC) where it is compared to pre-stored data. If the sensor data
is outside the acceptable range (for example, temperature > pre-stored value OR
< pre-stored value) then the microprocessor/computer will take action. This is
usually a signal sent out to an actuator, for example, to switch a heater on or off,
turn a pump on or off, and so on. The data is gathered constantly and is analysed
by the microprocessor/computer continuously to maintain the correct conditions
in whatever process is being controlled. Essentially, the output from the
microprocessor/computer affects the next input it receives.
Here are four examples:

Example 1: automatic oven

• Sensors are used to measure temperature; also a timer is used where necessary.
• If a timer is used, start time and end time are entered by the user and the
microprocessor compares these values with the current time so that the oven is
started and stopped as required.
• Sensor values (temperature, in this case) are sent to the microprocessor, which
decides whether or not the heating elements need to be switched on or off to
maintain the correct temperature for the cooking process.

Example 2: central heating

• Central heating systems either use electric heaters or they control hot water
pumped to radiators around the building; sensors send temperature readings of
the room to the microprocessor in both methods.
• If electric heaters are used then the control is similar to Example 1 above.
• With the second type, the microprocessor sends signals to start the pump if the
temperature falls below that set by the user …
• … Or it sends signals to stop the pumps once the temperature readings are
above or equal to the required temperature.
• The user will key in the required temperature for the room(s); the
microprocessor will also control the temperature of the water being pumped
around the radiators.

Example 3: a chemical process

• Chemical processes can involve temperature control (switching heating
elements on or off), pressure (opening or closing valves to maintain pressure),
pH (opening or closing valves to admit acid/alkali to the process), and so on.
• Sensors send data (via an ADC) to a computer, which has pre-set values for all
necessary parameters stored in memory.
• By comparing sensor data with pre-stored values, the computer can control the
process as described in the first bullet point.

Example 4: glasshouse (greenhouse) environmental

control
• Sensors are used to measure temperature, air humidity, soil moisture, light
levels and soil pH.
• Data is gathered 24/7 and is sent to a microprocessor via an ADC.
• The microprocessor compares the sensor data with pre-stored values and takes
the necessary action to maintain the correct environmental conditions in the
glasshouse/greenhouse (please refer to Chapter 6.4.4 in the Cambridge IGCSE
ICT Coursebook to see how the correct conditions are maintained).

Turtle graphics
This is based on LOGO, where a ‘turtle’ is used to draw geometric shapes on
screen or on paper. A number of commands such as FORWARD x, RIGHT t,
PENUP and REPEAT n are used to control the turtle. You will usually be given
these commands on the exam paper unless the question requires you to actually
name and describe LOGO commands.
The following example draws a square with sides of 30 units:
Modelling applications
A computer model is the creation of a model of a real system in order to study
the behaviour of the system under varying conditions. The model is computer-
generated and is based on mathematical representations and algorithms. They
can be quite simple (for example, using a spreadsheet) or complex (requiring
very complex software).

Figure 6.3 Crash simulation computer model

The whole idea is to try to find out what mechanisms control how a system
behaves. They tend to save money and can help find solutions more quickly,
often in a safer manner.
Sometimes modelling is done on a spreadsheet if it involves simple
mathematical modelling (for example, a school tuck shop takings, population
growth, check out queues in a supermarket, and so on). Complex modelling is
often called a ‘simulation’, where a computer model is used to simulate how a
real-life process works under varying conditions. For example:
• Simulating traffic light timings at a busy junction.
• Simulating the flight of a spacecraft to Mars.
• Simulating a nuclear or chemical process.
• Simulating car crashes.
They all have the benefit of being safer than doing the real thing (even if it
were possible in some cases) and allow various scenarios to be tried first without
causing any risks to people or equipment. This often has cost benefits since
building the real thing can be expensive and the possibility of finding solutions
to problems faster can also have potential cost savings.
Common errors
Many candidates don’t fully understand the role of sensors in control
applications.
Sensors in control applications only send data to the microprocessor/computer
when something happens.
Sensors constantly send data to microprocessors/computers and it is these
devices that make the control decisions about, for example, opening/closing
valves in a control application.

Sample exam questions

a Describe how sensors and a microprocessor can be used to control
a rocket engine where a valve is opened to admit more fuel if the
thrust is less than 5 million newtons. Sensors are used to measure
the thrust.
b Describe four reasons why a process may be modelled.
Student’s answer
a Sensor sends data to microprocessor via ADC.
Microprocessor compares sensor data with stored data.
If sensor data <5 million newtons, microprocessor sends signals …
#x2026; to actuators to open the fuel valve.
If sensor data ≥5 million newtons, microprocessor sends signals …
… to actuators to close fuel valve.
System continues until rocket engine has finished burn.
Examiner’s comments
a Questions of this type always have key steps:
• Sensor data is continuously taken.
• Sensor data is converted to digital.
• Microprocessor/computer compares data with pre-stored values.
• If sensor data out of range, microprocessor/computer sends signals …
• … to open/close valves, switches, and so on.
Student’s answer
b Models are often less expensive than building the real system.
It is often safer to use a model than a real system.
It is easier/faster to try different scenarios rather than trying them on
a real system.
Some real systems being modelled have a very large time frame (for
example, climate change) therefore modelling is a much quicker
method to use.
Some tasks are almost impossible to do in real life (for example,
flying a rocket to Mars).
Examiner’s comments
b The candidate gave five answers when only four were requested in the
question. This is okay provided the first four are correct, since subsequent
answers would be ignored (even if correct).

Examiner’s tip
It is often a good idea to use ‘bullet points’ when answering questions
of the type in part a. This also helps examiners and is easier to make
sure you include all the steps necessary in the control application.
Manufacturing, booking systems
and banking systems
Manufacturing
Manufacturing is an area where ICT has had a very large impact over the years
… from marketing all the way through to manufacturing itself. Some of the
impacts of ICT have been covered earlier on; this section will look at the effect
of introducing robotics.
Robots can do many of the tasks hitherto done by skilled humans, for
example, welding metals, spray painting items, assembly of electronic
components, and so on. Once a robot has been ‘trained’ to do a specific task, it
will go on doing the same task 24/7 with identical accuracy and consistency each
time. They only need breaks if a fault develops or their maintenance schedule
demands it. Although expensive to buy and to maintain, robots are still cheaper
than paying humans and, due to their greater speed in carrying out tasks, they
increase productivity.
Booking systems
Online booking systems include:
• theatre
• cinema
• hotels/holidays
• transport (flights, trains and coaches).
Anywhere where it is important that ‘double booking’ can’t take place is best
done using ICT. With the old manual systems, it was almost impossible to
prevent double booking until checks were done at the end of the day, which often
meant rescheduling.
When booking seats or hotel rooms, customers will be asked to initially give
key data such as dates, times, names of people, method of payment, and so on.
The system will then check the availability of seats or hotel rooms which match
the customer’s requirements. If everything checks out all right, the customer can
accept the booking and then make payment. Once the customer accepts the
booking, the seats (or hotel room) are ‘flagged’ on a database as now being
unavailable, thus preventing any possibility of double booking.
An email will then be sent back to the customer as a form of confirmation;
this also acts as their e-ticket. Sometimes a QR code is sent through to a mobile
phone or tablet instead. The QR code will contain all of the necessary data
regarding the booking. For example:
Figure 6.4 QR code mobile confirmation

The advantages and disadvantages of online booking systems are covered in

great depth in Chapter 6.8 of the Cambridge IGCSE ICT Coursebook.
Banking systems
Computer technology has greatly affected how we now do our daily banking:
• Use of ATMs to get cash and carry out many other banking operations
• Internet banking
• Telephone banking
• Chip and PIN
• Clearing of bank cheques (checks)
• EFT
• Use of phone Apps to make payments.

ATMs
ATMs allow customers to carry out a number of tasks without having to visit
their actual bank. They can withdraw cash, change their PIN, get a balance,
request a statement, top up a mobile phone, transfer money/make a payment, and
so on. Once a customer inserts their card into the ATM slot, the following stages
are carried out:
• The bank details are read from the chip.
• Card validity (is it stolen, has expiry date been exceeded, has the card been
blocked, and so on) is checked.
• Some accounts give the customer a choice of language.
• The customer will be asked to key in their four-digit PIN.
• The keyed-in PIN is compared to the one stored on the chip on the card.
• If the PINs match, the customer is allowed to proceed and the next screen
appears.
• If the PIN is incorrect, the customer gets two more attempts before the
transaction is terminated (some ATMs retain the card at this point as well).
• When the next screen appears, the customer will be asked to select what
service they require.
• If they want cash, it will give a list of available amounts or ask the customer to
give a different amount in multiples of 10.
• The machine will count out the cash and at the same time return the card.
• Once the customer takes their card, the cash will be ejected.
• Other options can of course be chosen; whatever option is selected requires the
ATM to contact the customer’s bank to check for sufficient funds, and so on.
• Once the customer is finished they take their card.

Internet banking
Internet banking requires high levels of security to protect both the customer and
the bank. Customers can carry out most tasks online (apart from get cash!) which
means that banking can be done 24/7 without the need to travel to their bank.
Provided they can find internet access, customers can do their banking from
anywhere in the world.
Coupled to internet banking is online shopping where customers pay for
goods or services online. This widens customer choice and allows 24/7
shopping.
Disadvantages of online banking and shopping include: closing down of shops
and banks in high streets, increased internet fraud, health risks (lack of exercise),
greater possibility of mismanaging accounts and the usual security risks of
hacking and pharming.
Banks and shops save money (as they need fewer branches or shops which
require expensive rent) and they can now have access to global markets. The
setting up of websites (including security issues) is a costly exercise and it has
potentially reduced loyalty from customers since they no longer get a personal
service.

Telephone banking/use of Apps

With telephone banking, a customer can carry out many banking actions by
telephoning the bank’s helpline. Some of the facilities, such as finding out your
balance, are done automatically without the need to talk to anybody. Different
banks have different systems in place, but generally:
• Call the bank and use the options to choose telephone banking.
• Key in your account number or 16-digit debit card number.
• Many banks then ask for certain digits from a telephone banking PIN (for
example, you may be asked for the second and fifth digit to continue).
• You are then given a number of options.
This is slower than internet banking since there may be a queue on the
helpline due to several people needing access.
Mobile phones also allow people to make payments using Apps on their
phone. For example, it is possible:
• to cancel standing orders and Direct Debits
• to increase or decrease standing order payment amounts
• to use the Touch ID fingerprint sensor on certain smartphones
• to make bill payments to existing beneficiaries and transfer funds between
accounts displayed within the App
• to view transactions that are pending on accounts
• to view balances and the last 90 transactions, for example.

Chip and PIN

Chip and PIN is more secure than the older magnetic stripe technology (refer to
Chapter 2 for more information on magnetic stripes). The operation of the chip
and PIN system when making a purchase is discussed in great detail in the
Cambridge IGCSE ICT Coursebook, but an outline is given below (which shows
what happens when a customer pays for a meal in a restaurant):
• The card is inserted into the chip and PIN machine and the customer checks
the amount and then presses OK; they are then asked to enter their PIN.
• The entered PIN is checked against the PIN stored on the chip embedded in
the card; the card is also checked at this stage for its validity.
• If the PINs match correctly, the bank’s computer is contacted to see if the
customer has sufficient funds; if the PINs don’t match correctly, the
transaction is terminated.
• If everything proves to be satisfactory, the transaction is authorised and is
given a unique transaction code.
• Money is then deducted from the customer’s account and the same amount is
added to the restaurant’s bank account.
Figure 6.5 A handheld chip and PIN machine

Clearing of cheques
Bank cheques use MICR technology (see Chapter 2). The clearing of cheques
requires the use of special characters at the bottom of the cheques; for example:
These characters are printed in a type of ink that contains magnetisable
particles of an iron alloy. When the cheque is passed over an MICR the
following happens:

• The MICR characters are recognised.

• The ink in the special characters is first magnetised.
• The characters are then passed over an MICR read head and each character
produces a unique magnetic waveform.
• Each waveform is recognised by the computer which means the character has
been read.
Cheques are then gathered together at the end of the day and sent to a central
cheque clearing house where the following stages occur:
• The cheque is scanned for the amount of money, account number, sort code
and cheque number.
• The cheque is given a digital signature (using IBDE, the Inter-Bank Data
Exchange; an encrypted filing system used by banks); using the sort code, the
cheque is then sent to another clearing house (the clearing house of the bank
 which is paying out).
• The digital signature is then checked and the cheque is passed through the
bank’s own MICR reader, where the sort code is used to sort cheques into
branch order.
• The bank checks that the customer has sufficient funds to cover the cheque
and it also checks the authenticity of the customer’s signature and the date on
the cheque.
• If everything is correct, the bank pays the bank that presented the cheque for
payment.
• If there are problems (for example, not enough funds, forgery, not signed or
dated, and so on), the cheque is returned unpaid.

Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT)

EFT allows money transfer instructions to be done using a computer. No actual
money is transferred. When an EFT instruction is received, the computer system
automatically decreases one account by an agreed sum of money and also
increases the recipient’s account with the same amount.
Common errors
The characters at the bottom of cheques are not magnetised until they pass
through an MICR reader; very few candidates realise that the ink used is
magnetisable and isn’t actually magnetised to represent the characters until the
reading process takes place.
Many candidates don’t fully understand the EFT process:
During an EFT money is actually moved from one account to another.
During EFT an instruction is sent to the computer which results in the
customer’s account being decreased by a sum of money. The account of the
person being paid is increased by this same amount as part of this process.
No money is actually moved during the process. The accounts of both
customer and company are updated to reflect the transaction taking place.

Sample exam questions

a Describe the advantages of booking a flight online.
b Describe the process when a person pays for an item at a shop till
using a debit card containing an embedded chip.
Student’s answer
a Prevents the possibility of double booking.
Customer gets immediate feedback on availability of seats on
chosen flight.
Customer can make bookings at any time of day.
Easier to browse aeroplane seating plans to choose desired seat(s).
Possible to reserve a seat for a period of time before finally deciding.
Makes use of e-tickets.
Allows use of modern smartphone Apps technology where customer
is sent a QR containing all flight information/confirmation.
Examiner’s comments
a Since only the advantages are asked for, there is no need to make any
comparisons between online and older manual systems.
Student’s answer
b Validity of card first checked.
PIN entered and compared to PIN stored on embedded chip.
If PIN is correct, transaction proceeds.
Shop’s bank contacts customer’s bank.
Check made to see if customer has sufficient funds.
If card not valid, or insufficient funds or incorrect PIN, then
transaction is terminated.
If all checks prove satisfactory, the transaction is authorised and a
unique authorisation code is generated.
Money for item being bought is then deducted from customer’s bank
account …
… And the same amount of money is added to the shop’s bank
account.
Examiner’s comments
b The candidate has correctly attempted to put the stages when paying by chip
and PIN in the correct order; the question doesn’t necessarily ask for correct
order and marks wouldn’t be deducted if the order wasn’t correct.

Examiner’s tip
It is very rare that all the steps in a process would need to be made to
gain full marks. Part b would probably have about 5 marks allocated, so
only five of the points in the above answer would have been needed in
that case. However, it is always best to give as a full an answer as
possible within the space provided on the exam paper.
Expert systems and medical
applications
Expert systems

Figure 6.6 3-D printed medical applications

These have been developed to mimic the expertise and knowledge of experts
in a particular field. For example:
• medical diagnosis
• engine diagnostics
• oil and mineral prospecting
• tax and financial calculations
• strategy games (for example, chess)
• identification of plants, animals
• identification of chemical structures
• road scheduling for delivery
• vehicles (logistics).
Expert systems consist of a knowledge base, rules base, inference engine,
explanation system and an interactive user interface (refer to definitions in Key
Terms at the beginning of this chapter).
Expert systems are used since they can speed up the time it takes to solve a
problem and they never forget to ask a pertinent question as part of the analysis.
There is less need for specialists in many cases, which saves money and also
means expert systems can be used in developing countries. However, they do
tend to lack the common sense approach and also lack emotional reasoning –
often a crucial element in medical diagnosis. To use an expert system effectively
requires considerable training and it is essential to ensure they are properly set
up to avoid errors in the decisions made.
Computers in medicine
Record keeping databases are used in hospitals to store accurate records about
patients. These records are shared by other medical practitioners and
pharmacists. Such centralisation is crucial in the case of emergencies and
stopping the prescription of drugs which can interact in an unsafe manner.

Monitoring patients
The monitoring of patients was covered earlier in this chapter. The benefits of
using sensors and computers to monitor patients in hospital include:
• It reduces the risk of errors.
• The system can operate 24/7 without getting tired.
• They never ‘forget’ to take a reading.
• Readings can be taken more frequently.
• Computer systems can react much more quickly to a change in patient
circumstances.
• The system can automatically analyse the data and produce graphs.
• A single computer can monitor several patients simultaneously.
• It reduces the risk of nurses being exposed to contagious diseases.

Expert system medical diagnosis

The following stages show an example of how an expert system can be used to
diagnose a patient’s illness (similar logic could be used in other expert system
examples):
• User of the expert system is asked a series of questions; each question asked
takes into account the answers given in previous questions.
• The inference engine compares the entered data with data in the knowledge
base, looking for possible matches.
• The rules base plays a key role in the matching process.
• Once a match is found, the system is able to suggest possible ailments.
• Possible solutions or advice can be given.
• The explanation system will explain how the expert system arrived at its
conclusions.
• The user will see the output on a screen in the form of text or graphic images
 of the human anatomy, suggesting what and where the problem might be.
• The percentage probability of suggestions being correct is also given.
• The user can also request further information from the expert system to help in
treatment.

Use of 3-D printers in medicine

3-D printers can produce working solid objects made in a variety of materials.
They are being used successfully in medicine in the following areas:
• The creation of blood vessels and major arteries
• Used in surgical procedures to find out exactly what needs to be done before
the actual surgery is carried out
• Can be used in patient consultations where exact models can be created to
demonstrate the results of the surgical procedure
• Development of prosthetics (artificial limbs)
• Tissue engineering (bio-compatible materials and cells)
• Design and creation of new medical tools.
Common errors
Questions on expert systems often cause problems due to a common error. If the
question asks how an expert system is used to do a task, several candidates
describe how an expert system is created – this would lose most, if not all, of the
marks for the question. Be careful to read each question two or three times
before answering.

Sample exam questions

a i Name four pieces of data sensors would collect in the monitoring
of patients in a hospital.
ii Describe the output you would expect to see as part of the patient
monitoring.
b Describe two methods for scanning patients to produce 3-D images
which could allow the 3-D printing of organs.
Student’s answer
a i Heart rate
Body/blood temperature
Blood pressure
Oxygen levels in the blood.
ii Data in the form of digital printouts showing heartbeat, body
temperature …
Beeping noises to indicate heart rate, and so on.
Alarm if any measured parameter is out of range/tolerance.
Moving graphs to show how blood pressure, and so on, is
changing over time.
Print outs of data and graphs for analysis by doctors/surgeons
over a 24-hour period.
Examiner’s comments
a In part ai, other data such as respiration rate, brain activity or blood glucose
levels could have been given. Be careful not to simply give temperature or
pressure – the answer needs to refer to the patient, that is, the body
temperature, blood pressure, and so on. In part aii, it is probably a good idea
to mention three outputs:
• Digital readouts on screen
• Graphical readouts on screen
• Printouts of data and graphs for later analysis.
Student’s answer
b CT (computed tomography):
produces images of internal parts of the body as a series of 0.1 mm
thick ‘slices’
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging):
uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to produce a series of
images of internal body organs
Data stored in the database (following one of the scanning methods)
can later be sent to a 3-D printer to produce models of any of the
organs.
Examiner’s comments
b In this part, it is not necessary to go into any great depth; just give the basics
of CT and MRI scans.

Examiner’s tip
Where a list of four items is needed, don’t exceed this; if there are any
errors in the first four answers then marks would be lost since later
answers would be ignored. For example, if you gave:
• respiration
• height of patient
• weight of patient
• heart rate
• blood glucose level
• body temperature
then only 2 marks would be awarded out of the possible four since
answers 2 and 3 were incorrect and answers 5 and 6 would be ignored
(even though correct!). Be careful!
Library, stock control and
recognition systems; tracking,
GPS and GIS systems

Figure 6.7 Library book scanning system and GPS system

Library systems
Most library systems are now computer-controlled. They involve the use of
barcodes on the books being borrowed and on the borrower’s library card. The
system allows books borrowed to be linked to a borrower automatically. Thus, it
is now possible to send out reminders of overdue books automatically and to
record other information such as the borrower’s preferences, how many times a
book has been taken out, and so on. Some systems now use RFID technology
instead of barcodes.

Automatic stock control

Barcodes are used by supermarkets to allow automatic stock control to take
place. The barcode on a product is scanned at the checkout and it is looked up on
the stock file. Once it is found, the product price and product description is sent
back to the checkout – this allows the calculation of the bill, and also produces
an itemised bill. Each time an item is sold, the record (the key field of which is
the barcode number) is updated to indicate the new stock level; this value is
checked against a re-order level which allows the item to be reordered
automatically if it equals or falls below this re-order level. When new stock
arrives, the stock level of the item in the record is incremented.
EFTPOS is often used at the checkout till. When a customer pays
electronically using their credit/debit card, an instruction is sent to the
customer’s bank to reduce their account by the amount of the bill. At the same
time, an instruction is sent to the supermarket’s bank to increase the account by
an equal amount. No actual movement of money takes place.

Automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) system

Figure 6.8 ANPR system

This system is used in car parks and as a security device to read the
registration/number plate on a vehicle:
• The number plate is captured by a digital camera.
• The brightness and contrast of the number plate is adjusted so that all the
characters can be read clearly.
• Afterwards, each character is segmented using software; OCR software is used
to convert the characters into a string of editable text.
• This text string is then stored on a database.
Once the number plate is stored, it can be used to allow entry and exit to a car
park or secure site as part of a car park charging system or security system.

Tracking system
RFID can be used for tracking (see Chapter 2). In conjunction with GPS, it can
be used to track people:
• who are known criminal offenders
• who are elderly and need to be carefully monitored
• who are in a race, for example a marathon.
Internet cookies (small files of information created by websites and stored on
your computer) can be used to monitor a person’s internet activity, while key-
logging is a technique used to track all entries made on a computer through its
keyboard. These methods of tracking will be looked at in more detail in Chapter
8 Safety and Security.

Global positioning satellite (GPS) systems

GPS is used to determine the exact location of a vehicle or other form of
transport (for example, an aeroplane).
Satellites orbiting the Earth transmit signals back to Earth. Microprocessors in
GPS devices (known as sat nav in cars) pick up these signals and allow the GPS
device to determine the exact position of the vehicle. In the case of sat nav, built-
in maps are used to show the driver where they are on the road. Even more
sophisticated systems know exactly where you are and can down shift an
automatic gearbox on a car in readiness for a sharp bend or steep hill ahead. This
has many other safety implications which you may like to consider (for example,
prevention of accidents if the whereabouts of every car is known!).
GPS systems are safer since the driver doesn’t have to consult maps, they
allow for route re-planning if a road is closed, or can give useful information
such as the nearest petrol station or café. They are not infallible; if the maps are
out of date or the satellite signals are lost, the GPS can give incorrect
instructions to the driver.

Geographic information systems (GIS)

This is a computer system that allows the user to map, model, query and analyse
large amounts of data according to their location. It allows:
• the joining together of information on to a map
• carrying out calculations and presenting results in the form of a map, table
and/or graphics
• engineers and scientists, for example, to see the information in different ways
to determine patterns and relationships.
GIS is used by emergency services, environmentalists and teachers, for
example.

Media communication systems

Figure 6.9 Global media communication system

Satellites allow data to be communicated around the world in a very short

time. A typical satellite would contain:
• antennas (aerials to pick up data being sent to it from Earth)
• transponders (allow the receiving and sending of data)
• solar panels (to generate electricity to run on-board computers, and so on)
• propulsion unit (keeps the satellite in its correct orbit around the Earth).
Signals are beamed up to the satellite from a satellite dish on Earth and the
signal is then boosted and transmitted back to the Earth. The frequency of the
sending signals and receiving signals is different so that they don’t become
confused. This type of communication overcomes the curvature of the Earth and
allows transmission over very large distances.
Common errors
Many candidates don’t fully understand how GPS systems work:
GPS systems in cars send signals to satellites which then work out where they
are and send this data back to the car.
A satellite sends a signal to the GPS system in a car indicating where the
satellite is in relation to the Earth. Software in the GPS device uses this
information to work out where on the road the car is. Signals from three or
four satellites are used to get a 3-D triangulation so that the exact position
can be determined.

Sample exam questions

a Explain how ANPR can be used as a security system only allowing
permitted cars to enter a secure site.
b Give three advantages and three disadvantages of using GPS as a
form of navigation for the driver of a bus.
Student’s answer
a Sensors at the entrance detect the presence of a vehicle and send a
signal to the computer.
The computer instructs the digital camera to capture the number
plate of the vehicle.
Software locates position of number plate on captured image and
then adjusts brightness and contrast to ensure characters can be
clearly read.
Each character is segmented and OCR software converts characters
into a string of text.
The string of text is compared to stored number plate data held on a
database.
If there is a match, the computer sends a signal to the barrier motor
to raise the barrier.
A second sensor detects the rear of the vehicle and the barrier
automatically drops again.
Examiner’s comments
a This is a good answer from the candidate since it is tailored to the scenario in
the question – a security system to check vehicles entering a secure site.
Student’s answer
b Advantages:
Safer since there is no need to consult maps while on the move
Driver is warned of speed cameras and/or exceeding the speed limit
Driver is given key data such as proximity of petrol stations,
restaurants, key tourist attractions, and so on.
Disadvantages:
If maps are not up to date, GPS can give incorrect instructions
Loss of satellite signals can cause problems
If incorrect start point or end point given, the system will give
incorrect instructions.
Examiner’s comments
b Here three different advantages and disadvantages have been given, which
provides a good answer to the question; the candidate has given brief
descriptions instead of simple statements.

Examiner’s tip
Be careful not to make your answers too general. If a question gives a
specific scenario, make sure your answer is modified to cover the
scenario given.

Exam-style questions
1 a The perimeter around an airport is being monitored for sound
levels and air pollution by the Environment Agency.
Describe how sensors, data loggers/storage devices and
computers could be used to monitor the perimeter environment. In
your description, mention how the Environment Agency may use
the collected data from the sensors.
[4 marks]
b A car is fitted with sensors on the front bumper/fender. If the car
gets too close to the vehicle in front of it, a warning is given and
then the brakes are applied automatically. Sensor data is sent to an
on-board microprocessor. This microprocessor can also pick up
other data such as the speed of the car and whether the road is
wet or dry.
i Name a suitable sensor to measure the distance.
ii Explain how the microprocessor would work out if the car was
too close to the vehicle in front of it.
iii Describe how the sensors and microprocessor would be used to
control the distance of the car from the vehicle in front of it.
[7 marks]
2 Copy the table and give suitable sensors for each of the following
applications. A different sensor needs to be given in each case.
[6 marks]
Application Suitable sensor
control water content in the soil in a greenhouse
measure the quality of air in a building
switch on the headlights of a car automatically
when it gets dark
automatically turn on the wiper blades of a car
when it starts to rain
pick up footsteps of an intruder in a building
control the acidity levels in a chemical process

3 Use the standard turtle graphics commands (see the Cambridge

IGCSE ICT Coursebook) to draw the following shape. The
measurements and the start and finish points are shown on the
diagram.
[5 marks]

4 a Describe two ways a robot can be programmed to carry out a task

such as spraying a car body with paint.
[4 marks]
b The manufacturing company use expert systems to diagnose faults
in the robots. Describe how an expert system would be set up to do
this task.
[4 marks]
5 Describe how barcodes are used in an automatic stock control
system in a supermarket.
[5 marks]
6 a Give two advantages and two disadvantages of using GPS to
navigate the driver of a car from town A to town B.
[4 marks]
b Automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) systems go through a
number of stages when the driver of a car approaches and leaves
a car park.
The 12 stages are shown below, but they are not in the correct
order. Copy and complete the table. Write the numbers 1 to 12 in
the right-hand column to put each stage in its correct order. The
first one has been done for you.
[11 marks]

Stage description Order

brightness and contrast of the number plate are
adjusted so it can be read clearly
on his return, the driver puts the car park ticket into
the machine and pays for his parking
sensors detect the car and send signals to the 1
computer
each character on the number plate is recognised
using OCR software
sensors detect the rear of the car and the barrier is
automatically dropped
each character on the number plate is segmented
using OCR software, the characters are converted
into a string of editable text
an algorithm is used to locate and isolate the number
plate from the initial camera image
the text string is stored on a database
motorist drives to exit barrier and ANPR system
recognises number plate and the barrier is
automatically raised
car park barrier is raised and the driver is issued with
a car park ticket
computer instructs the digital camera to capture an
image of the front of the car
CHAPTER 7
Systems life cycle
Key objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to revise:
• analysis
• design
• development and testing
• implementation
• documentation
• evaluation.
Key terms
Term Definition
DFD Data Flow Diagram
Validation A process where the software checks that the data
entered into it is reasonable.
Verification A process that checks the accuracy of data entry or that
data has not been corrupted during transmission.
Normal Data which is acceptable or reasonable which has an
data expected or known outcome.
Extreme Data which is at the limits of acceptability.
data
Abnormal Data which is outside the limits of acceptability and should
data be rejected by software.
Live data Data which has actually been used in a real-life situation
and has known outcomes.
Analysis and design stages
Analysis stage
The analysis stage involves the following:
• Research or collect data from the current system in use.
• Establish inputs, outputs and processing done in the present system.
• Identify the main problems with the current system.
• Agree and interpret the objectives and requirements of the customers.
• Produce a cost–benefit analysis.
• Identify suitable hardware and software for the new system.
• Produce a data flow diagram (DFD) showing inputs, outputs and processing
done.
The feasibility study is also a part of the analysis stage and involves the terms
of reference, existing system overview, criteria and proposed solution (refer to
the Cambridge IGCSE ICT Coursebook for full details of these four features).
When researching the current system, there are four common ways of carrying
out fact finding:

Method used Advantages Disadvantages

Observation (this involves • can give reliable and • people often
watching personnel using unbiased data work in a
the existing system to see • analyst gets a good different way
how it currently works) overall view of the when they
present system know they are
• a relatively being watched
inexpensive method • because of the
above reason,
results can be
skewed
Questionnaires (these are • relatively easy to • questionnaires
distributed to the workforce, complete and are not very
managers or customers to inexpensive to flexible
find their views on the produce • there is no
current system) • individuals can immediate way
remain anonymous to clarify a
• fast analysis if OMR vague or
used incomplete
answer to a
question
Interviews (a one-to-one • questions asked can • a very time-
question- and-answer be modified based consuming and
session either face to face on interviewees’ expensive
or over the phone) previous responses method of
• interviewees tend to collecting data
be more open • impossible for
• can delve more interviewees to
deeply into any be anonymous
areas where there • interviewees
are problems may be hostile
if they think
their job is at
risk
Existing paperwork (the • allows the analyst to • a very time-
analyst goes through get a good idea of, consuming and
existing paperwork, for for example, the expensive
example, operating memory method of
instructions, training requirements, type collecting data
manuals, accounting of input and output • the accuracy
system) devices relies on
• information can be whether the
obtained which is paperwork is up
not possible by any to date or used
of the other methods by the staff

Part of the analysis process involves the use of DFDs. These cover the input,
output and processing done; identify problems with the current system; identify
user and information requirements and identify system specifications. DFDs put
the process into a logical diagrammatic form.
Design stage
The design stage is carried out after the analysis stage and includes:
• design of any data capture forms
• design screen layouts and output
• production of systems flowcharts
• design/choose the validation rules to be used
• design of the file structures
• production of algorithms and program flowcharts
• design of the testing strategy for the new system.

Data capture forms

These can be paper-based or online forms. The design of both types of form is
very important since they must be easy to fill in.
Paper-based forms should use the following features:
• text boxes for address, and so on.
• character boxes with one character per box

• tick boxes wherever possible male female

• sufficient space given for answers
• a heading and very clear instructions on how to fill in the form
• a good colour scheme and a clear font.
Online forms should have the following features:
• character boxes (as shown above)
• on-screen help when completing the form
• dropdown/combo boxes where possible responses are limited
• radio buttons/tick boxes requiring a single click of a mouse
• automatic data validation on input data
• control buttons such as submit, next page, last page, and so on
• double entry boxes for confirmation, for example, when typing in email
address.
Screen displays and printed reports
Screen outputs should be very clear and use as much of the screen as possible.
Printed reports should clearly show all output fields and consider the need for
headers and footers.

Systems flowcharts
These flowcharts use the standard symbols as shown on the right.

They show how data flows through the system and how decisions are made.
They are used to give an overall view of the proposed system. They don’t form
the basis of a program flowchart from which the programming code can be
written, but they show the processes carried out and where various hardware
devices are used in the system.

Verification
This is a way to check whether data entered or transmitted matches the original
data. There are two common ways to carry out verification:
• Double entry: data is entered twice and it is then compared either after data
entry or during data entry; this can be done by another human or, more
commonly, by the computer (this method is often used when entering
passwords or email addresses).
• Visual check: the person entering data compares it with the original document
(for example, compares what is on the screen with the original printed
document); this is not the same as proof reading!

Validation
This is the process where data is checked to see if it satisfies certain criteria
when being input. Examples of validation include:
• Range check: this checks whether or not data lies between two end values.
• Look up check: this checks whether entered data exists in a stored table of
data.
• Length check: this checks whether the entered data has the correct number of
characters.
• Character/type check: this checks data is of the correct type, for example, text,
numeric, and so on.
• Format/picture check: this checks data is in correct format, for example, date
as dd/mm/yyyy.
• Presence check: this checks data is present in the field; it can’t be left empty.
• Consistency check: this checks to see if data entered corresponds with another
field, for example, if somebody types in ‘Mr’ in the Title field, they must also
type in ‘M’ in the Sex field or an error will be flagged.
• Check digit: an extra digit added to a number which is generated by an
algorithm; after transmission the same extra digit is recalculated to see if it
matches the one sent.

File structures
When designing files it is important to consider field length, field name and data
type. A data dictionary is used to show file structures, including any validation
checks that may be carried out on the field data.

Testing strategy
A key part of the analysis and design stage; we will look at testing strategies in
detail in the next section.
Common errors
It is common to confuse verification and validation; it is important to remember
that verification doesn’t check whether the data makes any sense (for example,
somebody’s height could be input as 1055 metres if that is the value on the
original document – however, validation should trap this as a nonsensical value).
Proof reading is an example of the use of verification.
Proof reading doesn’t check the data against the original document, so cannot
be considered a form of verification.

Sample exam questions

a A shop sells books. A database is being set up to include: book title,
author, ISBN (13-digit number), date published (for example,
23/11/2011), genre (for example, fiction), hardback or softback, and
the price in dollars ($).
Copy and complete the following data dictionary for the database
using suitable field names:

Field name Field type Suitable validation check

title alphanumeric none

a Describe two ways of carrying out verification of data.

Student’s answer
a

Field name Field type Suitable validation check

title alphanumeric none
author text character check
ISBN integer (numeric) length check
publication_date alphanumeric format check
genre text character check
hard_soft Boolean/text character check
price real (currency) range check
Examiner’s comments
a The candidate has chosen reasonable field names. Other field types could
have been chosen, for example, ISBN could be alphanumeric if in the form:
978-1-471-89033-8.
Other validation checks could also be used, for example, hard_soft could be a
length check if H and S are the expected input values.
Student’s answer
b Double entry – data is entered twice and two sets of data are
compared by two operators or by the computer (for example,
entering a password twice).
Visual check – entered data is compared to the original document
(for example, screen input checked with paper document).
Examiner’s comments
b The candidate has given two reasonable descriptions together with examples.
Giving examples is always a useful addition in case the definitions given are a
little weak – the examples could just sway the examiner to give you the benefit
of doubt and award the marks.

Examiner’s tip
Field names can be anything really provided they tie up with the kind of
data, for example, field name of ‘example’ to represent type of weather
would be regarded as too vague to be of any use.
Development, testing,
implementation, documentation
and evaluation
Development
Once analysis and design is completed it is necessary to develop the new system.
For example, a database requires finalisation of file structures,
validation/verification routines need to be finalised and the user interface needs
to be fully developed.
Testing strategies
Modular programming is often adopted (here the entire program is broken up
into parts). Each module needs to be fully tested. Once this is done, the whole
program needs to be fully tested again to make sure none of the modules
conflict. Data used in testing falls into four categories:
• Normal: data which is acceptable or reasonable, which will give a known
outcome.
• Abnormal: data which is outside the limits of acceptability and should be
rejected by the software.
• Extreme: this is data at the limits of acceptability.
• Live data: data which has actually been used in real life, which will produce
known outcomes; the actual outcomes from the new system will be compared
to outcomes from the existing system using the same data.
For example, an online form asks somebody to type in their age. The
acceptable range will be 5 to 140. The following examples show each type of
validation check:
• Normal: 22, 58, 74
• Abnormal: –2, 221, fifty-six
• Extreme: 5 or 140 (end values).
Implementation
Once a new system is fully tested it needs to be implemented. Four common
methods of implementation exist:
Documentation
Two main types of documentation will be supplied with the new system once it
is implemented – user documentation and technical documentation. User
documentation is developed to help the end user understand how to use the new
system. It will include examples of input and output, the meaning of possible
error messages and how to carry out certain tasks such as printing or updating
files. Technical documentation is designed to help a systems analyst and/or
programmer update the system sometime in the future or help in troubleshooting
if any problems occur. The following shows typical examples of the contents of
both types of documentation:

However, the following is found in both types of documentation:

Evaluation
Once a system has been running for a while, it needs to be evaluated and any
maintenance that is necessary carried out. Evaluation looks at the efficiency, ease
of use and appropriateness of the solution, and considers the following:
• Comparison of final solution with original task.
• Identification of any limitations and any necessary improvements.
• Evaluation of users’ responses (by questionnaire or interview).
• Comparison of test results from new system with the old system.
• Observation of users performing tasks, including time to do tasks.
Common errors
It is common to suggest that abnormal data is wrong data or incorrect data. No
data is incorrect or wrong – data can only be outside a given set of criteria.
It is also common to suggest ‘Direct implementation is carried out directly’ or
‘Direct implementation completely replaces the old system’. The first statement
uses the term ‘directly’ which isn’t giving a description and is merely repeating
the wording of the term itself. The second statement is not unique to direct
implementation – all methods of implementation replace the whole system at
some point; the advantage of the direct method is that its benefits are available
immediately.

Sample exam questions

a An airport air traffic control system is being changed over from the
current system to a new system. The company that runs the airport
also manages another four airports in different locations.
Describe two suitable methods of implementation and give reasons
for your choice.
b A database is being set up.
i Explain why a person’s ‘age’ is not stored on the database.
ii Date of birth in the form dd/mm/yyyy is to be stored. To test the
validation checks on the date of birth field, the following data types
are input:
normal
abnormal
extreme.
Give examples of each type of data when applied to the month
part of the field.
Student’s answer
a Direct – old air traffic control system stopped overnight and the new
system implemented immediately.
Pilot – one of the airports uses the new system for a period to see if
it functions correctly; if everything checks out, the system will be
rolled out to the other airports.
Neither method employs parallel systems or partially changed
systems for safety reasons; pilot changeover is the most risky of the
two examples given if there are any faults.
Examiner’s comments
a The student correctly identified that parallel and phased would not be
acceptable methods. They also gave some misgivings about using the pilot
method. This is a good sound answer at the grade ‘A’ level.
Student’s answer
b i Age will change every year, so the database would need to be
manually updated every year for each person on their birthday.
ii Normal: 4 or 6 or …
Abnormal: –5 or 15 or …
Extreme: 1 or 12
Examiner’s comments
b The student could have given any ‘normal’ value between 1 and 12. They gave
two examples because of the potential ambiguous wording of the question.
The two ‘abnormal’ values of –5 and 15 were okay, any value <1 or >12
would have been acceptable. It would also be acceptable to give a non-
numeric value. There are only two possible answers for ‘extreme’ data and
these were correctly identified.

Examiner’s tip
This question stated ‘Give examples …’. It is unclear whether the plural
refers to the fact that there are three types of data or whether more
than one example for each data type is needed. When confronted with
a question which is not entirely clear to you, always err on the side of
caution and consider the possible meanings of the question when
answering it.

Exam-style questions
1 A car manufacturing company has decided to bring in a systems
analyst to upgrade the current system.
a Describe three ways that could be used to do fact finding so that
the current system can be assessed. Give a disadvantage of each
named method.
[6 marks]
b Copy the table. Tick (✓) the appropriate column to indicate whether
each item is part of the analysis stage or the design stage.
[6 marks]

Item Analysis Design

identify suitable hardware and software
create file structures
produce data flow diagrams
produce a cost–benefit report
 research current system
production of algorithms and program
flowcharts

c One of the new features is an online form to order so that

customers can choose and order their new car directly. Design an
online form which allows input of: customer name, dealer where
car is delivered, model of car, colour of car, manual or automatic,
desired delivery date and the ability to move to another page to
choose from the options list.
[6 marks]
2 a A company sells books online. Customers complete a form when
ordering and the information input is stored in an order database.
The database includes:
• date of birth (in the form dd/mm/yyyy)
• person’s title (Mr, Mrs, Ms, Miss or Dr)
• gender (M or F)
• order number (in the form AANNNNNNA where A = letter and N
= digit)
• number of items bought (maximum of 50 items)
• customer’s email address.
Write down a validation check for each of the six inputs. A different
validation check should be given in each case.
[6 marks]
b i A password needs to be used each time a customer logs in to
make an order. Describe a suitable verification check.
[2 marks]
ii The number of items ordered can be any whole number between
1 and 50. Give examples of normal, abnormal and extreme data
to test the ‘number of items bought’ field.
[3 marks]
3 A new system needs to be implemented. Describe three
implementation methods and give an advantage and a disadvantage
of each of the three named methods.
 [9 marks]
4 Documentation is supplied with the new system. Eight items are listed
in the following table. Copy the table. Tick (✓) the appropriate box to
show whether each items is in the user documentation, technical
documentation or in both.
[8 marks]
CHAPTER 8
Safety and security
Key objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to revise:
• safety and security when using computers
• data security
• firewalls
• security protocols
• encryption
• authentication
• cloud security.
Key terms
Term Definition
E-safety Keeping personal data safe when using a device
connected to the internet.
SSL Secure Socket Layer
TLS Transport Layer Security
Firewall Hardware or software that sits between a user’s computer
and an external network, which filters data coming to and
from the computer.
Cypher Result of putting plain text through an encryption process.
script/text
Plain text Original message before going through an encryption
process.
Web Graphic image linked to an external web server that is
beacons placed into an html-formatted message; can be used to
verify that an email address is valid when the message is
opened.
Digital Pair of files stored on user’s computer; each pair contains
certificate a public key and private key.
Encryption Process in which data appears meaningless without the
use of the correct decryption key.
Spam A form of junk or unsolicited mail sent over the internet to a
recipient on an email mailing list.
Cookies Small files or code stored on a user’s computer; they are
effectively a small look-up table containing linked pairs of
key data values.
Hypervisor Software, firmware or hardware that creates and runs a
virtual machine.
Physical safety and security of
data
Physical safety
This covers health risks (for example, back/neck pain, RSI, eyestrain/headaches
and ozone irritation) and safety risks (for example, electrocution, trip hazards
and fire risks). It is important to understand exactly what can cause all these
risks and how they can be eliminated or minimised.
For example:
Health risks, such as RSI, are caused by excessive typing on a keyboard or
clicking a mouse button; these can be eliminated or minimised by taking regular
breaks or by using ergonomic keyboards or cushioned mouse mats. Safety risks,
such as a tripping wire hazard, can be removed by using trunking or using
wireless devices wherever possible. There are many more examples which are
covered at great length in the Cambridge IGCSE ICT Coursebook.
E-safety
This refers to keeping personal data safe when using any device connected to the
internet. Personal data includes: name, address, date of birth, medical history and
banking details. However, some personal data is referred to as being sensitive:
ethnic origin, political views, religion, sexual orientation and criminal activity.
E-safety refers to:
• not giving out personal data (including photos) to people you don’t know
• maintaining the privacy settings on devices connected to the internet
• only using trusted websites or ones which have been recommended
• only opening emails from, and sending emails to, known sources and making
use of spam boxes
• taking great care when using social networking sites and online games.
Security of data
This includes: hacking, phishing/smishing/vishing, pharming, spyware, viruses,
spam, cookies and moderated/unmoderated forums.
• Hacking: this is the act of gaining unauthorised access to devices.
This can lead to identity theft, loss of data and illegal use of personal data.
The risk can be minimised by using firewalls, passwords and user ids.
• Phishing: the creator sends out legitimate-looking emails to target users; as
soon as any link in the email or attachment is clicked on, the user is sent to a
fake website; they could also be asked to respond to an email claiming ‘You
have just purchased a book for $25.95 – if this is not you please click on one
of the links below’.
This can lead to identity fraud and users can be tricked into giving
personal data (such as bank details) when the user goes to the fake
website or responds to the email.
Many ISPs filter out phishing attacks, but users need to be cautious when
receiving emails from unknown sources.
Note: also recall associated risks known as smishing (SMS phishing) and
vishing (voice mail phishing).
• Pharming: this is malicious code installed on a user’s computer or on a web
server; this code re-directs the user to a fake website without their knowledge.
This can lead to identity fraud and users can be tricked into giving
personal data (such as bank details) when the user goes to the fake
website.
Some anti-spyware can detect pharming code; users should never copy
and paste web addresses into the URL window.
• Spyware: this is software that gathers data by monitoring key presses on a
user’s computer keyboard; the gathered data is sent back to the person who
sent the spyware in the first place (also known as key logging software).
Spyware gives the originator access to all data entered by the keyboard;
spyware can also install other spyware, read cookie data and change the
user’s default settings.
Using anti-spyware software should help; use dropdown boxes when
entering data wherever possible or use a touch screen.
• Viruses: this is program code/software that can replicate itself with the
intention of deleting or corrupting files on the computer.
Corrupted files can cause the computer to malfunction (such as crash or
run slow); important files can be deleted or modified to alter how
software works on the computer (potential security risk).
Use anti-virus software, which should be kept up to date and run in the
background at all times; also don’t open software or emails from
unknown sources.
• Spam: this is unsolicited email sent over the internet to a recipient on a
mailing list.
Spam can ‘clog up’ a user’s inbox with unwanted emails; it can also lead
to phishing attacks.
Set up ISP to filter out spam and delete the mail immediately; block
images in html messages that spammers use as web beacons.
• Cookies: these are small files/code stored on a user’s computer; they are
effectively small look-up tables that contain pairs of values.
Cookies are used to remember user’s preferences each time they visit
websites.
Cookies form anonymous user profiles and don’t contain personal data
such as passwords or credit/debit card numbers and don’t pose a security
risk in that sense; however, it is a good idea to remove cookies from
internet settings unless you visit the website on a regular basis.

Forums: these are termed ‘moderated’ and ‘unmoderated’. Moderated forums

are online discussion groups in which all the posts are checked by an
administrator before they are allowed to be posted. The internet is an
unmoderated forum since no one ‘owns’ it; the only safeguards are voluntary
sets of rules and protocols.
Note 1: A user can usually tell if they are connected to a secure website by the
use of a green banner containing the web page/website name. The use of a green
padlock and the use of https instead of just http are often used to identify a
secure website (see protocols below):
 Note 2: Some of the security risks above refer to online fraud. If a customer
uses their credit card on line there a number of ways they can encounter fraud:
• The website being visited is fake (see Security of data above) which means a
fraudster can gain key information from the customer without their
knowledge.
• The user’s computer or the website has been hacked, meaning important data
can be accessed (such as credit card data, PINs, and so on); this can also be
caused by certain viruses.
• Installation of spyware on a user’s computer can relay back all key presses to a
hacker.
• The user can be tricked by fraudsters sending out fake emails such as:

Once the user clicks on the link, they will be asked for passwords, credit card
numbers and so on – there are many clues this is a fraud (for example, the
beginning ‘Dear User’ would never be used, reputable companies will already
have your card details, and so on).
Common errors
It is very common to see confusion between phishing and pharming (and also
incorrect spellings – most notably fishing and farming!).

Sample exam questions

a Name three examples of physical safety risks when using
computers. In each case, describe a way to remove or minimise the
named risk.
b Describe two differences between phishing and pharming.
Student’s answer
a Electrocution: use an RCB (residual circuit breaker); make sure all
wires are properly insulated; don’t take drinks into the computer
room.
Trip hazard: use cable ducts to make trailing wires safe; cover wires
or have them tucked away safely; use wireless (Wi-Fi) connections
wherever possible.
Fire risk: have a CO2/dry powder fire extinguisher in every room;
don’t cover vents on computer monitors; don’t overload wall sockets;
change to low voltage hardware wherever possible.
Examiner’s comments
a The candidate has given more than one way to remove or mitigate the risks;
this is probably more than is required to gain full marks for the question. It is
essential that the named method of mitigation matches up to the risk.
Student’s answer
b Phishing requires an email to be sent.
Phishing requires the user to take some action (for example, click on
a link).
Pharming requires code to be stored on a user’s computer or web
server.
Examiner’s comments
b The candidate has given three good differences between the two terms.

Examiner’s tip
When asked to describe the differences between two (or more) terms,
don’t give opposites as one of your answers, for example, ‘Phishing
requires emails to be sent but pharming doesn’t require any emails to
be sent out’.
This counts as one point only. Distinct differences must be given to gain
the marks.
Firewalls, protocols, encryption,
authentication and cloud security
Firewalls
These are either hardware or software that sit between a user’s computer and an
external network. They filter data coming in and data going out of a user’s
computer. The tasks of a firewall can be summarised as:
• Examine traffic between computer and a network.
• Check incoming/outgoing data meets certain criteria; if it doesn’t, user is
warned and data flow blocked.
• Keep a log of daily traffic.
• Keep a list of IP addresses thus preventing access to certain websites.
• Help prevent viruses and hacking.
Protocols
There are two common protocols which are used when a computer wishes to
communicate across a network: SSL (secure socket layer) and TLS (transport
layer security).
SSL – when a user logs on to a website, SSL encrypts the data; the user will
know if SSL is being applied due to https or the green padlock appearing; it
involves a communication between the web browser on the user’s computer and
the website.
TLS – this is similar to SSL but is more modern and more effective; it uses
two layers known as the ‘record protocol’ (which contains the data being
transferred) and the ‘handshake protocol’ (which permits website and user to
authenticate each other).
The basic differences between SSL and TLS are that TLS can be extended by
adding new authentication methods, TLS can make use of ‘session caching’ and
TLS separates the two protocol layers.
Encryption
This makes data unreadable unless the user has the correct decryption key. The
original message (called ‘plain text’) is put through an encryption algorithm
(using the encryption key) and it produces the encrypted message (known as
‘cypher script/text’). If a hacker breaks into a computer system, they can
certainly delete, copy or corrupt the data but they won’t be able to understand it.
Authentication
This is used to verify that data comes from a secure and trusted source. It uses
digital certificates, passwords and biometrics as part of the authentication
process.

Digital certificate
This is a pair of files which consist of a public key (known to everyone) and a
private key (known to a selected group only). For example, when an email is
sent, it is more secure if digital certification is added. The recipient can check it
comes from a trusted source by viewing the public key information – this
consists of: the sender’s email address, name of the digital certificate owner, a
serial number, expiry date, public key and digital signature of the certificate
authority (CA).

Passwords and user ids

Passwords should always be strong and changed frequently. It is common
practice for a strong password to contain: upper and lower case letters, digits and
other keyboard characters, for example, FX43ab*!/8. When logging into most
systems, a user will be asked to give a user id and a password. The user id and
password will be stored as a linked pair on the system – if they don’t match up
then access will be denied.
The user id is often a person’s email address and is usually something linked
to the application being used. Usually a user id is unique form of identification.
When the password is typed in it is shown as *********** to prevent anybody
accidentally using it. It is often necessary to type in the password twice (this is
called verification). This is to confirm no typing errors were made.
Biometrics
These make use of certain unique characteristics of human beings. They include:
• fingerprint scans
• signature recognition
• retina scans
• iris recognition
• face recognition
• voice recognition.
They all have a range of advantages and disadvantages:
Cloud security
The advantages of storing data on the ‘cloud’ can be summarised as follows:
• No need to buy and carry memory devices around with you
• Files will always be backed up at the end of each day
• It is possible to synchronise devices so that available files are always the most
up to date
• Allows for collaborative storage.
The main security issues are:
• Is there adequate security of building where storage devices are kept?
• Is there good resistance to natural and man-made disasters (fire, flood, power
cuts, and so on)?
• Are the staff overseeing the storage devices trustworthy?
• Are there adequate provisions against hacking, viruses and pharming?
Common errors
It is very common to see candidates become confused regarding the role of
firewalls.
When installed on a computer, a firewall will always prevent hacking and
viruses.
When installed on a computer a firewall will warn a user of possible hacking
and virus dangers, but it cannot be assumed that it will filter out all possible
risks.

Sample exam questions

a Explain three differences between SSL and TLS.
b Describe three advantages of using cloud storage to store files.
Student’s answer
a TLS uses two layers; the record protocol (which contains the data
being transferred) and the handshake protocol (allowing
authentication of website and user’s computer).
TLS uses session caching, which creates a much faster process.
The handshaking and record protocols are separated processes.
Examiner’s comments
a The candidate has given a very reasonable answer but further expansion on
session caching and what is meant by separating the two layers would be a
welcome addition.
Student’s answer
b No need to carry memory devices around with you.
No need to buy expensive memory/storage devices.
The files will always be backed up each day.
Examiner’s comments
b Other advantages such as ability to synchronise devices and ability to allow
for collaborative storage would have been equally correct.

Examiner’s tip
In questions where an explanation is asked for, it is often a good idea to
expand your points slightly within the bounds of the space provided on
the answer paper. A good explanation or examples could cover a weak
description and allow you to recover lost marks.

Exam-style questions
1 Which items are being described below:
a Process in which data appears meaningless without the
appropriate ‘unlocking’ key
b Code stored on a user’s computer which is effectively a small look-
up table containing linking pairs of key data
c Original message before it goes through an encryption process
d Unsolicited emails sent over the internet to a recipient on a mailing
list which ‘clog up’ their inbox
e Hardware and software that sit between a user’s computer and an
external network which filters data coming in and out of the
computer
f Keeping personal data safe when using any device connected to
the internet.
[6 marks]
2 Three computer security risks include:
• spyware
• phishing
• hacking.
Explain the meaning of each security risk and why it is a security risk.
In each case, give one way of mitigating or removing the risk.
[9 marks]
CHAPTER 9
Audiences
Key objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to revise:
• how to tailor ICT solutions according to the audience
• copyright legislation
• legal, moral, ethical and cultural implications of ICT solutions
• policing of the internet.
Key terms
Term Definition
Software Making and distributing illegal copies of software.
piracy
Product Unique string of characters which is supplied with software to
key indicate it comes from a genuine source.
Dongle Device which connects to a computer through the USB port –
it allows wireless communication with devices or stores key
files to allow software to run on that computer only.
FAST Federation Against Software Theft
Audiences, software copyright,
impact of ICT solutions and
policing the internet
Audiences
When using ICT to present information, it is important to consider the audience
as not all solutions will be appropriate, or relevant, depending on the audience
that you are addressing. The following factors should be taken into
consideration:
• Age, experience and knowledge of the audience
• Audience expectations
• Language used
• Whether multimedia and interactive interface should be used
• Length of the presentation
• Which examples would be helpful and/or appropriate.
Software copyright and piracy
Software is protected by the usual copyright laws. However, to further reduce the
risk of piracy, the following measures are taken:
• Use of a product key supplied with original software
• Sign a licence agreement
• Use of holograms on original packaging
• Use of dongles to prevent illegal use.
Impact of ICT solutions
Legal: this covers the law; whether an action is punishable by law, for example,
illegal copying and distribution of software.
Morality: this governs private and personal interactions between people; the
human desire to distinguish between right and wrong.
Ethics: this governs professional interaction, that is, codes of behaviour; it is
often illegal, or it may just be an act carried out which is regarded as breaking a
code of conduct.
Cultural: this refers to the attitudes, values and practices shared by a society;
this will change from culture to culture.
Policing the internet
Policing of the internet was covered in detail in Chapter 4, please refer to that
section.
Common errors
It is very common to see the terms copyright and software piracy confused:
Copyright protection makes it much harder for software to be pirated.
Copyright laws make the pirating of software illegal; however, they do not
actively prevent the piracy from taking place.

Sample exam questions

a Explain why the following need to be carefully considered when
producing and giving a presentation:
language
age
examples.
b Give three rules which govern the copyright of software.
Student’s answer
a Language:
language should not be ‘colourful’ to avoid offending the audience
technical terms should not be used if the audience is very young
and/or inexperienced.
Age:
young people will respond in a different way from older people
young people like less ‘writing’ and ‘talking’ and prefer more visual
effect
young people have different experiences and expectations
compared to a more mature audience
young people respond better to multimedia elements.
Examples:
examples must be chosen so that they don’t offend certain audience
attendees
examples used should relate to the experiences and age of the
audience.
Examiner’s comments
a The candidate has correctly given as many examples as possible to illustrate
the three aspects given in the question.
Student’s answer
b Don’t make copies and distribute them without permission.
Don’t plagiarise coding from software and use it in your own software
claiming you wrote it yourself.
Don’t use the name of copyrighted material on your own
material/software without gaining permission first.
Examiner’s comments
b Three different copyright rules were correctly given here.

Examiner’s tip
When asked to give different examples to illustrate an answer, always
make sure your examples are as different as possible.

Exam-style questions
1 Use the following terms to complete the five statements that follow
(four of the terms will not be used).

a A unique string of characters which is supplied with software to

indicate it comes from a genuine source is known as:
b Illegal copying and distributing of software without the owner’s
permission is known as:
c This term governs private and personal interactions between
people; it is the human desire to distinguish between right and
wrong.
d This governs professional interaction in codes of behaviour such
as some action carried out which is regarded as breaking a code of
conduct.
e This term refers to the attitude, values and practices shared by a
society.
[5 marks]
2 a When producing a presentation, describe four things to consider
regarding the potential audience.
[4 marks]
b The people giving the presentation hand out some software to the
audience. Explain how the audience will know this software is
genuine and not illegal copies.
 [3 marks]
c Describe the ways in which software is protected from piracy.
[3 marks]
CHAPTER 10
Communication
Key objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to revise:
• communication restraints when using emails
• email groups
• cloud storage
• spam
• the internet
• intranets
• the world wide web (www)
• blogs, wikis and social networking sites
• search engines.
Key terms
Term Definition
Netiquette InterNET etIQUETTE which refers to the need to respect
others’ views and display common courtesy.
Spam Unsolicited emails sent out to users in an email group.
Intranet Computer network based on internet technology but
designed to meet the internal needs for sharing
information/data within a single organisation/company.
Extranet Part of a company’s intranet which is extended to users
outside the company or organisation; although it allows
access to internal data by external users, all extranet
communications are encrypted over a VPN which makes
it more secure than the internet.
Data Same data stored on more than one device (for example,
redundancy a server) in case of maintenance, repair or potential data
loss.
Public Storage environment where the customer/client and
cloud provider are different companies.
Private Storage provided by a dedicated environment behind a
cloud firewall; the customer/client and provider are integrated
and operate as a single entity.
Hybrid This is a mixture of public and private cloud storage,
cloud where some data resides on the private cloud and some
on the public cloud.
http HyperText Transfer Protocol
URL Uniform Resource Locator
ftp File Transfer Protocol
ISP Internet Service Provider
Blog weB LOG
VPN Virtual Private Network
Search Software that allows the user to search for information on
engine the internet using key words/phrases and sophisticated
algorithms.
Hit Number of occasions where key words/phrases typed in
match with websites/web pages.
Emails, spam, internet, intranets
and cloud storage

Figure 10.1 Emailing and cloud storage

Emails
Most countries have laws to protect people against email misuse. Some of the
safeguards include:
• Commercial email senders must have an opt-out or unsubscribe feature.
• Email subject lines must not be misleading.
• Valid contact details must be included in commercial emails.
• Many countries don’t allow email groups to be set up by ‘trawling’ companies
that already hold email addresses.
• Language used in emails must be of an acceptable nature.

It is important that emails follow all copyright regulations and that users are
advised to use passwords to secure email addresses and inboxes.
‘Netiquette’ is an important aspect of any material posted or transmitted on the
internet. There are numerous resources regarding what constitutes netiquette but
the following summarises many of the common rules:
• No abusive language, and messages should be clear.
• Posts can be read by general public; therefore, spelling, grammar and privacy
must be considered.
• Don’t use capital letters except where necessary and keep emoticons to a
minimum.

Email groups
Email groups are used for a number of purposes:
• It is easier for a user to send out multiple emails if the addresses are all
grouped together under a single name; the user then just has to use that single
name in the ‘To’ box.
• Companies and organisations can group people together for marketing
purposes, for example, according to age, ethnicity, hobbies, favourite music,
and so on. This means that each email can target specific groups.
• ‘Spammers’ can create email groups by buying addresses of people from
certain companies or from software that ‘raids’ address books on computers or
email companies – this means that several thousand people can be sent spam
by simply pressing the <Enter> key.
• Companies use email groups to set up meetings (for example, for a video
conference) to ensure everybody is always invited to attend – it would be easy
to omit a person if the email addresses were all typed in individually; this way
you can be sure all the correct recipients are sent messages.
Spam
This topic was covered in Chapter 8. Please refer back to that section to refresh
your memory.
The internet
The internet is the world’s largest WAN. The world wide web (www or web) is
only part of the internet which can be accessed using a web browser. It consists
of a massive collection of web pages and is based on http. The world wide web
is a way of accessing information over the medium known as the internet (which
consists of software and hardware) – the two terms ‘www’ and ‘internet’,
therefore, should not be confused.
Intranets
An intranet is a network which meets the needs of a company or organisation to
enable the sharing of information/data. Intranets are not available for access by
the general public. Since many intranets are internal, they are generally more
secure than the internet. Information available can also be specific to the
company only and it is possible to control external links (for example, the
internet).
‘Extranets’ allow intranets to be accessed/extended outside the organisation,
for example, to gain access over a mobile phone or via a VPN (using the
internet). There are many safeguards to protect the network and allow only
certain users to have access to the secure servers. This will include passwords
and encryption which makes it more secure than the internet.
There are key differences between the internet and intranets:
• The internet contains global and public data/information whereas intranets
have data/information specific to the company.
• To access an intranet requires a user id and password and it can only be
accessed from agreed computers within the organisation (or from valid
extranet users).
• The internet can be accessed by anyone from anywhere in the world.
• The internet has public access; the intranet is private access only.
Cloud storage
Cloud storage is a method of data storage where the data is stored on offsite
servers and users pay a subscription each month to have their data stored on
these servers. Usually data is stored on more than one server (to allow
maintenance, repair and back-up) – this is known as ‘data redundancy’.
There are three common types of cloud storage:
Public cloud – the customer/client and cloud storage provider are different
companies.
Private cloud – the storage is provided by a dedicated environment where the
client/customer and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate as a single
entity accessible by that company only.
Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two types of cloud storage
described above; some data resides on the public cloud (for example, data which
is less sensitive) and some on the private cloud (for example, data which needs
to be kept out of the public access).
Having data stored on cloud storage facilities allows the following positive
features:
But of course there are also negative features:
Common errors
It is very common to see confusion between the terms ‘www’ and ‘the internet’;
the two need to be regarded as separate entities.

Sample exam questions

a Give three reasons why email groups are set up.
b Explain the difference between passive and active attacks on emails.
Student’s answer
a It is easier to send out multiple emails if all email addresses are
grouped together under a single name.
Companies/organisations can group people together for marketing
purposes, for example, by age, gender, interests, and so on.
Companies can use email groups to set up meetings (for example,
video conferencing) – it would be easy to omit somebody if all email
addresses had to be typed in individually.
Examiner’s comments
a The three reasons given are all different; this is important to ensure access to
the maximum marks allocated to the question.
Student’s answer
b Passive: involves release of email material to other users without
your consent.
Active: involves modification of user’s messages or even denial of
service; this can involve viruses or phishing attacks.
Examiner’s comments
b Although the answer given would score high marks, it may have been better to
set it out as an ‘essay’ rather than use bullet points since the question asked
for an explanation to be given highlighting the differences.

Examiner’s tip
If bullet points are used when answering a question which asks for an
explanation or description of differences, it is often a good idea to also
give a short paragraph summarising the differences highlighted in the
bullet points.
General internet terms and search
engines
Hypertext transfer protocol
Hypertext transfer protocol (http) is a set of rules that must be obeyed when
transferring data across the internet. Protocols are sets of rules agreed by the
‘sender’ and ‘recipient’ when data is being transferred between devices. When a
web page is being accessed, entering http:// at the front of an address tells the
web browser that http rules for communication are to be obeyed.
If http is omitted from the address, most web browsers now default to http.
When some form of security (for example, SSL or TLS) certification or
encryption is used (see Chapter 8) then the protocol is changed to https (this is
often seen as the padlock symbol ). The letter ‘s’ after http refers to secure.
Because of encryption, it is slower to use https than http, so it is usually only
adopted when sensitive or private data is being transferred across the internet.

Web browsers
A web browser is software which allows a user to display a web page on their
computer screen. It interprets or translates the HTML (hypertext mark-up
language – see later chapters) from websites and shows the result of the
translation. This can often be in the form of videos, images or sound. Most web
browsers share the following features:
• They have a home page.
• They have the ability to store a user’s favourite websites/pages.
• They keep a history of the websites visited by the user.
• They give the ability to go backward and forward to websites opened.
• They have hyperlinks to allow users to navigate between web pages; these
hyperlinks are shown as blue_underlined_text or use a small picture, such as a
pointed finger , under a phrase or image. By clicking on a hyperlink the
user is sent to another website or web page.
Web browsers use uniform resource locators (URLs) to access websites,
retrieve files, and so on. They are represented by a set of four numbers, for
example, 109.108.158.1 (http://109.108.158.1).

File transfer protocol

File transfer protocol (ftp) is a network protocol used when transferring files
from one computer to another over the internet. The main differences between
ftp and http include:
• http is used to access the world wide web (www).
• ftp is used to download data from file servers, whereas http is used to
download data from web servers.
• ftp files are transferred from one device to another and copied into memory.
• http transfers the contents of web pages into a web browser for viewing.
• ftp upload is used for large files; http tends to be used to upload smaller files.

Internet Service Provider

An internet service provider (ISP) is a company that provides users with access
to the internet. When a user registers with an ISP, an account is set up and they
are given log in details such as user id and password.
Blogs, wikis and social networking sites

Figure 10.2 Social networking and blogging

Blogs
These are personal internet journals where the author (blogger) will type in their
observations on a given topic for others to read; this may involve links to other
websites. Anyone can read blogs, but only the blogger can change the contents.
Entries are organised from most recent to least recent. Associated with blogs are
‘microblogs’ and ‘b-blogs’.

Wikis
These are web applications or websites that allow users to create and edit web
pages using any web browser. Anyone can edit or delete entries on a wiki using a
web browser, which often makes them biased or inaccurate. A document history
is maintained. One advantage of wikis is they allow large files to be shared with
others – this is much easier than emailing several people with the files.

Social networking sites

These focus on building online communities of users who share similar interests
and activities. They enable people to share photos, videos, hobbies, and so on.
Members create public profiles allowing them to form ‘relationships’ with other
users. Typical features of social networking sites include:
• Members can create private and public profiles using the free web space.
• It is possible to ‘write’ on each other’s virtual walls.
• Members are given free instant messaging and video chatting.
• Members can invite other people to become ‘friends’ or to ‘follow them’.
• Members have control over who can access private and personal data.
Search engines
These are used to find information on the internet using key words or phrases.
Each web page/site found matching the search criteria is known as a ‘hit’. To
reduce the number of hits it is necessary to narrow down the search by including
extra words, and so on. The advantages and disadvantages of using the internet
and search engines to find information can be summarised:
Advantages
• Information tends to be up to date and there is almost a limitless amount of
information.
• Search engines are faster ways of finding information and can be used at home
rather than visiting a library, for example, when using books as the resource.
• Internet pages often have multimedia elements which can be useful; it is also
easier to incorporate data into your own documents using the copy and paste
facility.
Disadvantages
• The internet is not regulated; therefore, information may be biased or
inaccurate.
• Inappropriate and dangerous websites are always a big risk.
• Information overload is a common problem, especially if the user is not
experienced using search engines – this can make it slow to find the relevant
information.
• There is an increased plagiarism risk since copy and paste is very easy to do.
• Research skills can be lost.
As mentioned above, internet material may be biased or inaccurate. However,
it is possible to help safeguard yourself against this:
• Look at the final part of the URL (for example, .ac and .gov refer to education
or government bodies, and so are indicators that the material may be more
accurate or reliable).
• Compare information from a number of websites and, if available, check
material against textbooks.
• Check if the website is endorsed by reliable/responsible bodies (sometimes
you see star ratings: ).
• Check out any links in the website – if the links go to unreliable sites then the
website itself should be avoided.
• Check when the website was last updated (if it was a long time ago the
material may be well out of date).
Common errors
The difference between web browsers and ISPs is often confused or not
understood:
Web browsers are used to allow a user to gain access to the internet.
ISPs provide the user with access to the internet (for a monthly fee), whereas
web browsers allow the user to view web pages.

Sample exam questions

a Describe four netiquette recommendations when sending emails.
b A photographer takes many photographs as part of his work.
Compare the advantages and disadvantages of using cloud storage
to store the photographs rather than using portable storage devices
connected to his computer.
Student’s answer
a Don’t use abusive language when writing emails; always check the
spelling and grammar, particularly if sending out commercial emails
to ensure a good impression; always remember that information in
emails may become public, so be careful with the contents; don’t
use too many capital letters or emoticons since both can annoy
recipients.
Examiner’s comments
a The candidate has correctly expanded on the four recommendations indicating
they have more than a cursory knowledge of the subject.
Student’s answer
b Advantages:
the photographer can access his photos anywhere from any device
no need to carry portable storage devices around (which could be
lost or stolen)
automatic back-up of files at the end of the day
if the user’s devices malfunction, the photos could be corrupted or
lost
there is no limit to how many photos he could store.
Disadvantages:
there are security issues with cloud storage
it is essential to have access to a good internet connection
can be expensive to constantly upload and download files and to buy
portable storage devices
there is always the risk that the cloud storage company fails and
there will be uncertainty about what happens to stored files.
Examiner’s comments
b While the candidate has given a good balance of advantages and
disadvantages they haven’t fully answered the question. They were asked to
make a comparison; therefore, it would be necessary to add an additional
paragraph such as:
‘Although buying and using cloud storage is expensive, it is still cheaper and
safer than buying portable storage devices. While security risks do exist, they
also still exist when using portable devices, and cloud storage gives the
additional advantage of daily back-ups so that data is always up to date on all
devices used.’

Examiner’s tip
Questions where comparisons are to be made are best answered by
giving a whole list of differences and either doing the comparison as
part of the differences or by making some end statement as shown
above in the examiner’s comments.

Exam-style questions
1 Use the following terms to complete the five statements that follow
(four of the terms will not be used).

a This term refers to the need to respect another person’s views and
to display a common courtesy to each other.
b A type of offline storage environment where the customer/client
and provider are different companies is known as …
c Data which is stored on more than one device (for example, a
server) in case of repair, maintenance or potential data loss is
referred to as …
d Number of occasions where key words in a search engine match
up with websites/web pages.
 e Type of attack leading to a modification to a user’s messages or
emails or denial of services is known as …
[5 marks]
2 a Explain the differences between:
public cloud
private cloud
hybrid cloud.
[3 marks]
b i What is meant by the term ‘netiquette’?
ii Describe three common rules of netiquette.
c Describe the main differences between blogs and wikis.
[4 marks]
CHAPTER 11
File management
Key objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to revise:
• generic file types
• the use of appropriate file names
• reduction of file sizes for storage or transmission
• resizing an image
• resampling
• file compression.
Key terms
Term Definition
Generic file File types that can be opened in appropriate software on
type most platforms.
Back-up Copy of a file made in case the original data is corrupted
or lost.
Archive The storage of information for a long period of time.
Data is likely to be compressed.
File A technique for reducing the storage space occupied by
compression a large file.
Generic file types
Common generic text file formats:

Extension Name Notes

.csv Comma It takes data in the form of tables (that could be
Separated used with a spreadsheet or database) and
Values saves it as text, with no formatting, separating
data items with commas.
.txt TeXT A text file that is not formatted and can be
opened in any word processor.
.rtf Rich Text This is a text file type that saves a limited
Format amount of formatting with the text.

Common generic image file formats:

Extension Name Notes

.gif Graphics Stores still or moving images and is widely
Interchange used in web pages.
Format
.jpg Joint Stores still images and is widely used in web
or Photographic pages.
.jpeg Expert
Group
.pdf Portable A document which has been converted into
Document an image format. It allows documents to be
Format seen as an image so they can be read on
most computers. The pages look like a
printed document but can contain
hyperlinks, buttons, video, audio, and so on.
Can be protected from editing.
.png Portable Was created to replace Graphics
 Network Interchange Format and is now the most
Graphics used lossless image compression format
used on the internet.
.mp4 Moving A multimedia container used for storing
Pictures video files, still images, audio files, subtitles,
experts and so on. It is often used to transfer video
group layer 4 files on the internet.

Common generic audio file format:

Extension Name Notes

.mp3 Moving A compressed file format with high quality
Pictures yet relatively small file sizes, which makes it
experts suitable for use on the internet.
group layer 3

Common generic website authoring file formats:

Extension Name Notes

.css Cascading This is a stylesheet which is attached to one or
Style more web pages to define the formatting of the
Sheet page.
.htm HyperText This is a text-based language used to create
or Markup markup that a web browser will use to display
.html Language information in a web page.

Common generic compressed file formats:

Extension Name Notes

.rar Roshal This is a container which can hold several files,
ARchive each with different file types, in a compressed
format. It is used to reduce the number of bytes
needed to save a file, either to save storage
space or to reduce transmission time. This was
designed for the Microsoft Windows operating
system.
.zip Zip file This is a container which can hold several files,
each with different file types, in a compressed
format. It is used to reduce the number of bytes
needed to save a file, either to save storage
space or to reduce transmission time.
Saving your work
Work should always be saved using a planned folder structure using folders and
sub-folders. Filenames should show a progression of work using version
numbers. Use an ‘old versions’ folder to reduce the number of files in a working
folder. Make back-ups of your work and archive files/folders to save storage
space for work that is not used regularly but still needs to be kept. You can save
your work in different file formats using File and Save As in many packages and
using File and Export in others, particularly to export a file into portable
document format (.pdf) or into a compressed file format.
Common errors
Back up and archive are the same thing.
Back-ups are used to quickly recover a file when (current) data is accidentally
overwritten, deleted or corrupted. It is often used to quickly recover an
overwritten file or corrupted database. Archive files store version(s) of a file
that needs to be used very rarely and are usually held on other media stored
in a different building/location.
A file saved in portable document format (.pdf) is a generic text file.
A pdf (portable document format) file is a generic image file, as the original
document has been changed into an image of the document.

Sample exam questions

a Name three examples of generic image file formats and for each
identify the file extension.
[3]
b Compare and contrast these three file formats.
[6]
Student’s answer
a Joint Photographic Expert Group (.jpg)
Portable Network Graphics (.png)
Moving Pictures experts group layer 4 (.mp4)
Examiner’s comments
a The student has answered this question well, gaining all 3 marks. In a
question like this, many students will submit a part of the answer and forget
the name or extension.
Student’s answer
b PNG and JPEG images can only support still images, whereas MP4
format supports moving images. PNG is lossless compression
whereas JPEG is not.
Examiner’s comments
b This response would score two of the possible 6 marks. Marks would be
awarded for PNG and JPEG only supporting still images and for MP4
supporting moving images. The student has omitted the detail of MP4 being a
container which can also include other elements, like still images. They are
also incorrect in their statement that JPEG is not a lossless compression. The
original JPEG images were saved with lossy compression but some JPEG
standards now include lossless compression. There is scope for students to
gain extra marks in the question by describing the differences between JPEG
and PNG, for example: ‘PNG was developed to replace JPEG and can
contain images with a transparent background.’ This answer lacks clarity
because the student has not compared by identifying the similarities between
each of the file formats or contrasted by identifying the differences between
these formats.

Examiner’s tip
The only way to gauge the depth required in questions like this is to
look at the allocated marks and space given to write the answer; in this
case it is a question worth 6 marks so students should be aiming to
write between six and eight different mark points. Sometimes a number
of mark points can be written into a single sentence.
Reduce file sizes for storage and
transmission
File sizes need to be as small as possible as all computer systems have a limited
storage capacity and it is important to minimise any delays when data is
transmitted (sent) between one device and another. Often the largest files stored,
or transmitted, are image files, especially video files which are a large number of
still images. Still images can be reduced in size by:
• resizing, which is reducing the width and height of an image
• resampling, which is reducing the quality of an image

Resizing an image
There are two recommended methods of resizing an image. The first is to resize
the image in a graphics package, for example, reducing an image 800 pixels by
600 pixels to 400 by 300 pixels. The second method of resizing is to use the
cropping tool in a graphics package.

Resampling an image
Downsampling reduces the image quality and file size by reducing the number
of pixels used for an image. Upsampling increases the resolution of an image by
adding extra pixels.

Using file compression

Completed documents containing lots of formatting or lots of images tend to
have a large file size. One way of compressing a file is to convert it into portable
document format (.pdf). When you have several files it is more efficient to
compress the files together in a single ZIP or RAR file.

Sample exam questions

a Explain two reasons why file compression is used.
[2]
b Explain the difference between upsampling and downsampling.
[3]
Student’s answer
a Because files are too large and it takes too long to do anything.
Examiner’s comments
a The student has answered this question poorly and would score no marks.
Although they have identified large files as an issue, they have not been
specific. The student should have identified the amount of storage capacity
required to deal with large file sizes. They could have added that when the file
is loaded or transmitted it will take considerably longer to load or transmit
than a compressed file containing the same data.
It would have been better if the student had written that the transmission of
smaller data files would mean fewer data packets transmitted which would
lead to fewer transmission errors. This would also speed up the transmission
time.
Student’s answer
b Upsampling adds more pixels to an image and downsampling
removes some pixels.
Examiner’s comments
b This response would score a single mark for the student showing an
understanding that pixels are added to images when upsampling or removed
when downsampling. For a question worth 3 marks, much greater detail is
required. For example:
• Explain why these techniques are used: downsampling to reduce file size
and upsampling to increase the resolution of an image, which would be
useful if the image is to be enlarged.
• Show an understanding that techniques such as selecting/calculating a
single pixel from each block of four would reduce the file size to around a
quarter of its original size.

Examiner’s tip
Be specific with your answers, do not use phrases like ‘It takes too long
to do anything’. This should be phrased as, for example: ‘It takes too
long to open the web page using images with large file sizes’, or ‘It
takes too long to transfer the data with such large file sizes’.

Exam-style questions
1 Some file types contain moving images. Identify two file extensions
used with files containing moving images.
[2 marks]
2 Identify three file extensions used for generic text files.
[3 marks]
3 .rar and .zip are generic file extensions. Compare and contrast these
file types.
[4 marks]
CHAPTER 12
Images
Key objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to revise:
• resizing
• aspect ratio
• text wrapping
• cropping
• rotation
• reflection
• colour depth
• resolution
• brightness
• contrast.
Key terms
Term Definition
Resize Change the physical size of an image.
Text wrap Change the properties of an image to force text to flow
around, over or behind it.
Cropping Remove part of an image by cutting one or more edges
from it to create an image with a different size.
Rotation Turn an image (usually either clockwise or anticlockwise
(counter-clockwise) through a specified number of
degrees).
Reflection Flip an image (usually either horizontally or vertically).
Colour The number of bits used to represent each colour within a
depth single pixel.
Aspect The ratio of the width to the height of an image.
ratio
Editing an image
Images can be edited in many ways; they often have to be edited to fit into a pre-
defined space or placeholder. How they are edited depends upon the task, but it
is usual to make sure that the proportions of the image are not changed. Take
care when considering the use of the image and its audience, for example, if an
image is to be included on a web page then a low-resolution image may be
required. However, if an image is to be included in an enlarged publication then
a high-resolution image would be better to help reduce pixilation.

Resizing an image with aspect ratio maintained

Although resizing appears the easiest image editing skill, students often use the
drag handles of an image without considering the loss of the aspect ratio of the
image. It is better to use the ‘Properties’ window for the image and set the size
there. This can help make sure that the aspect ratio is maintained (some software
requires you to tick the ‘Constrain proportions’ check box). If an image size is
specified on the question paper, resizing in this way makes sure that the image is
exactly the right size, whereas using the drag handles is not always as accurate.
Common errors
Image is distorted when resized.
The aspect ratio of an image should always be maintained when editing
images, unless you have been told clearly not to do so.

Wrapping text around an image

You are able to surround (wrap) an image with text. There are a number of
different types of text wrapping, which are detailed as follows:

Icon Name Notes

In line Image becomes an in-line graphic and is treated as
with text a text character within the line of text. It will move if
new text is inserted or deleted.
Square Text flows around a rectangular placeholder.

Top and Text flows above and below the image but not
bottom alongside it.

Tight Text flows all around the image, but not inside if it
contains white space.

Through Text flows all around and inside the image if it

contains white space.

Behind Image is placed behind the text, which is ideal for

watermarks in documents.

In front Image is placed in front of the text.

Placing an image
Where possible use the ‘Position…’ tab to align an image to the margins. Marks
cannot be gained for the placement of an image in the practical examinations
unless it has been placed precisely so that the edges of the image match one or
more margin/s. Dragging images to place them is less accurate.

Adding borders to an image

Image borders can sometimes be added to show the examiner that you have
placed an image precisely, especially when the image has white space around the
edges.

Cropping, rotating and reflecting an image

When you crop an image you remove part of an image by cutting one or more
edges from it to create an image with a different size. Rotating an image means
to turn the image clockwise or counter-clockwise. Reflecting an image means to
create a mirror image of it.

Adjust the colour depth of an image

The colour depth is the number of bits used to store the colour code for each
pixel. There are three components (called channels) to each pixel. These are red,
green and blue. The colour depth is the number of bits per channel ×3. The
higher the colour depth the more colours can be displayed in the image.

Adjust the resolution of an image

The image resolution is the number of pixels per inch (or for printed documents
the number of dots per inch). These are set within your graphics package. If
images are low resolution (have a small number of pixels per inch) they have a
smaller file size and, therefore, transfer faster than a high-resolution image
which has a larger file size.
Brightness and contrast of an image
The relative brightness of an image, as well as its contrast (that is, the difference
between an image’s darkest and lightest areas) can both be adjusted.

Sample exam questions

a Identify the three colour channels used within a JPEG image.
[1]
b How many bits per channel are used in this file format?
[1]
c Discuss the statement ‘An image with 48-bit colour depth is more
useful than the same image saved with 24-bit colour depth.’
[6]
Student’s answers
a Red, Green, Blue (RGB)
b 8
c 48-bit colour depth is a better picture quality than 24-bit colour depth.
Examiner’s comments
a The student has answered this question well.
b This is correct; the JPEG standard is 8 bits per channel (giving a 24-bit
colour depth).
c This response would score one of the possible 6 marks. This mark would be for
identifying that picture quality is improved with more bits per channel. The
student has omitted to identify the difference in file sizes and relative number
of colours, for example: the 24-bit image would require half as much storage
capacity as the 48-bit image. The 24-bit image is SVGA with over 16 million
colours available, whereas the 48-bit image has 281 trillion colours
available. The human eye can only determine between 10 and 12 million
colours so having the extra colours may not be of huge benefit. The student
could also contextualise this – if the image was for a thumbnail for website
use the file size would be more important than the image quality to decrease
the download times, and so on. This answer lacks clarity because the student
has not identified similarities and differences between the two values
identified, nor have they expanded upon the valid point that they have made.

Examiner’s tip
This single-line answer would also be too short for a 6-mark discuss-
style question where the examiner will be looking for at least six
different marking points. If you make a point and add detail to it then
sometimes a single sentence can be worth 2 or more marks.

Exam-style questions
1 Image A has been transformed to create images B, C and D. Identify
the transformation that has been applied to image A to create each
new image.
[3 marks]
2 Define the term ‘aspect ratio’.
[1 mark]
CHAPTER 13
Layout
Key objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to revise:
• planning your document
• editing methods
• headers and footers
• automated fields.
Key terms
Term Definition
Header The area at the top of a document between the top of the page
and the top margin.
Footer The area at the bottom of a document between the bottom of
the page and the bottom margin.
Planning your document
A document can be a piece of printed or electronic matter that provides
information or evidence or that serves as an official record. Before starting a
task, you must consider:
• What is the purpose of the document?
• Who is the target audience?
• How will I make it suitable for this audience?
• What is the appropriate medium?
• What is the appropriate package?
Editing methods
Make sure that you know how to perform these operations on text and images:
• highlight text
• select an image
• cut and paste
• copy, paste and delete
• move, drag and drop.

Keyboard shortcuts for editing in Microsoft Windows:

• cut <Ctrl><X>
• paste <Ctrl><V>
• copy <Ctrl><C>
• redo (the last action) <Ctrl><Y>
• undo (the last action) <Ctrl><Z>
Headers and footers
Headers and footers are the areas at the top and bottom of every page in a
document and are often used to display information like the author’s name, the
date of creation and the name of the document. Because headers and footers are
often common to all pages, data only has to be entered once. This saves time and
reduces the chance of data entry errors.
In some packages it is possible to set different headers and footers for
different pages or sections of a document, for example you can choose not to
display a header or footer on the first page. This is useful as, when books or
booklets are being produced, facing pages may contain different information,
using different settings for the left and right pages.

Automated fields
Automated fields can be placed in many types of document and are most
commonly used to place items in the header or footer. This includes items like
page numbering, an automated filename and file path, today’s date, and so on.
Other automated fields can be placed elsewhere in documents.
Study the headers and footers used in this book and the Cambridge IGCSE
ICT Coursebook. Do you think these contain automated fields?
Common errors
Contents are placed in a header or footer but not aligned to the page margins.
Make sure you align all headers and footers to the page margins, especially
when working within a word processor.

Aligning headers and footers

For any word-processed document that you produce, it is essential that the
margins on the header and footer match the margins of the page. If you are using
Microsoft Word, change the positioning of the header and footer to align with the
page margins using tab stops on the ruler (see page 215 in the Cambridge IGCSE
ICT Coursebook for details on this).

Sample exam question

A report of 68 pages has been created for a customer. The report
contains headers and footers. Explain, using examples, why headers
and footers are used.
[4]
Student’s answer
Headers and footers are used to insert page elements that need to be
present in all pages, like the page number.
Examiner’s comments
This answer is worth two of the 4 available marks. It starts well, and the
identification that page elements are placed on all pages would gain credit, but
the student could have included why it is an advantage to use this method rather
than typing the elements on every page (less time required to enter/edit and less
chance of errors). This would have turned the initial answer from a single mark
into three. The page number on each page would also gain a second mark, but
again there is scope for this student to identify other elements that may have
been placed in the header or footer, like an automated filename and file path, the
title of the report or the author’s name.

Examiner’s tip
Try to write/type your answer, then extend it a little showing the
examiner that you understand a little more about this than the single
statement. In the answer above there are two points – the element on
every page and the example of page numbering – but to get 4 marks
you need to give more depth and more than one example.

Sample exam question

List two items that would be appropriate to place in the header or footer
of a report to show the storage capacities of Solid State Drives (SSD).
[2]
Student’s answer
Page number
The author’s favourite football team
The author’s name
The file name and path of the document.
Examiner’s comments
This would only gain one of the 2 available marks. The page number would gain
a mark, the second answer is clearly inappropriate for this task so would gain no
mark. As this is a list question and has asked for two answers, all subsequent
answers (even though they are correct) will not be marked.

Examiner’s tip
If a question asks you to list, state, name or identify X (a number of)
items, credit will only be given for the first X answers given. This is to
stop students listing lots of items in the hope that the examiner will find
a correct answer among them.

Exam-style questions
1 Identify four items of information that it would be appropriate to place
in the header or footer of a textbook. Do not include objects that
would be placed using automated fields.
[4 marks]
2 Identify four items of information that it would be appropriate to place
in the header or footer of a textbook using automated fields.
[4 marks]
CHAPTER 14
Styles
Key objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to revise:
• corporate house styles
• font styles and sizes
• create and edit styles in a word-processed document
• using format painter
• using lists.
Key terms
Term Definition
Body text The basic style of text within a document, usually used for
all of the paragraphs.
Ascender The part of a lowercase letter (b, d, f, h, k, l
or t) that extends above the body of the
letters.
Descender The part of a lowercase letter (g, j, p, q or y)
that falls below the baseline of the letters.
Serif A font style where the ends of characters contain small
strokes called serifs, for example, Times New Roman.
Sans serif A font style where the ends of characters do not contain
small strokes called serifs, for example, Arial.
Corporate house style
This is branding that makes a company recognisable. This can be used on
something belonging to or sent from that company. House style often includes a
logo, colour schemes, font styles and other features, and will be consistently
applied to anything produced by the company. House style can be used on letter
heads, websites, vehicles, posters, presentations, television advertising and other
media. As well as ensuring a uniform and professional look across a company’s
documents and media, a house style also helps give a company an identity, and
can help with brand recognition. If styles are specified in the examination you
must apply them using the pre-defined styles, especially in the document
production, presentation authoring and website authoring questions.

Font styles and sizes

When you create a new style, you will be required to set font faces and sizes.
Different packages use different named fonts, so (with the exception of website
authoring) generic names will be used rather than specific font names. The
generic names fall into two main categories: serif and sans serif (there are others
but they are beyond the scope of IGCSE).
You will not find serif and sans serif as named fonts in your applications
package, but Times New Roman is an example of a serif font, while Arial is an
example of a sans serif font (as it does not have serifs on the letters).
Common errors
Students write a note on the exam paper saying ‘My computer does not have
a font called serif so I used …’
Use Times New Roman as the serif font if you are using Microsoft Office.
Students write a note on the exam paper saying ‘My computer does not have
a font called sans serif so I used …’
Use Arial as the sans serif font if you are using Microsoft Office.

Font sizes are measured in points; there are 72 points to an inch (just over 2.5
centimetres). If the question does not specify a point size, make the text readable
for the audience specified, for example: a minimum of 10 points high for body
text, 12 points high for older readers and at least 20 points for young children
learning to read.
The size of a font is measured from the top of the letter with the tallest
ascender (often the letter ‘h’), to the bottom of the one with the longest
descender (often the letter ‘f’, though note that the typeface chosen for this book
does not have a descender on the ‘f’! Many do, however: ).
Create and edit styles in a word-
processed document
When using Microsoft Word, styles are saved in a document’s template file.
Open the document and format one area of text within the document to match
the required styles. Highlight this formatted area of text and use it to create a
new style (see page 222 in the Cambridge IGCSE ICT Coursebook for details)
with its own style name. Make sure that the style name matches that shown in
the question paper, including the case (capitals and lower case letters) and any
special characters (like the hyphen - or underscore _). Now highlight any other
area/s where this text should be applied and click on the style you have defined,
in the Styles section of the Home tab. Use this tab to edit the styles defined for
this document. Please note, Microsoft Word calls this Modify Styles rather than
edit, as in the syllabus.
Common errors
When asked to show how styles have been defined, students screen shot only
the first part of this process, that is, applying the individual style elements to
the text.
When asked to show how styles have been defined, show the examiner the
whole of the Modify Style window for the specified style. Check that all of
the style elements from the question paper can be seen in this window,
including the spacing before and after the paragraph. These can often be seen
in the text listing at the bottom of the modify window.

Using format painter

The format painter tool which can be found in the Home tab in most Microsoft
Office packages is ideal for copying formatting from one part of a document to
another. This works in packages like the spreadsheet Excel, which do not allow
you to use defined styles in the same way as Microsoft Word.

Using lists
There are two types of list: numbered lists (which can include lettering and
roman numerals, and so on) and bulleted lists. Make sure that you can change
between the two types in both Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel. In the word
processor make sure that you are confident using tab stops on the ruler (see page
215 in the Cambridge IGCSE ICT Coursebook) so that you can indent the bullet
points (or numbers) by a particular distance from the page or column margin.
Lists can have many levels, like this (note that when one list is placed inside
another, this is known as a nested list):

• This is a first-level list

• This is a first-level list
• This is a second-level list
• This is a second-level list
• This is a third-level list
• This is a third-level list
• This is a second-level list
• This is a first-level list
• This is a first-level list

Sample exam question

Describe the lists used in this section of this document.
[6]

Topics covered so far in Chapter 14

While studying Chapter 14, I have learnt how to:
1 create new styles for:
a) headers
b) footers
c) body text
d) headings
e) subheadings
2 edit styles after they have been defined
3 set font styles and sizes
4 emphasise text
5 use format painter
6 use lists.
Student’s answer
There are two numbered lists, one inside another and no bulleted lists.
Examiner’s comments
The student has correctly identified that there are two numbered lists and that
they are nested. These elements would each gain 1 mark. The student has not
mentioned that there are two different levels, the level 1 list being numeric. The
level 2 list (while still technically a numbered list) being in lower-case
alphabetical order. The student could have identified the level 1 list having bullet
points indented 3 cm from the margin and the level 2 list being indented a further
1 cm from the level 1 list (4 cm from the margin). Another element omitted by the
student is that both list styles have the same font face and font size.

Examiner’s tip
The question asks the student to describe the lists so it is acceptable
and even desirable to extend the answer from the list styles set for
each level to include the final statement of elements common to both
lists. ‘Describe’ questions often lend themselves to answers that include
similarities (which students often omit) as well as differences, especially
where there is more than one element being described.

Exam-style questions
1 Describe the differences between a serif and a sans serif font.
[2 marks]
2 Define the term ‘corporate house style’.
[1 mark]
3 Give four advantages of using a corporate house style.
[4 marks]
CHAPTER 15
Proofing
Key objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to revise:
• spell check
• grammar check
• proofing techniques
• ensuring the accuracy of data entry.
Key terms
Term Definition
Spell A process where the software identifies words which are not
check held within its dictionary.
Grammar A process where the software identifies language which
check does not follow the accepted or expected rules.
Widow A last line of a paragraph that appears at the top of a
page/column, with the rest of the paragraph on the previous
page/column.
Orphan The first line of a paragraph that appears at the bottom of
the page/column, with the rest of the paragraph on the next
page/column.

Spell check
This is usually found in word-processing software. Spell check compares each
word in a document against those words held in its dictionary. If a word in the
document does not match the dictionary it is flagged as a possible error using a
red wavy underline like this:
Be aware that words that are spelled correctly but which are not included in
the dictionary your spell check is using will still be flagged as possible errors.
Examples of this are names, or words from a different language.
Word-processing software will often give you a list of alternative spellings to
unknown words. These can be found by clicking the right mouse button on the
word itself.

Sample exam questions

a A student word processes the sentence: ‘We visited the Tawara
Beach Hotel.’ The text is spell checked.

Explain why the word Tawara is flagged as an error.

 [3]
b Write down an example of text that does not contain a spelling error,
but may be flagged as a spelling error by the word processor.
[1]
c Explain why your answer to part b is flagged as an error.
[2]
Student’s answer
a There is no such word as ‘Tawara’ so the spell check program
cannot find it. It could be added to the dictionary by the user.
Examiner’s comments
a The student has not identified that the word ‘Tawara’ does not exist within the
dictionary because it is the name of a hotel, so the first sentence does not gain
any marks. The second sentence does mention the dictionary but there is no
link between the two parts of the answer. This sentence is worth a mark as the
student has recognised that the word is spelled correctly and should be added
to the dictionary. It would have been a stronger answer if they had gone on to
suggest that by adding the word ‘Tawara’ to their dictionary this would not be
flagged as an error if this word was used again.
Student’s answer
b We did not not arrive at the hotel on time.
Examiner’s comments
b This is a correct answer.
Student’s answer
c The repeated word would be shown as a spelling error even though
it is a error in grammar.
Examiner’s comments
c This answer would gain the marks as it clearly identifies the repeated word as
the error and expands upon the answer to identify that it is a grammatical
error rather than a spelling error.

Grammar check
This is usually found in word-processing software. A grammar check reviews the
entered text to see if it follows the accepted or expected rules for the grammar of
the language used. A simple example is that each sentence starts with a capital
letter. Possible errors in grammar are shown using a blue wavy underline like
this: to make sure.
During practical examinations, do not attempt to correct any grammar errors
unless they are in text that you have typed, for example; the answer to a theory
question.

Validation and verification

See Chapter 7 for details on these areas.

Proofing techniques
The term ‘proofing’ in printing means to make sure that the work is accurate.
Carefully check all spelling, punctuation, grammar and page layout. Page layout
should include:
• Applying styles
• Margin settings
• Images placed with correct dimensions and no distortion
• Text wrap around images and other objects
• Objects fitting within the boundaries of a page/column/slide and not
overlapping
• No lists or tables split over two columns/pages/slides
• No blank pages or slides
• No widows or orphans.
Checking each of these carefully and correcting where necessary (often using
page or column breaks) should help you score higher marks on the practical
papers. Consistent layout and consistent styles are very important.
Ensuring the accuracy of data entry
It is important to be accurate when entering data. Inaccurate data entry is one of
the most significant reasons that students lose marks in their practical
examinations. Check all data entry carefully!
Common errors
Placing upper or lower case letters in the wrong place.
Check that all sentences start with a capital letter and do not have capitals in
the middle of a sentence. It is fine to have the word I, or names starting with
capitals, in the middle of a sentence.
Numbers are transposed (they change places) as they are entered, for
example: the year two thousand and two entered as 2020 rather than 2002.
Use visual verification to check that every character has been entered as it is
in the original. Check the data entry, then check it again.
Errorsin spacing in the sentence, either by missing spaces or adding too many.
Use visual verification to check that every character has been entered as it is
in the original. Check that spacing is consistent throughout the document.

Examiner’s tips
• If a question asks you to spell check and proof read your document,
apply all of the techniques listed in this chapter to make sure that all
spelling, spacing and style errors have been removed.
• Always check the accuracy of all data entry.
• Remember: Check all data entry for errors, correct them, then
check it again.

Exam-style questions
1 This text was entered into a word processor:
‘The new airport will be constructed on marshhland on the outskirts of
Tawara.’
The spell check suggests there are two errors. Identify each
suggested error and explain why it may or may not be an error.
[4 marks]
2 This text was entered into a word processor:
‘Mrs jones works as an examiner. He marks your examination
papers.’
Identify any errors in this text
[2 marks]
CHAPTER 16
Graphs and charts
Key objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to revise:
• chart types
• creating a chart
• labelling a chart
• secondary axes.
Key terms
Term Definition
Contiguous Data that is placed together and can be selected in a
data single range.
Non- Data that is not placed together (often in a spreadsheet)
contiguous and cannot be selected using a single range.
data
X-axis The horizontal axis (for a system of co-ordinates).
Y-axis The vertical axis (for a system of co-ordinates).
Category A name given to the chart axis in Microsoft Office that
axis represents the category for each data point. It displays
text values.
Value axis A name given to the chart axis in Microsoft Office that
displays numerical values.
Legend A box that identifies the patterns or colours that show
different data series in a chart.
Chart types
You may be asked to select an appropriate chart type to answer a question. For
the IGCSE exam there are three types to choose from: a pie chart, a bar chart or
a line graph. When considering what chart to use, you must first consider what
the graph is supposed to show.
Use a:
• pie chart to compare parts of a whole, for example, the percentage of boys
and girls in a class
• bar chart to show the difference between things, for example, the number of
times Ahmed, Ben, Carla and Dee went shopping in a week
• line graph to plot trends between two variables, for example, plotting the
distance a person travelled in 10 minutes recorded in 1-minute intervals.

Sample exam questions

a Identify the most appropriate graph or chart to display:
i a comparison between distance travelled and time taken for a
teacher to drive home
ii the number of oranges eaten this year by eight students
iii the percentages of people in a class with different hair colours
iv a comparison between the interest rate (shown as a percentage)
offered by three banks.
b The following data will be used to create a new graph or chart.
 i State the type of graph or chart that will be most appropriate.
ii Explain why this is the most appropriate type.
[6]
Student’s answers
a i A line graph.
ii A bar chart.
iii A pie chart.
iv A pie chart.
b i A line graph.
ii Because a distance-time graph plots the trends between two
variables.
Examiner’s comments
a i This is a correct answer.
ii This is a correct answer.
iii This is a correct answer.
iv This is not the correct answer. The student has not read the question
carefully. Because this question mentions the word ‘percentage’, which
would normally indicate a pie chart is suitable, that is the answer that has
been given. This question does not ask for parts of a whole but is
comparing different rates from different banks. The correct answer to this
question would have been a bar chart.
b i This is a correct answer.
ii This is an excellent answer identifying that this is a comparison between
distance travelled and time, so, therefore, the line graph plots the trends
between these two variables.

Creating a chart
Create a graph or chart by highlighting the data to be used for the graph or chart.
If the data is non-contiguous then hold down the <Ctrl> key as you select the
two (or more) ranges of data. Select the chart type, using the notes above on
appropriate chart types to help you. Make sure that you fully label the chart.

Labelling a chart
All charts must be fully labelled. Make sure that all of the text in all titles, labels
and in the legend, is fully visible. It is usual to label a pie chart with segment
labels or a legend, but not both.

Sample exam question

A trainee has created the following bar chart to show the director of a
software company how many members of staff work in each job type
within a branch:
Discuss the suitability of this chart for this task.
[6]
Student’s answer
This chart contains a chart title and both category and value axis labels
but does not tell you what the chart shows. A category axis title and
value axis title are both needed, as well as more detail in the chart title,
so that the user can understand the data without referring elsewhere
for its meaning.
Examiner’s comments
This is the start of a very good answer worth four of the 6 marks. It identifies the
title and axis labels as being present, then focuses on the omissions from the
chart. To answer this ‘discuss’ question, a number of positive and negative
points should be present. For example, that the title, category and value axis
labels are not only present but fully visible, clear, easy to read and in
appropriate font sizes for the audience. The chart type is also appropriate for the
data being presented. One mark could also have been attained for a reasoned
conclusion, gained by balancing the positive and negative points to suggest that
the chart is suitable or unsuitable for its purpose, depending upon the strength of
arguments for each side made by the student.

Secondary axes
Secondary axes are added to a line graph (or combined line and bar chart) when
two data sets are plotted on the same graph with very different sets of values.
The chart shown here (created in Task 16f on pages 246–48 of the Cambridge
IGCSE ICT Coursebook) is an ideal example of this:

The two sets of data show rainfall data between 0 and almost 250 millimetres
and temperatures between –1 and 23 degrees Celsius. As these are very different
sets of data, two axes are required, one for the rainfall and one for the
temperature. In this example, the axes have also been edited to make them easier
to read and compare.
If you are required to create a comparative line graph, check to see if the two
data sets are the same type of data; if not, add a secondary axis to the graph.

Sample exam questions

Explain why three axes will be needed when creating a chart from this
data:
[4]
Student’s answer
The two sets of data are different.
Examiner’s comments
This answer is too vague. The student should mention why the data sets that
would be plotted against the category axis are very different; one is a
temperature in degrees Celsius and the other is the number of centimetres of
snow that had fallen in the town of Keystone. To obtain more marks the student
should also identify that the temperature axis and snowfall axis could be scaled.
An example of this could be: ‘The minimum temperature axis should range from
+5 to –20 in intervals of 5 degrees, and the snowfall should range from 0 to 50
in intervals of 10 centimetres.’
Common errors
Only partially labelling graphs or charts.
Fully label all graphs and charts, taking into account the audience. Make sure
the chart can be understood if presented to the audience without any
explanation of supporting data/materials.

Exam-style question
1 Bar chart Pie chart Line graph None of these
From the choices listed above, select the most appropriate way of
graphically representing the following:
a The percentage of a class of students who are boys and the
percentage who are girls.
b The distance travelled by a car over periods of time.
c The height plotted against the weight for each student in a school.
d The height of a student when the readings are taken every week
for a year.
[4 marks]
CHAPTER 17
Document production
Key objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to revise:
• page size
• page orientation
• page and gutter margins
• widows and orphans
• page, section and column breaks
• text alignment
• line spacing
• tabulation settings
• tables and bulleted lists
• mail-merged documents.
Key terms
Term Definition
Gutter The part of a document, usually white space outside the
page margin, where the document will be bound together.
Widow The last line of text of a paragraph that appears at the top
of a page, with the rest of the paragraph on the previous
page.
Orphan The first line of text of a paragraph that appears at the
bottom of the page, with the rest of the paragraph
appearing on the next page.
Indented The first line of a paragraph is indented from a margin and
paragraph all other lines are aligned to the margin.
Hanging The first line of a paragraph is aligned to a margin and all
paragraph other lines are indented (left hanging from the first line).

Page size
Source files for document production questions are likely to be set to a different
page size to that required for the final document, especially if they are in rich
text format (.rtf). Use the Layout tab, and find the Page Setup section to change
the paper size. The most commonly used page size is A4.

Page orientation
There are two types of page orientation, portrait and landscape. These are also
selected from the Page Setup section in the Layout tab.
Page and gutter margins
The Page Setup section in the Layout tab also contains an area where settings for
the margin (the border surrounding a page) can be changed. In any examination
with document production questions this skill will be required. Take great care to
set the margins as specified. The gutter size and position can also be changed
here. If a gutter is required, you will need to work out where the gutter will need
to be on the page. For a traditional book (or booklet) it is often on the left of the
first page, but if the document is to be bound at the top of the page (for example,
like some calendars) then select the top.
Common errors
Setting the margin and/or gutter settings in the wrong units, for example, in
inches when centimetres are required.
Check the units carefully, the computer that you are using may have its
software set to work in inches rather than centimetres. You will need to set
the margin/gutter settings in centimetres by typing the units in the dropdown
box as well as the size.
Setting the page margins correctly but not adjusting the margins in the header
and footer to match.
Edit the margin settings in the header and footer to match the page margins.

Widows and orphans

Widows and orphans can occur at the top and bottom of a column as well as at
the start and end of a page. Microsoft Word will attempt to remove widows and
orphans for you (if this has been set up when it was installed) but it will not find
all the problems, like keeping headings and the content that follows it together.
When you have finished your document, carefully check for widows and
orphans and insert page, column or section breaks (whichever is appropriate for
the task) to remove them.
Common errors
Removing widows and orphans by continually pressing the <Enter> or
<Return> key.
Use either a page, column or section break to remove widows and orphans.
Placing a page or column break after every paragraph to make sure there are
no widows or orphans.
When removing widows or orphans, leave at least two lines of paragraph text
at the top and bottom of each page/column. It is better to split paragraphs as
seen in example A, rather than as seen in example B:
Page, section and column breaks
A page break forces the text on to the start of a new page, leaving white space at
the end of the previous page.
A column break forces the text into the top of the next available column,
which may be on the same page or may be on the next page.
A section break can be used to split areas of a document with different
layouts; it can force a page break (if selected) or be continuous, which allows
different layouts on the same page (for example, a title across the whole page
width when the text is placed in three columns).

Text alignment
Text can be aligned in four basic ways:
• Left aligned – it is aligned with a straight left margin and a ragged right
margin.
• Centre aligned – it is aligned to the centre of the page and has ragged left and
right margins.
• Right aligned – it is aligned with a straight right margin and a ragged left
margin.
• Fully justified – it is aligned with straight left and right margins.

Use these icons in the Paragraph section of the Home tab after highlighting
the text:

Line spacing
Line spacing is usually set as part of a pre-defined style. The most commonly
used layouts in the practical examinations are single line spacing, 1.5 line
spacing and double line spacing. Use the icon in the Paragraph section of
the Home tab.
Common errors
Not setting consistent line spacing throughout the document.
Set the line spacing in your defined styles and apply these styles to all the text
(of that type). There may be different settings for body style, headings, lists
and tables.

Tabulation settings
Tabulation, margins and column widths can all be set using the ruler. These
settings affect how each paragraph appears on the page.

Sample exam question

Here are some images showing the ruler used in a word-processing
document:

For each image, name and describe the type of paragraph that these
tabulation settings produce.
[9]
Student’s answers
a Image A is a hanging paragraph.
b Image B is a normal paragraph.
c Image C is an indented paragraph.
Examiner’s comments
All three answers have the correct names, each of these would gain this student a
mark and would score three of the 9 marks. The question asks the student to
name and describe; therefore, 2 marks have been lost on each part as there is no
attempt to describe each type of paragraph. Adding descriptions such as these
would have helped this student gain full marks:
a A hanging paragraph has the first line of each paragraph aligned to the left of
the rest of the paragraph. The rest of the paragraph would sit to the right of
the left margin. Only the first line of each paragraph will touch the left
margin.
b Each paragraph has the first line aligned with the rest of the paragraph; in
this case both are indented 1.25 units from the left margin.
c The first line of each paragraph is indented 2 units to the right of the other
lines in each paragraph.

Examiner’s tip
Note how in parts b and c of the examiner’s comments the sizes have
been taken from the images. As the images give no units of
measurement, like centimetres or inches, it is acceptable to refer to
them as units.

Tables and bulleted lists

A table can be edited in a number of ways. Rows and columns can be inserted or
deleted. Individual cells can be merged together to create larger single cells
either within one row or column, or across multiple rows or columns.
You can align data within individual cells horizontally and vertically.
Horizontally you can align data left, right, centre or fully justified, while
vertically you can align data to the top, centre or bottom of the cell. Other
formatting techniques include choosing whether to show or hide gridlines, wrap
text within a cell and add a shaded or coloured background to a cell.
Make sure that no tables or bulleted lists are split over two columns or pages.
Use a column or page break to make them fit the column or page. If they are so
large that they will not fit, you are likely to have an error. Possible causes of
such errors are:
• that the page size is smaller than specified in the question paper
• that the page orientation is not as specified in the question paper
• that the font size is larger than specified in the question paper
• that the line spacing is larger than specified in the question paper
• that the spacing before and after the style set for the list or table is larger than
specified in the question paper
• in a numbered or bulleted list, you have not deleted one or more items
specified on the question paper
• if a table is the result of a database search, then there may be an error in the
criteria used in the query
• in a table, you have not deleted the rows or columns specified in the question
paper
• in a table, use the ruler to adjust the column widths (unless they are specified
in the question paper) to reduce the number of rows used and allow for more
efficient use of the space within the table.

Examiner’s tips
• If you have checked and corrected all the possible causes listed
above and the table or bulleted list still does not fit within a single
column or page, remembering to make sure the text is still legible,
change the font face used in your style definition to a narrower font.
This will allow more characters on each line, which may help.
• In a table, do not allow the text within the table to sit outside the
column or page margins.

Mail-merged documents
A mail-merged document is produced by merging data from a source file with a
master document to produce personalised documents, often letters. It is usually a
fully automated process. Using mail merge can reduce the number of input
errors, as well as significantly decreasing the time it takes to produce a large
number of personalised documents.
The process for creating a mail-merged letter is to:
• open or create a master document
• add any special fields (like automated date fields) into the master document.
• create a data source file
• attach the source file to the master document
• check the source file is attached (using the Mail Merge Recipients window)
• add merge fields to the master document
• run the mail merge (selecting some or all of the data from the source file)
• check that the merged documents are those required
• check that the pagination of the merged documents is correct (correcting using
page breaks if not)
• print the merged documents.

Examiner’s tip
Toggle the merge codes by clicking the right mouse button on the fields
and selecting from the menu before showing this in your evidence
document.

Sample exam question

Explain why a company would use a mail-merged document to produce
500 personalised letters.
[4]
Student’s answer
It saves retyping or editing lots of documents. It takes lots of time to
change 500 letters and costs lots of money to pay staff. It reduces
errors as documents only have to be checked once.
Examiner’s comments
This is an excellent answer gaining all 4 marks. The student has realised the
need to retype or edit and has added two mark points from that: the time taken to
change the letters and the potential reduction in errors. They have also gone on
to enhance the first of these mark points by identifying that the time taken by
staff would have a financial implication for the business.

Examiner’s tip
When you add a new mark point to your answer, try to add more detail
to (expand upon) this to gain a second mark.

Exam-style questions
1 Explain what is meant by the term ‘margin’ within a document.
[2 marks]
2 Explain what is meant by the term ‘fully justified text’ within a
document.
[2 marks]
3 Describe what is meant by a ‘hanging paragraph’.
[2 marks]
4 Tuition fees will be increasing at the University of Tawara. The
amount that they will increase depends upon the course being
studied. Personalised letters will be sent to all 5450 students telling
them of the increase.
Explain why a mail-merged letter would be used for this task.
[4 marks]
CHAPTER 18
Data manipulation
Key objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to revise:
• database structures
• flat-file and relational databases
• data types
• form design
• searching for subsets of data
• extracting summary data
• producing reports
• sorting data.
Key terms
Term Definition
Field A place used to hold a single data item in a database.
Record A collection of fields containing information about one data
subject (usually a person) in a database.
File A logically organised collection of records, usually where all
the records are organised so that they can be stored
together in a database.
Table A two-dimensional grid of data organised by rows and
columns within a database. Each row of the table contains
a record. Each column in the table represents a field and
each cell in that column has the same (pre-defined) data
type.
Flat-file A database structure using a simple two-dimensional table.
database
Relational A database structure where data items are linked together
database using relational tables. It maintains a set of separate,
related files (tables), but combines data elements from the
files for queries and reports when required.
Primary A single field within a relational database table that contains
key field unique data (no two records within this field can contain the
same data). A primary key field cannot contain a blank
record.
Foreign A field in one database table that provides a link/creates a
key field relationship to a primary key field in another database table.
Query A request for information from a database.
Report A document that provides information.
(generic)
Report The formatted and organised presentation of data from a
(Microsoft database.
Access)
Data A form used for collecting data for input to a system, which
capture can be hard copy or screen-based.
form
Data A screen-based form used to input data into a system.
entry
form

Database structures
A database is a program used to store data in a structured way. A database
includes both the data itself, and the links between the data items.
All databases store data using fields, records and files.
Fields Each is a single item of data and has a fieldname, which is used to
identify it within the database. Each field contains one type of data, for example,
numbers, text, or a date. All field names should be short, meaningful and contain
no spaces.
Records Each record is a collection of fields, for example, all the information
about one person or one item. These may contain different data types.
Files Each file is an organised collection of records stored together. A file can
have one or more tables within it.

Flat-file database
A flat-file database has a simple structure where data is held in a two-
dimensional table and is organised by rows and columns. This is stored in a
single file.
A flat-file database is suitable for use with one type of data (for example, data
about customers, cars or CDs) that does not contain large quantities of duplicated
data.

Relational database
A relational database stores the data in more than one linked table, stored in a
single file. It is designed to reduce duplicated data. Each table has a key field.
Most tables have a primary key field, which holds unique data (no two records
are the same in this field) and is the field used to identify that record. Some
tables will have one or more foreign key fields. A foreign key in one table will
link to a primary key in another table. This makes relational databases more
efficient when storing data, as an item of data is stored only once rather than
many times. Storing the data only once reduces the time taken to add or edit data
(and, therefore, the cost of employing workers) and reduces the chance of errors.
It also means less storage capacity will be required, so it can reduce the initial
hardware costs, especially for very large databases.
A relational database is suitable for use with more than one type of data that
are related (for example, cars sold and customers), or with data that contains
large quantities of duplicated data.
Common errors
Relational databases can give search results more quickly than flat-file
databases.
The relative speed of the same search on the same data using a flat-file
database and a relational database is dependent on the structures of the data
tables in the relational database and the quantity of data being searched.

Data types
There are three main data types. These are:
Alphanumeric This is used to store text and numbers not used for
calculations. In Microsoft Access this is called a ‘text’ field, or in later versions
either ‘short text’ or ‘long text’.
Numeric This is used to store numbers. In Microsoft Access this is usually
called a ‘number’ field and has several sub-types, such as:
• Integer – which stores whole numbers. In Microsoft Access it is better to use
the ‘long integer’ sub-type.
• Decimal – which stores decimal numbers.
• Currency – which displays local currency formatting. In Microsoft Access this
is called a currency data type, although it is technically a sub-type.
• Date and Time – in Microsoft Access this displays the date in a recognised date
format but stores the date and/or time as a number.

Boolean This is used to store data as 0 or –1 to represent Yes/No, True/False.

In Microsoft Access this is called a ‘Yes/No’ field.
Apart from these three main data types, Microsoft Access also includes an
‘autonumber’ field. This is an automatically generated unique data field, which
can be used to index and organise data.

Sample exam question

Anna is the principal of a college. She has employed a systems analyst
to create a new database system to store records of her A-level
students.
 Examples of the details of some students which will be stored are:

• Nadia Nowak, C3058, Female, 174, Not University

• Alfons Lisowski, C3072, Male, 177, University
• Nicola Menossi, F3888, Female, 173, Not University
• Giovanni Agnelli, D3012, Male, 192, University

Copy and complete the following data dictionary by entering the field
names and most appropriate data type for each field. For any numeric
field, specify the sub-type.
[5]

Field name Data type

Forename


Boolean
Height

Student’s answer
Field name Data type
Forename Text
Second name Alphanumeric
Student_ID Alphanumeric
Gender Boolean
Height Numeric – integer
Post_18 Boolean
Examiner’s comments
The data type for the Forename field should have been identified as
Alphanumeric which is the correct name for this data type; however, as Text is
the field type used in some software, examiners would be likely to credit the
student with this mark. The field name that should have been Surname,
Second_Name or Family_Name contains a space so would be unlikely to gain a
mark. The data type for this field, though, is correct. The student_ID and its data
type are both correct answers. The field name Gender is an appropriate field
name for this Boolean data. The data type for Height is an excellent answer
indicating both the data type and sub-type. For the last row, field names such as
Post_18 or After_College are fine, and the student has recognised that the data
in the field has two possible conditions so it is Boolean.

Examiner’s tips
• Take great care to follow the naming conventions for field names
used in the question; if underscores are used instead of spaces,
continue this convention in your field names.
• Remember to keep all field names short, meaningful and containing
no spaces. Examine the question carefully before attempting to
answer it.

Form design
Forms can include data-capture forms, which are often created on paper to
collect the data to add to a database, or online data-entry forms. All these forms
should have the following features:
• A title
• Instructions on completing the form
• Appropriate font styles and sizes for the target audience
• Clear easy-to-read questions (closed questions where possible)
• Boxes (or other indication of space) for the answers
• Appropriate sizes for the answer boxes (not all the same size)
• Similar fields grouped into blocks/categories (for example, all address fields
together)
• No crowding of fields (all should have white space between)
• The form fills the page
• No large areas of white space
• Only relevant data collected.

Online data-entry forms should also have navigation buttons; to submit/save

the data (and move to the next record), clear the form, close the form, minimise
the form, move to the first record, previous record, quit, and so on. Where online
forms are being designed the use of radio buttons or dropdown menus should be
used where possible.

Searching for subsets of data

Access queries are used to search for data. They can be simple queries using
single criterion or more complex queries using multiple criteria. Queries can
contain equalities using = and LIKE, or inequalities using >, >=, <, =<, and <>.
The three Boolean statements AND, OR and NOT can also be included in your
queries. The * key will allow you to perform wildcard searches.

Sample exam question

A database contains the following data about meal costs at venues in
England:

List the results which would be output when the following search
criteria are used on the Town field:
a *FORD
b FORD*
c *FORD*
[3]
Student’s answers
a ASHFORD, BRADFORD
b FORDHAM
c ASHFORD, ASHFORDLY, BRADFORD, BRENTFORD, FORDHAM
Examiner’s comments
a The student has found the first two towns ending with the word FORD but has
omitted the town of BRENTFORD.
b This is correct, the student has found the only town starting with FORD.
c This is correct, the student has found all the towns containing the word FORD.

Examiner’s tip
This is a good example of a typical IGCSE answer where the student
understands the question yet has, in part a missed out one of the
answers. A good examination technique is to read the question, answer
it, read the same question again, then check that the answer is correct.
This technique can make a significant difference to your performance in
the final examinations.
Common errors
The default setting in the query wizard (in some versions of Access) is to the
last query or table that you used. Where two questions require independent
queries, the results of the first query are selected as the source data for the
second query, rather than selecting the original table.
Make sure that you select the source data appropriate to the task you are
completing. This often means that you need to change the source data back
to being the original table. Don’t leave the result of the previous query as
your source data.

Extracting summary data and performing

calculations
Selecting summary data does not show each data item when the query is run, it
can be found in Summary options when using the query wizard. This option is
only available if you have selected one or more numeric fields as summary
calculations cannot be completed on other data types. These allow you to
perform calculations like sum and average on these numeric fields and counting
the number of records.
You can also use arithmetic operations or numeric functions to perform
calculations in a field where the results are calculated as the query is run. Some
of the functions available for this are:

Sum – the total value of the data selected

Avg – the mean value or average of the data selected
Min – the minimum value of the data selected
Max – the maximum or largest value of the data selected
Count – the number of records selected.

You will need to remember the syntax for formulae used in your queries. If a
calculated field is required (this is usually worded as ‘calculated at run-time’) it
must have the following syntax:
NameOfTheNewCalculatedField: [ExistingFieldname] Operator
[ExistingFieldname]
or
 NameOfTheNewCalculatedField: [ExistingFieldname] Operator Variable

Sample exam question

Using fields from the Meals database table on page 127, identify what
would be entered to:
a Create a new field called Total_Cost which is calculated at run-time.
This field will show the Meal_Cost multiplied by the number of
Guests.
[2]
b Create a new field called Total_Plus_1 which is calculated at run-
time. This field will show the Meal_Cost multiplied by the number of
Guests multiplied by 2.
[3]
Student’s answers
a Total_Cost: [Meal_Cost] * [Guest]
b Total_Plus_1: [Meal_Cost] * [Guests] * 2
Examiner’s comments
a The student has gained three of the 4 marks. The correct field selection has
been made for Total_Cost and the syntax of the ‘:’colon after it is correct. The
[Meal_Cost] field is correct and enclosed in square brackets to indicate it is a
field. The correct mathematical operator (the ‘*’) has been used, but the
student has called the last field Guest rather than Guests although the square
brackets are correct to indicate it is a field.
b This is the correct answer and is worth all 3 marks.

Producing reports
When an examination question asks you to produce a report it does not always
mean a report generated from Microsoft Access. This is often the easiest method
but reports can be produced in a word processor, cutting and pasting the data
from other places.
When creating reports in Access, make sure that you show all the data in the
report; often students include all the fields and correct records but do not enlarge
the control (often for the data but sometimes for the label) so that all of the data
for every record is fully visible. Use the drag handle on the control to enlarge it
when you are in Design view.

Examiner’s tips
• Look at the query (or table) used to create the report and identify the
longest data item for each field. Use these data items to check in the
report that each control is wide enough.
• If the question does not specify the page orientation, set this to
landscape to allow more data to fit across each page.

Sorting data
Data can be sorted in either the query or the report. At IGCSE level it is easier to
sort the data in the report. At this level you do not need to use grouping within
your reports. Here are two examples of data being sorted in ascending order:

apple
ball
cake
dog
or

1
2
3
4

Here are two examples of data being sorted in descending order:

dog
cake
ball
apple

or

4
3
2
1

Exam-style questions
1 Describe the following database features:
a A record
b A field
c A file
d A table
e A report
 f A query
g A calculated control
[7 marks]
2 Explain the differences between a flat-file database and a relational
database.
[4 marks]
3 My-Music-Inc sells many music DVDs. Below is a small selection of
the DVDs stored on its database.
The data has been sorted on two fields.

a Write down the field which was used as the primary sort in the
database and the order in which it was sorted.
[2 marks]
b Write down the field which was used as the secondary sort in the
database and the order in which it was sorted.
[2 marks]
c Tracy is the owner of My-Music-Inc and receives requests from
customers about the music DVDs that are in stock. She converts
these requests into search criteria.
For example: a customer might ask for a list of DVDs that were
released before 2016 and DVDs with more than 12 tracks. Tracy
would write this as:
Released < 2016 OR Tracks > 12
Write down the search criteria for a customer who wants a list of all
the DVDs that were released after 2015 that cost less than £10.00.
[3 marks]
 d Write down the names of the artists whose DVDs match the
requirements of part c.
[1 mark]
CHAPTER 19
Presentations
Key objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to revise:
• presentations, media and audience
• master slides
• presentation slides
• audience notes
• presenter notes
• transitions
• animations.
Key terms
Term Definition
Aspect The relationship between the width and height of an object. In
ratio the case of a presentation the width and height of the display,
often either 4:3 or 16:9.

Presentations, media and audience

Figure 19.1 Presentation slides and audience

A presentation is a series of slides used to give information to an audience.

Methods of delivery can include on a:
• large screen to teach/lecture
• monitor as a constant on-screen carousel.
They are often used to:
• give information/teach
• advertise products.
Depending on the purpose of the presentation and the target audience for the
presentation, you can select the:
• type of presentation
• medium for delivery
• aspect ratio of the presentation (often 4:3 or 16:9)
• styles used within the presentation.
Keep it simple and be consistent when creating your presentation using:
• one theme
• one simple colour scheme with good contrast
• one or two font styles
• consistent font sizes
• bulleted lists rather than sentences
• a master slide.

Master slides
A master slide allows you to design/change the layout of all slides with one
action. It holds information on colours, fonts, effects and the positioning of
objects on the slides. Adding or changing master slide elements means that you
do not have to change every slide individually.
To change all slides in Microsoft PowerPoint always change the settings in the
primary (top) master slide. This one overrides the slide masters for the other
slide types which are found below the primary master slide.

Presentation slides
Check carefully as you place objects on each slide that no object touches or
overlaps the objects placed on the master slide (unless instructed to do so by the
question paper). Make sure that the objects are clearly visible and that the text
has good contrast with the colours in the background/theme you have selected.
Different types of slide layout will allow you to place text, images, lines,
shapes, graphs and charts, video and audio clips on the slide. Select carefully the
type of slide that you require each time you insert a new slide.

Audience notes
If a presentation is being used to teach or lecture to an audience, it is common
for audience notes to be used. These are paper copies of the slides of a
presentation that are given to the audience, so they can add their own notes and
take them away from the presentation. If you are required to print audience notes
in PowerPoint, select the appropriate option from the ‘Handout’ section.

Presenter notes
Presenter notes are also used when teaching or lecturing to an audience.
Presenter notes are a copy of the presentation’s slides with prompts and/or key
facts that need to be told to the audience by the person delivering the
presentation. Presenter notes are added in the Notes area of the presentation, just
below the slides. If you are required to print presenter notes in PowerPoint,
selecting ‘Notes Pages’ is often the most appropriate.

Transitions
Transitions between slides are the methods used to introduce/move to a new
slide. This can be simply replacing the existing slide with a new slide or using a
number of different features to change from one to another. Transitions can be
timed to run automatically (for example, in a looped on-screen carousel) or set to
be manually selected by clicking the mouse (a controlled presentation). For the
practical examinations, always use the same transition throughout the
presentation (unless told otherwise in the question paper). Use screen shots to
show the examiner that you have used transitions, by selecting the Slide Sorter
view, then the Transitions tab.

Animations
An animation effect is the effect used to introduce an object within the slide.
Animations can be timed or manually selected by clicking the mouse. For the
practical examinations, always use the same animation throughout the
presentation (unless told otherwise in the question paper). Use screen shots of
the Animation Pane to show the examiner your animations.

Sample exam question

Discuss the statement:
‘Sarah says “Transitions and animations in a presentation are the same
thing”, but Brian disagrees.’
[6]
Student’s answer
Brian is right because they are not the same thing.
Examiner’s comments
This is a really weak answer, there is no evidence presented to the examiner why
the student thinks that Brian is correct. As a ‘discuss’ question arguments for
and against would be expected; in this case, it would be a good idea to suggest
that they are both very similar as they are ‘actions’ that are performed on slides
and the objects placed on slides. The student could enhance this by saying that
both actions can be timed to run automatically or to operate when the mouse is
clicked. These factors would support Sarah’s argument. However, transitions are
actions performed on the slides whereas animations are on objects within the
slides, which would support Brian’s argument. A reasoned conclusion from these
points would also allow the student to gain an extra mark.

Examiner’s tip
Do not give a short one-line answer to answer any ‘discuss’ question.
Always look for two sides to the discussion, offering different points and
detail to support these points for both sides before trying to use the
points to come up with a reasoned conclusion.

Exam-style questions
1 A presentation will be delivered as a lecture and use both presenter
notes and audience notes. Explain why audience notes and
presenter notes often contain different content.
[2 marks]
2 A presentation will be used in a shopping mall to advertise different
shops and their products. Identify the feature added to the
presentation to make sure that it never ends.
[1 mark]
CHAPTER 20
Data analysis
Key objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to revise:
• data models
• spreadsheet structures
• formulae
• absolute and relative cell referencing
• functions
• nested functions
• test the data model
• select subsets of data
• sort data
• format cells.
Key terms
Term Definition
Cell A single square/box within a spreadsheet, into which only
a single entry can be placed.
Row All the cells in one horizontal line in a spreadsheet.
Column All the cells in one vertical line in a spreadsheet.
Sheet All the cells in one two-dimensional grid within a
spreadsheet workbook.
Label Text placed in a spreadsheet cell, often denoting a
heading or name associated with a value.
Value A number placed in a spreadsheet cell.
Formula A set of instructions/calculation placed in a spreadsheet
cell. The result of the calculation is usually displayed in
the cell. A formula can include cell references, numbers,
mathematical symbols and, in some cases, pre-defined
functions.
Function Is a pre-set formula with a name (which is a reserved
word) placed in a spreadsheet cell.
Absolute Is a cell reference within a formula that will not change
reference when a cell is replicated. To set this, a $ symbol is placed
before the part of the cell reference that must not
change.
Relative A cell reference within a formula that will change when a
reference cell is replicated.
Range A group or block of cells in a spreadsheet that have been
selected or highlighted.
Named cell A cell that is given a more meaningful name by the user
 than its usual cell reference.
Named A group or block of cells in a spreadsheet that have been
range given a single name by the user. This allows the user to
enter this name in their formulae rather than
remembering the cell references for the cells in this
range.
Nested One spreadsheet function is used within another function
functions in a cell.
Spreadsheet A spreadsheet that is used to investigate different
model outcomes by changing one or more variables within it.
Normal data Data used to test a system. Data that is within an
acceptable range and is usual for the situation.
Abnormal Data used to test a system. Data that is of the wrong
data type (for example, text where it should be numeric) or is
outside the accepted range.
Extreme Data used to test a system. Where data must be within a
data certain range, extreme data is the data on either
boundary of the range.

Data models
A spreadsheet is often used to create a data model. By changing the contents of
one or more cells in a spreadsheet, different outcomes can be calculated and
predicted. Sometimes data modelling is called making a ‘what if scenario’.
These models are often:
• financial
• mathematical
• scientific.

Spreadsheet structures
A spreadsheet is a two-dimensional table or grid consisting of rows, columns and
cells and is used to perform calculations.
All spreadsheets store data using:
Rows Each row is all the cells in one horizontal line in a spreadsheet. The row
heading contains the number displayed to the left of the first cell.
Columns Each column is all the cells in one vertical line in a spreadsheet. The
column heading contains the letter displayed above the top cell.
Cells Each is a single square/box within a spreadsheet into which only a
single entry can be placed. A cell can hold a:
• label (some text)
• number
• formula (that starts with an = sign).
Cells can be formatted to display data in different ways, so what a user sees in
the cell is not always the actual content of the cell.
Each cell has a reference like C5 which is the cell’s address in the spreadsheet.
You can give an individual cell or a block of cells a name, so a cell’s reference
may not be seen if the cell has been given a name. These cells or blocks of cells
are called named cells and named ranges.
Sometimes more than one spreadsheet (which is sometimes called a
worksheet) are stored together in a workbook.

Examiner’s tip
Practise using named cells and named ranges. These are often
required in the practical examinations. Make sure that you name the
range exactly as it appears in the question paper (including case).

Formulae
Formulae start with an = sign. Simple formulae can be used to:
• Refer to the contents of another cell. For example: cell A2 contains the
formula =B4 The formula copies the contents of B4 and displays it in A2. If
the contents of B4 were changed, then the contents of A2 would also change.
• Perform calculations. For example: cell A7 contains the formula =A5+A6
The formula adds together the contents of cells A5 and A6 and displays the
result in cell A7. If the values held in either A5 or A6 were changed, then the
contents of A7 would change.

The spreadsheet performs all calculations using the mathematical order of

operations. It always performs anything in brackets (or parentheses) first, then
indices (or powers), Multiplication, Division, Addition and finally Subtraction
last.

Mathematical operators
Symbol Operation
+ Addition
– Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
^ Indices (to the power of)

Sample exam questions

Nicola tries the following formulae in her spreadsheet to model the total
cost of some items:

a Calculate the answers that will be seen in:

i Cell A5
ii Cell A6
[2]
b Explain, giving examples, why these two formulae might not always
provide the same answers.
[3]
Student’s answers
a i 30
ii 30
b Both give the same answer so they are both correct.
Examiner’s comments
Both parts of part a of this question are correct. For part b, this is very short
answer for a 3 mark question, and it contains an incorrect response as it ignores
the help from the question suggesting the formulae ‘might not always provide the
same answers’. Although the student has realised that for this set of data the
correct answer is gained in cell A5, they have not realised that, should the
number of items or the cost of each item change, this cell would still give the
total 30. As the question tells us that this spreadsheet will be used to model the
total cost of some items, it is almost certain that the contents of either cell A2 or
B2 (or both) are likely to change. When this happens the answer in cell A6 will
give the correct answer, but the formula in cell A5 is unlikely to do so. To gain
the final mark for this question, the student would demonstrate this reasoning
and then conclude that Nicola is not correct with her statement.

Examiner’s tip
When asked to model data, design your spreadsheet so that you do not
have to change your formulae. Referencing to other cells (like the
formula in A6 in the question above) is the best method.

Absolute and relative cell referencing

Absolute cell referencing is a way of fixing the position of a cell within a
formula. It is fixed using the $ key. For example, the formula =A3*$A$1 has the
reference to cell A1 set as an absolute reference while the reference to cell A3
is a relative reference. When the formula is replicated (copied) the reference to
cell A1 will not change but the reference to cell A3 will change.
Named cells and named ranges are automatically set as absolute references.
Functions
A function is a pre-set formula with a name. All types of spreadsheet software
contain built-in functions. Make sure you are familiar with the use of each of
these functions:

Function Use Example

SUM Adds two or more numbers =SUM(A3:A9)
together.
AVERAGE Calculates the average =AVERAGE(A3:A9)
(mean) of a range of numbers
by adding all the numbers
together and dividing this total
by the number of numbers
that were added.
MAX Displays the largest =MAX(A3:A9)
(maximum) number from a
range of numbers.
MIN Displays the smallest =MIN(A3:A9)
(minimum) number from a
range of numbers.
INT Calculates the integer (whole =INT(B3)
number) part of a number by
removing all digits after the
decimal point.
ROUND Calculates a number rounded =ROUND(B3,0)
 to a number of decimal
places. If 0 decimal places
are specified it rounds to the
nearest whole number. This
looks at the first digit after the
decimal point and, if it is five
or more, adds one to the
whole number answer.
COUNT This looks at the cells within a =COUNT(A3:A9)
given range and counts the
number of these cells that
contain numbers.
COUNTA This looks at the cells within a =COUNTA(A3:A9)
given range and counts the
number of these cells that
contain labels and/or
numbers.
COUNTIF This looks at the cells within a =COUNTIF(A3:A9,B3)
given range and counts the
number of cells in that range
that meet a given condition.
The condition is placed in the
function and can be a
number, a label, an inequality
or a cell reference.
IF This gives different =IF(A1=”Fred”,0.5,A2*3)
actions/calculations/results
depending upon the results of
a given condition. If the
condition is true, the first
action/ calculation/result is
displayed/calculated. If the
condition is false the second
action/calculation/ result is
displayed/calculated.
SUMIF This looks at the cells within a =SUMIF(A3:A9,4,B3:B9)
given range and if the cells in
that range meet a given
condition it adds the value in
a corresponding cell to
produce the total.
HLOOKUP This performs a horizontal =HLOOKUP(A3,C2:G3,2,0)
look-up of data, by looking at
each of the cells in the top
row of a given range, and
comparing them with a given
condition. The condition is
placed in the function and can
be a number, a string, an
inequality or a cell reference.
If the condition matches the
contents of a cell, a value is
looked up from the
corresponding cell in a row
below. The number of the
required row is placed in the
function (in the example
shown, it is the second row in
the range). The final
parameter of the function can
be 0 (or False) which forces
an exact match when the
data is compared or 1 (or
True) for an approximate
match.
VLOOKUP This performs a vertical look- =VLOOKUP(A3,A5:C9,3,1)
up of data, by looking at each
of the cells in the left column
of a given range, and
comparing them with a given
 condition. The condition is
placed in the function and can
be a number, a string, an
inequality or a cell reference.
If the condition matches the
contents of a cell, a value is
looked up from the
corresponding cell in a
column to the right. The
number of the column to the
right is placed in the function
(in the example shown, it is
the third column in the range).
The final parameter of the
function can be 0 (or False)
which forces an exact match
when the data is compared or
1 (or True) for an approximate
match.

Nested functions
Sometimes examination questions will ask for formulae that are more complex.
These types of question will often need one function inside another function. If
three different conditions are needed then nested IF functions are ideal. If there
are lots of different conditions, using either VLOOKUP or HLOOKUP is a better
option than lots of different nested IF statements.

Sample exam question

Identify the formula that you would place in cell A10 to display the text
Lower, Middle or Higher depending upon the contents of cell A3. If cell
A3 contains a value:
• between 8 and 12 inclusive then display ‘Middle’
• less than 8 then display ‘Lower’
• greater than 12 then display ‘Higher’.
[8]
Student’s answer
=IF(A3<8,“Lower”,IF(8=<A3=12,“Middle”,IF(A3=<12Higher”,0))
Examiner’s comments
There is no single correct answer to this question. The student has started well
by realising that nested IF functions would offer the best solution, but because
there can be no other possible conditions for numbers held in A3 (it has to be
less than 8, between 8 and 12 or greater than 12) only two IF statements are
needed.
The student has also correctly identified that the data in the question is in an
illogical order and has worked from the lowest value in A3 to the highest.
The initial =IF(A3<8,“Lower”, is correct and would gain marks, but the next
section contains a serious syntax error. The condition IF(8<=A3=12, would not
be recognised by Excel as this contains two conditions and no logical operator
like AND or OR to link them. The two conditions are not needed as anything less
than 8 has already been trapped by the earlier function, so a single condition
like IF(A3<=12 would work. Because Excel would stop at this point, no further
marks would be awarded for this formula.
This student’s solution also contains another syntax error. There are three
opening brackets and only two closing brackets.
There are many correct possible answers, such as:
=IF(A3<8,“Lower”,IF(A3<=12,“Middle”,“Higher”))
=IF(A3>12,“Higher”,IF(A3>=8,“Middle”, “Lower”))

Examiner’s tip
When given a question that requires nested IF functions, always work
from lowest to highest (in order) or from highest to lowest. Do not
assume that the order of the question will give you the correct results.

Test the data model

Create a test plan. The test plan should test each formula entered into your
spreadsheet. The first part of the test plan, the expected output, must be
completed before the formulae are entered into the spreadsheet. Choose numbers
that are easy to calculate with, and numbers that test every boundary as
appropriate test data. Include (where possible) at least two examples of normal,
abnormal and extreme data. This test data must be selected to test each
calculation. The results of each calculation for each piece of data should be
calculated manually (performed without the spreadsheet) and recorded in the
expected output column of the test plan.
Enter the formulae, then enter each item of test data from the test plan into
your spreadsheet and record the actual output for this data in your test plan.
Compare your expected results to the actual results. This should help you
identify any errors. Make sure that you test each element of the spreadsheet with
normal, abnormal and, where appropriate, extreme data.
At the end of this process another test can be undertaken using ‘live data’.
This is real data where the results are already known (perhaps from the previous
month’s figures from a previous system) and the expected and actual results
from the new system are again compared.

Select subsets of data

Use the Custom AutoFilter tool (see page 352 in the Cambridge IGCSE ICT
Coursebook) to search for subsets of data in your spreadsheet. This tool will
allow you to present the examiner with evidence of your method by taking
screen shots of the Custom AutoFilter window and placing this in your Evidence
Document. Using the dropdown filter options does not always show the
examiner evidence of your method. This facility also allows you to use other
features, like the use of the ? symbol to show a single wildcard character and the
* symbol to show a wildcard selection of any length.

Sort data
Make sure that you select all the data for each item to be sorted. Make sure that
you do not include the column headings in the data that is sorted.
Common errors
When a block of data needs to be sorted into a particular order, for example,
by name only, the single column of data that you are sorting by (the name
column) has been selected.
Highlight the whole block of data before performing the sort. Otherwise,
when the data is sorted (by name column) the other data in the block would
not be sorted with it and the integrity of the data would be lost.
When all the data has been selected the column headings are also selected so
that these are sorted within the data.
Highlight all the data apart from the column headings or select the tick box
for ‘My data has headers’.

Examiner’s tip
If more than one level of sorting is required on your data, always use
‘Custom Sort…’ to open the sort window. This allows you to add the
different levels of sorting and also allows you to screen shot this
window to place evidence of your method in your Evidence Document.

Format cells
Cells can be formatted to enhance the contents and create, for example, titles and
subtitles. Make sure to practise merging cells, applying bold, italic and
underlining, changing the background and foreground (text) colours, selecting
different font sizes and styles, including serif and sans serif fonts.
Formatting cells containing numbers changes the way each cell is displayed
but does not change the value held within it.
Common errors
Where a question states ‘Calculate… to 0 decimal places’; you format the
cell(s) as integers (to 0 decimal places) rather than using the INT or ROUND
functions.
If the question states ‘Calculate… to 0 decimal places’ use the INT or
ROUND function.

Examiner’s tips
• If a question asks for ‘… rounded to one decimal place’ this means
the answer is both rounded and displayed to one decimal place. If a
question asks ‘… displayed to one decimal place’ the number in the
cell is not changed but the cell is formatted to show only one decimal
place.
• If a question asks you to ‘apply appropriate formatting to the
spreadsheet’, check the initial rubric as this usually indicates the type
of currency or other formatting and the number of decimal places.
You will need to identify which cells should be, for example,
currency/percentage and format these as appropriate.
Common errors
Currency format is applied to all numeric cells in the spreadsheet.
Check what each cell represents. Only format it as currency or percentage,
and so on, if it contains that type of data.
The currency symbol can’t be found in my regional settings so I will not
format the cells.
Scroll down the list of currencies available until the three-letter ISO codes
appear. If the currency symbol for the country is not available use the ISO
(international standard) code, for example: for US dollars ($) it is USD, for
pounds (£) sterling it is GBP (Great Britain pounds).

Change the size of the row and columns

Make sure that you set the column width and row height so that all data and
labels are fully displayed.
Common errors
Producing printouts, particularly formulae printouts, where not all of the
formulae are fully visible. If examiners cannot see what you have done, they
cannot award you the marks!
Check that each formula is fully visible. Don’t just check the first row. Often
the last row is much longer than the first. If it can’t all be seen, make the row
wider.
Producing printouts where all the formulae are fully visible but are so small it
is impossible to read.
Do not leave lots of white space in each cell after the formulae. If the
question paper does not instruct you to print on a single page wide, allow the
formulae printout to run over more than one page.

Examiner’s tip
Set the page orientation to landscape unless the question instructs you
to use portrait.

Exam-style questions
1 The following spreadsheet shows the value of sales in a number of
countries.
 a Cell E5 contains the formula:
=SUMIF($H$2:$H$21,B5,$I$2:$I$21)
Explain what this formula does.
[4 marks]
b Write down the formula you would expect to see in cell E6.
[3 marks]
c The formula in cell I22 refers to all the values in column I. Write
down the formula you would expect to see in cell I22 to produce
the value 20.
[2 marks]
2 Two students use different formulae to calculate the whole number of
dollars for products that they have sold.
Student A uses the formula:
=INT(A42*A43)
 Student B uses the formula:
=ROUND(A42*A43,0)
Explain (using examples) why sometimes the two formulae give the
same answer, other times they do not.
[4 marks]
3 a A cell contains the function =COUNTIF(ObjectTable,$A$3)
Explain what this function does.
[3 marks]
b Explain why $A$3 has been used rather than A3.
[3 marks]
CHAPTER 21
Website authoring
Key objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to revise:
• web page creation layers
• web page structure
• styles in HTML
• tables
• images in a web page
• animated images, video and audio files
• bulleted and numbered lists
• hyperlinks
• stylesheet structure
• working with colour
• text in the stylesheet
• background colours and images
• classes
• tables in the stylesheet
• publish a website
• test a website.
Key terms
Term Definition
Website A collection of interrelated web pages that relate to one
topic or organisation and are usually accessible via the
internet.
Content One of the three layers in web page development. The
layer content layer is used to define the structure of the web
page, often using tables or frames, and the content of
the pages including text or images and hyperlinks to
other pages. The content layer is often written in HTML
or XHTML.
Presentation One of the three layers in web page development. The
layer presentation layer is used to define how a web page will
look to the viewer. It provides the colour schemes,
themes and styles seen when a web page is displayed
and is usually written in CSS.
Behaviour One of the three layers in web page development. The
layer behaviour layer is used to do ‘an action’ (rather than just
display or link to other pages) and often uses script
languages embedded into the HTML. There are many
different script languages but the most common for web
development are JavaScript PHP, Perl and CGI.
HTML HyperText Markup Language: a text-based language
used to create markup, so that web browser software will
be able to display information in different ways.
CSS Cascading StyleSheet: a language used for the
presentation layer in web development. This language is
used to define how elements of a web page appear in
the web browser. CSS elements can be embedded
within HTML or attached to a web page as a cascading
 stylesheet.
Text editor Software that allows you to type and edit plain text. It
contains few or no features that allow formatting of
documents.
WYSIWYG What You See Is What You Get: in terms of website
authoring, relates to packages that create or edit HTML
markup using a graphics interface. For example, you
may enlarge or reduce the size of an image on a web
page by using the drag handles. The WYSIWYG
package will edit the HTML markup so that this change
will appear whenever the page is opened.
Tag A command used in HTML to instruct a web browser
how to display text, images or other objects. The tags
are not displayed on the web page. Some tags are used
with attributes.
Head The section of HTML in a web page that contains page
titles (visible in the browser tab but not on the page),
styles (for example, the links to external stylesheets),
and the meta data (for example, the tags used by search
engines).
Body The section of HTML in a web page that contains the
contents (for example, text, images) and the tags
describing the content, hyperlinks and structure (for
example, tables used to lay out the page) of a web page.
Ordered list A list within a web page that is ordered and has numbers
or letters for each list item.
Unordered A list within a web page that is in no specific order and
list has bullet points for each list item.
Hyperlink A reference within an electronic document (like a web
page) to another place in the same document or to a
different document. Hyperlinks are the foundation of any
hypertext system, including the world wide web.
Embedded Styles (created in CSS) that are inserted and saved
styles within the body section of the HTML of a web page.
Attached A document containing style definitions that is attached
stylesheet to a web page using the link tag in the head section. The
styles from this stylesheet are used to display the web
page.
RGB Defines the different amounts of red, green and blue
(which are the primary colours of light) that are sent to
the display to change the colour of each pixel.
Bandwidth This is a reference to the range of frequencies a
communication channel can handle. The bigger the
bandwidth the more data can be sent and received at
the same time. The amount of data that can be
communicated also relies upon the transfer rate. This is
often used to describe internet connection, with the term
‘broadband´ meaning it has more than 3KHz (although in
real terms at least 300MHz is needed in current
systems).
Domain This is the name given to the place we can find a
name particular website on the internet.
FTP File Transfer Protocol allows a copy of data to be sent
from one computer to another. It controls the data and
sends it in blocks, checking each block as it arrives for
errors.

Web page creation layers

A web page is created using three layers:
• The content layer – contains the structure of the web page and its contents
including text, images and hyperlinks. This is created in HTML (HyperText
Markup Language).
• The presentation layer – contains the styles and appearance of the web page.
This is created in CSS (Cascading StyleSheet).
• The behaviour layer – contains actions within the web page that often
involve script languages. This is often created in JavaScript but is beyond the
 scope of the IGCSE course.

Web page structure

This is completed in the content layer and is created in HTML. Whether you use
a text editor like Notepad or a What You See Is What You Get (WYSIWYG)
package to develop a web page, it is always wise to add comments to your page.
For the practical examination, these should include your name, centre number
and candidate number. Comments are added using the following HTML syntax:

Make sure your HTML5 starts with <!DOCTYPE html> followed by <html>
and ends with </html>.
Between the <html> and </html> tags, each web page is split into two
sections:
• the head section
• the body section.

The head section is always above the body section and contains elements used
in the page but not displayed on the page, for example, the page title and
attached stylesheets. The body section contains the structure of the page, the
contents placed within this structure and any hyperlinks. The structure of the
web page you will create for the examinations will use tables.

Examiner’s tip
Each time you make a small change to your HTML (or your CSS), save
it, load the web page back into your browser (or press F5 to refresh it),
then test the changes you have made. If you save and test after each
change, it is easy to correct any errors that you may make.

Styles in HTML
HTML contains a number of pre-defined styles, including:
• p paragraph style
• li list style (for bulleted or numbered lists)
• h1 heading style 1 (usually has the largest font size)
• h2 heading style 2
• h3 heading style 3
• h4 heading style 4
• h5 heading style 5
• h6 heading style 6 (usually has the smallest font size)
Your browser has default settings defined for each of these styles but you can
change how each one looks later in the presentation layer. Each of these styles is
applied with an opening tag such as <p> and closed with </p>. The / tells the
browser that this style has now finished. When you define any text in your web
page always use one of the style definitions above.

Tables
Tables are used to structure the web page. They are used to organise page layout
and often to define the structure with no borders visible, so that a page keeps a
similar look even when a browser is resized. Each table can have a header with
header data, footer with footer data, and body section with table rows and table
data in each cell. These areas are defined by the tags <table>, <thead>, <th>,
<tfoot>, <tbody>, <tr>, <td>, respectively. Again a / is placed after the < to
close each section, for example </table>.
Table borders can be set as on using the attribute <table border=“1”> or off
with <table border=“”>. They can also be made invisible in the presentation
layer (CSS) attached to the web page. All other changes to table borders are
made in the CSS, although this is sometimes placed in the HTML as an
embedded style using the style attribute. An example of this is to merge all
borders within a table where the CSS border-collapse element has been
embedded in the HTML: <table border=“1” style=“border-
collapse:collapse”>.
See page 373 of the Cambridge IGCSE ICT Coursebook for more detail on
table structures.

Examiner’s tip
Practise creating and editing tables including the use of the rowspan
and colspan attributes <td rowspan=…> and <td colspan=…> to make
table data appear over more than one row and/or column.
Sample exam question
Identify the HTML used to create a table structure, with no formatting,
to look like this:

Cost table
Item Cost
Apple $0.40
Banana $0.80

List only the HTML for the table and one line of markup as a comment
with your name.
[6]
Student’s answer
Examiner’s comments
This markup contains a number of errors that would not allow the table to be
displayed as shown in the question. The table data in the first row contains an
error. This should show a colspan set to 2 rather than a rowspan set to 2. The
final row of the table does not have a <tr> tag. The table has not been closed
with a </table> tag. The markup for the table tag contains embedded CSS using
the style attribute. The indented markup helps both the student and the examiner
check each pair of tags is present, notice how all <tr> and </tr> tags start at
the same point on each line and within each table row all the <td> tags also start
from the same point but are indented from the <tr> tags.

Examiner’s tip
Some of the errors identified here are typical of those found in students’
answers. For example, not carefully reading the question, which
specified no formatting, yet embedded CSS has been created by the
student. Not closing each tag with its corresponding / tag. As almost all
HTML tags work in pairs (there are a few exceptions like <BRK><IMG>),
check carefully that each tag is closed in the correct place.

Images in a web page

Images are inserted into the framework of the table. The image (<img>) tag is
used for this. This tag should always have (at least) two attributes, these are the:
• image source (src) which identifies the name of the file that will be used as
the image
• the alternate text (alt) which is displayed instead of the image if the image
cannot be displayed.
The image tag is one of the few tags that does not have a closing tag. An
example of the syntax is:

You will notice that the image source does not have any file path. For this
hyperlink to work, the image must be stored in the same folder as the saved web
page (they will be uploaded from this folder to the host web server) or the image
will not be displayed.
Bitmap graphics formats have always been used for websites, in particular
JPEG (.jpg), GIF (.gif) and more recently PNG (.png). Scalable vector graphics
(.svg) are now also being used in some web pages but these are not suitable for
all types of image.
For the purposes of the IGCSE, concentrate your answers on bitmap format
graphics (not .bmp format) such as JPEGs, GIFs and PNGs. Each of these can be
resized in a graphics package (often to reduce the image and file sizes) or you
can use embedded CSS in a style attribute of the image tag. So to resize the
image img0047 to 200 pixels wide (and maintain its aspect ratio) the example
shown above will change to:

Animated images, video and audio files

To include animated images, use an animated GIF file and insert this like a still
image above, or use the <video> tag then add width and height attributes for the
video size and controls if required. A <source> tag is used to identify the source
of the video, which is different to the attribute used for a still image or animated
GIF file. An example of the syntax used for a video file is:

Audio files are placed in the HTML in a very similar way to video files, but do
not need width and height attributes. For example:

Bulleted and numbered lists

The <li> tag is used to open each item in a list, and each item is closed with
</li> tag. There are two types of lists available in a web page:
• An ordered list (which can appear as a numbered or lettered list). Each
ordered list (not each list item) starts with the <ol> tag and ends with </ol>.
• An unordered list (which is a bulleted list). Each unordered list (not each list
item) starts with the <ul> tag and the list ends with </ul>.

Sample exam question

The following HTML will be placed in the body section of a web page.

Describe the results of this markup when seen in a web browser.

[6]
Student’s answer
The title Holiday destinations has been placed above nested lists.
There are three lists, one main list and two sub-lists.
Examiner’s comments
This is the beginning of a good answer. The student has identified that the initial
text is in style h1 and is, therefore, a heading (although it would have been better
for them to also describe this to the examiner). They have also identified that
there are three lists, one a main list and two sub-lists.
The student has not identified the types of list used. For example: ‘The main
list is a bulleted or unordered list. It is not possible to identify the type of bullet
points that would be seen because that depends upon the list styles applied in the
stylesheet or on the browser’s default list style setting.’
For the two sub-lists the student could identify ‘that for two of the countries a
numbered or lettered list of some popular activities that take place in the country
has been included. It is not possible to identify the format of these lists from the
HTML as the presentation elements are covered in the stylesheet or in the
browser’s default ordered list settings’. Another good method is to use a diagram
as an example, along with the text, for example: ‘The browser may display this
so it looks like the example shown here.’ This could then lead into further detail
like that the sub-lists are indented from the main list, and so on. As it is a 6 mark
question detail is required.

Holiday destinations
• Maldives
1. relaxing beach holidays
2. scuba diving
3. wind surfing
• Austria
1. skiing
2. climbing
3. mountain biking
• Iceland

Examiner’s tip
While a diagram can help answer a question, the description is what
will gain the marks although sometimes a sketched diagram can help to
make it clear to the examiner what you are describing.
Hyperlinks
A hyperlink is a method of accessing another document or resource from your
current application. Hyperlinks can:
• move your position within a page
• open another page, either locally or on the internet
• open your email editor so that you can compose an email.
Each hyperlink is created using an <a> (anchor tag) and closed with </a>.
These tags must surround the text or image that will be used for the hyperlink.
The hyperlink is created by adding an href (hyperlink reference) attribute to the
anchor, which shows the place to move to (or action to perform). If the href is
set to a file path, for example: <a href=“page33.htm”> this must be a relative
file path (containing no references to any folder structure or local drives).
The use of an absolute file path, for example: <a
href=“D:/myfiles/page33.htm”> may work on the machine you are using but
is unlikely to work when uploaded to your web server.
Hyperlinks can be used to open web pages in the same browser window or a
new browser window by setting the target attribute. The target attribute can be
attached to an individual hyperlink like this: <a href=“page33.htm”
target=“_blank”>
There are a small number of acceptable target extensions but for IGCSE
_blank opens the new web page or document in a new window or tab and _self
opens it in the current window or tab.
If all hyperlinks to linked web pages or documents are to appear the same,
then this attribute can be set in the attached stylesheet as a default target window
using: <base target=“_blank”>
This must be placed in the <head> section of the web page. If the target
attribute is not used, the browser will decide where to open a web page.

Sample exam questions

a Describe what the following HTML does.
[2]
b Explain why the HTML in part a may not work.
[1]
c Describe what the following HTML does.
[2]

d Describe what the following HTML does.

[2]
Student’s answers
a When the user clicks on the text ‘mountain biking’ they are moved to
an internal bookmark which has been called ‘mb1’.
b It is not there.
c This hyperlink moves the user from the image called ‘bk.jpg’. When it
is clicked on it goes to a website.
d This sends an email to the person with the address
[email protected].
Examiner’s comments
a Is a sound student answer worth both marks, the first for identifying that the
text is used for the link and for identifying that it moves the user to an internal
anchor. It would have been even better if the student had used the word
‘hyperlink’ in their response.
b This is a common type of answer. The response is not worth any marks
because the student does not explain what is not there. A response like ‘There
may be no internal bookmark called “mb1” within the body text of the web
page’ would gain this mark.
c This response starts well. The student has identified it is a hyperlink and has
been very specific about the image and named it. The second part of this
response is not as strong; the student has identified that it goes to a website
but has not been specific enough in their answer. There is also no mention of
the target window selected in this markup. This new web page would open in
a new window called ‘_blank’ and would, therefore, appear as a new tab in
the browser.
d This is a classic incorrect answer. The hyperlink does not send an email. When
the hyperlink is clicked on it opens your default email editor and prepares an
email to the recipient. In this example, it also places the text ‘Revision guide’
into the subject line of the email, the %20 forces a single space between the
words.

Examiner’s tip
Think carefully about the answers you give, for ‘describe’ questions
give the examiner as much detail as possible. Do not assume the
examiner knows what you are thinking … put it down in your answer.

Stylesheet structure
This is completed in the presentation layer and is created in CSS. Whether you
use a text editor like Notepad or a WYSIWYG package to develop a web page, it
is always wise to add comments to your stylesheet. For the practical
examination, these should include your name, centre number and candidate
number. Comments are added using the following HTML syntax:
 Styles can be applied by using:
• embedded styles, where styles are placed using a style attribute within the
HTML, but these have to be defined for each element
• attached stylesheets, where styles are placed in a document that is loaded by
the browser. The style definitions from the document are applied to all
elements on the web page.
Embedded styles over-rule attached styles and are placed in the HTML like
this:

In this example this table would have a blue background colour and yellow
text, which may be different from the styles set in the attached stylesheet.
Attached stylesheets contain all the styles that may be needed for a web page.
Using these saves a lot of work as the styles only need defining once, then the
stylesheet can be attached to a number of pages. These web pages will then all
have the same presentation features. This is very useful for showing corporate
house styles. A number of different stylesheets can be attached in the <head>
section of each web page. The bottom stylesheet has the highest priority, then the
one above it, and so on, hence the name ‘cascading’ stylesheets as each one
flows towards the bottom (like a series of cascading waterfalls, the last one being
the largest and most powerful). The stylesheet is attached like this:

The hyperlink reference must be a relative file path containing no references

to any folder structure or local drives. If not, the stylesheet is unlikely to be
found when uploaded to your web server, unless the computer using the web
page has an identical filename and file structure to your computer.
If both attached stylesheets and embedded styles are included on a web page,
the embedded styles override the attached stylesheet.
All CSS rules have a selector and a declaration block like this:
• Each element has one or more declarations, each separated by a semi-colon.
• Each declaration has a property name and a value, separated by a colon.
• Each declaration block is surrounded by curly brackets.

Examiner’s tip
Practise creating styles in a stylesheet attached to a web page. Edit
each style to see what difference it makes. Remember to save the
stylesheet in CSS format after each change and to refresh the web
page for the changes to take effect.

Working with colour

Colour is always defined in the presentation layer (using CSS), usually in an
external stylesheet. Colour codes are usually referred to using hexadecimal
numbers and are always listed in RGB order. RGB are the primary colours for
light: Red, Green and Blue. Each hexadecimal colour code has six digits, two for
red, then two for green, then two for blue. This CSS will produce a web page
with a red background:

The # tells the browser that the number is in hexadecimal and the American
spelling of color must be used. The ff for the red component turns on full red
light for each pixel on the screen or projector and each 00 for green and blue
turns off these colours. If all colours are 00 (so it becomes #000000) then the
screen would be black as no colour is projected, and if they were all fully on
(#ffffff) then the screen would be white as mixing red, blue and green light
gives white light.

Text in the stylesheet

Setting font families in your stylesheet often requires you to specify three
different values for each declaration. One of these is usually a Microsoft
Windows font, one an Apple font and the third is usually a generic font style in
case neither of the font faces selected is available. An example of this is:

The browser looks at the font list and tries to find the first named font family
in its stored font list, if it is present it displays this. If not it looks at the next
named font, with the same results. If none of the named fonts is available it
displays its default serif or sans serif font.

Sample exam question

Define style h1 as Trebuchet, if this is not available then Trebuchet MS;
if neither of these fonts is available, then the browser’s default sans
serif font.
[4]
Student’s answer
Examiner’s comments
This student has got a font called Trebuchet installed in their computer, so they
have selected this as the only font required as it works for them at that moment
in time. The correct answer should have been:

Having dealt with setting font families, let us move on to consider font size.
Font size can also be set when text styles are defined, for example:

The font-family has been reduced to a single generic font so that it all fits on
one line, and the font-size property value has been set to 60 points high.

Examiner’s tip
Read the question carefully, especially where font size is concerned.
Font sizes are likely to be specified in either points or pixels (although
other types of measurement are possible). Marks are unlikely to be
awarded if the correct type of measurement is not present. There must
also be no space between the 60 and the pt.

Text alignment is set with the text-align property. The possible values that
can be added to this are shown here:

Text can be bold, italic or underlined. Each uses a different property for the
declaration. These are:
Text can be coloured using the color property followed by a hexadecimal RGB
value, such as:

Background colour and images

Background colours and images are defined in CSS with the body selector. The
background image is added with a value using url syntax like this:

The background repeat declaration is set to repeat if you wish to have ‘tiled’
images. If there is no background repeat you can define the position of the
background image in the window.

Classes
Classes have been rarely used at IGCSE level, but they define different subtypes
within an element. A class is defined using a dot (full stop) before the style
name. Some WYSIWYG packages automatically use classes rather than defining
styles. In these examples:

the top line defines the style h1 and the second line defines the class h1.
Common errors
When asked to ‘Create the following styles …’ in a question, students
generate all the correct declaration properties and values for a series of
classes rather than defining the styles.
When a question asks for styles, check your WYSIWYG package has not
defined classes.

Tables in the stylesheet

Table definitions can be set in external stylesheets. This is very useful if web
pages contain a number of tables. Different selectors can be used to format
different parts of tables in different ways. For example, the body of the page,
tables and table headers can have different background colours that complement
each other. Table borders can also be defined in the stylesheet, for example:

This defines different background colours for the table and body of the page and
sets the table to have a 6-pixel-wide border around it and 3-pixel-wide gridlines
within the table.

Publish a website
Websites can be hosted on your own computer or uploaded to a hosting
company. Most people do not host their own websites because their internet
service does not provide them with enough bandwidth. All websites have a
domain name, such as www.hoddereducation.co.uk, which is used to find the
site. To upload a website, file transfer protocol (FTP) is used.

Test a website
Before testing a web page you should identify its purpose and its target audience.
When creating a test plan, make sure it includes both functional testing and user
testing.
Functional testing checks all page elements perform as expected, including
table structure, images, visibility of objects, and internal hyperlinks. This also
checks if the URL works and whether all external hyperlinks work as expected.
User testing checks the website meets the purpose and is appropriate for the
target audience. Users must not be IT professionals or people related to the
development project (they must have no knowledge or preconceived ideas about
the website). Observe, listen, but do not respond to the users.

Sample exam question

Identify three questions that may be asked in user testing.
[3]
Student’s answer
i How easy is it to read and understand?
ii What did you like about the web page?
iii Did the website do what you expected?
Examiner’s comments
The first answer is excellent, the second answer is good but contains less specific
detail in the question. The first two answers have identified issues that relate to
user testing. The third answer is incorrect because the user should be testing
without any expectations. Other good answers include:
• What are your first impressions of the web page?
• What is the purpose of the web page?
• Was this purpose clear from the beginning?
• It there too much or little information?
• What did you dislike about the web page?

Exam-style questions
1 Explain the three terms:
a http
b web browser
c ftp
[3 marks]
2 Explain the difference between ftp and http when dealing with files
and data.
[4 marks]
3 The following shows a cascading stylesheet created by a student. It
contains a number of errors. Identify each of these errors and
suggest a way to correct them.
 [8 marks]
4 Describe the use of the content and presentation layers in a web
page.
[4 marks]
Answers to exam-style questions
Chapter 1
1

2 a CLI: user types in instructions; commands must follow a precise syntax.

GUI: user uses a mouse to launch applications (using icons) or to select
options from a menu.
b CLI advantages: user is in direct communication with the computer; user is
not restricted to pre-determined options; it is possible to alter the computer
configuration.
CLI disadvantages: a number of commands need to be learnt; it can be
slow to type in commands and can be error-prone; syntax and format of
each command must be exact.
GUI advantages: no need to learn any commands; more user friendly;
applications can simply be launched by clicking on an icon.
GUI disadvantages: uses considerably more memory than CLI; user is
limited to icons provided on screen; needs a sophisticated OS, which uses
up considerable memory.
3 Laptop computer: type up his reports; send emails to his company/colleagues;
surf the net to find hotel details.
Tablet: surf the net to find hotel details; keep a diary of meetings/flight times,
and so on; GPS to find the way to the hotels; built-in camera to take photos of
hotels and locations; can be used on the move to take notes.
Smartwatch: synchronises with his tablet; can make phone calls to the office.
4

Description Computer
term
Uses infrared light and visible light so that an object night-vision
can still be seen even when it is apparently dark enhancement
(NVE)

Unmanned flying devices that can be used for army

surveillance or delivering items to customers without drones/robots
the need for a delivery van
System based on the fact that photons oscillate in
various directions and can be used to produce a quantum
random sequence of bits when sending data over cryptography
fibre optic cables
System that uses terminology databases and computer-
translation memories to convert text written in one assisted
language into text in a different language translation
(CAT)

Technology that uses laser light, interference of light

holographic/3-
and diffraction of light to produce a 3-D life-like image
D imaging
of an object
Artificial environment that uses data goggles, sensor
suits, data gloves or data helmets to create ‘the virtual reality
feeling of being there’
Systems used to do massive number crunching,
mainframe
equipped with very powerful processors and massive computers
memories
Chapter 2
1 a keyboard
b touch screen
c scanner
d microphone
e (temperature) sensor
f graphics tablet
2 a Customer looks out for the contactless symbol:
Shop assistant enters amount to be paid/checkout till works out ‘bill’.
Customer holds card in front of contactless reader.
System generates unique transaction number.
Message displayed on screen that payment has been accepted.
b i radio frequency identification
ii microchip/tag; antenna; battery
iii livestock tracking; admission passes and security passes; in races (for
example, marathons) to register start and end times of athletes; in libraries
to track books
3 a OCR: can read handwriting to allow extension to answers given by
customers; poor handwriting can cause reading problems; requires an
expensive and complex recognition system; needs fewer ‘filling in’
instructions for customers; less accurate and slower than OMR.
OMR: uses shaded-in lozenges or lines joining dots; requires stored
template to recognise position of choices; no problems with handwriting
but marks must be made in designated places only; needs expensive and
complex forms; needs more ‘filling in’ instructions; more accurate than
OCR.
b
4

Stage Description of stage

1 D: MICR text is passed over an MICR reader
2 C: ink on the paper is first magnetised
3 B: characters are then passed over the MICR read head
4 A: as each character passes over the head it produces a
unique waveform
5 E: the waveform is recognised by the computer system

5 a Uses plastic organic layers which are thinner and lighter than glass; can be
made into any required shape; brighter light than normal LEDs; don’t
require any back-lighting unlike LCD screens; uses less power than LCDs;
very large field of view (nearly 180°).
b Heavy and bulky; runs very hot and can be a fire risk; uses a lot of
electricity; screens can often flicker.
6 Laser printers: can handle large print runs (large buffers); very high quality of
output; toner cartridges last a long time; relatively cheap to buy; can be
expensive to run (especially colour laser printers); produce ozone and toner
particulates which are a potential health hazard.
Inkjet printers: high-quality output; relatively cheap to buy; small footprint;
small ink cartridges; small buffers; printing can ‘smudge’; ink tends to be
very expensive; rather noisy in operation.
Dot matrix printers: can withstand harsh environments better than laser or
inkjet; cheap to run and maintain; can use continuous, multi-part stationery;
very noisy in operation; poor print quality; relatively expensive to buy;
cartridges don’t last very long.
Chapter 3
1 a Data transfer rate is the rate/speed at which data is sent from a storage
device to a computer. Data access time is the time it takes to locate the data
on the storage device.
b DVD-R allows data to be recorded once on the optical media; once data is
finalised it acts like a DVD-ROM and can only be read. DVD-RW allows
several read/write operations to take place; it requires more expensive
equipment than DVD-R.
2 a back-up
b serial access
c key field
d direct access
e transaction file
3 Optical: uses plastic disks coated in light-sensitive material or coatings which
can be converted to pits; surface of disk is read by a blue or red laser; disk
spins and read/write head reads/writes the data as 0s and 1s; uses a single
spiral track to store data working from the centre outwards; devices can be R,
R/W or ROM.
Solid state: no moving parts; data retrieved at same rate no matter where it is
stored; relies on the control of the movement of electrons with NAND or
NOR chips; data stored as 0s and 1s in millions of tiny transistors within the
chip.
Chapter 4
1 a

Description Network
device
A device that takes a data packet received at one of its
input ports and sends the data packet to every computer hub
connected to the LAN.
A device that converts digital data to analogue data (and
vice versa) to allow the transmission of data across modem
existing telephone lines.
A device that connects a LAN to another LAN that uses
bridge
the same communication protocols.
A device that takes a data packet received at one of its
input ports and works out its destination address; the
switch
data packet is then sent to the correct computer on the
LAN only.
A device that enables data to be directed between
different networks, for example, join a LAN to a WAN;
router
the main function is to transmit internet and transmission
protocols between two networks.
A network point (node) that acts as an entrance to
gateway
another network.
Hardware which forms part of any device that needs to
connect to a network; it often contains the MAC address NIC
generated at the manufacturing stage.

b Set up IP account if internet access required. Purchase necessary hardware

and software for the network. Set up system to enable wireless
connectivity. Configure all hardware and software on the network. Install
 common software on server and ensure all network software licences have
been purchased. Set up network privileges (for example, network
manager). Hardware needed: switch/hub, router, cables, firewalls, servers.
2 a i LAN: local area network; in one building or very close geographically;
devices connected by hub or switches.
ii WAN: wide area network; devices connected over a large area
geographically (for example, a country); uses existing communications
structure (for example, phone lines).
iii WLAN: wireless local area network; same as a LAN but uses wireless
connectivity instead of wires; uses WAPs/hot spots as network
connection points.
b i

printer queues can cause a big problem

if the main server breaks down, the whole network goes
down
data transfer rate is much slower ✓
all computers can have access to the same software
and files

ii

medium access card

media address command
modem addressing card
media access control ✓

iii

sender’s IP address
time and date the data packet was sent ✓
identity number of the data packet
header to identify the data packet
3 a i heuristic checking
ii false positive
iii hologram
iv digital divide
v authentication
vi Data Protection Act
vii asymmetric
b Prevent illegal/undesirable material being posted on websites as people find
it too easy to find information that can have serious consequences; would
help prevent children being subjected to undesirable and dangerous
websites; stop incorrect/biased information being posted on
websites/wikis/blogs; material on the internet is already available
elsewhere; expensive to police internet – users would pick up the bill;
difficult to enforce rules and regulations globally; freedom of information
infringement at risk; laws already exist to deal with illegal material and
comments on blogs, and so on.
Chapter 5
1 a Advantages: higher productivity; more consistency; don’t take/need breaks;
don’t go on strike.
Disadvantages: expensive to set up/buy and maintain; can’t deal with
‘unusual’ circumstances; need re-programming for each new task.
b No need to stay at home to cook food or wash clothes/dishes; gives people
time for more leisure activities; can use smartphones to control devices
away from home; smart fridges and freezers can lead to a healthier
lifestyle; no need to do manual tasks at home.
2 a Part-time: staff work fewer than normal hours per week; either fewer hours
per day or per month.
Flexi-time: employee can start/finish work at different times to normal
workers; however, they must work the full hours per week.
Job sharing: full-time job is divided between two workers who work half of
the weekly hours per week; total time worked is the same as a normal
worker.
Compressed: employee works full hours for the week but works longer
hours than normal per day so completing their hours for the week in fewer
days.
b Happier workforce; more likely to remain with the company. Saves money
since less training and recruitment required. Possible to extend the hours
the company can operate for. Staff avoid rush hour traffic/commute,
meaning less stress. Possible for staff to have more time with family/time
to do hobbies.
c Built-in obsolescence; expensive to repair/need specialist staff to repair
devices; more complicated operation of device/often have too many
features not wanted; hacking issues can lead to problems with the devices.
Chapter 6
1 a Sound sensor and oxygen sensor send data to a data logger. Data is
converted to digital and stored. Data collected by personnel on a regular
basis or data automatically transmitted back to EA laboratories. Computer
in EA laboratory compares new data with old/stored data. Produces new
data, graphs, and so on, showing changes in environment over a given time
period and indicates any trends, out-of-range values, and so on. EA
scientists would use the data to suggest changes, and so on.
b i infrared sensor
ii Infrared sensor data allows microprocessor to calculate distance between
car and vehicle in front; also obtains speed of vehicle and automatically
calculates the safe distance between the two vehicles.
iii Sensors send data to microprocessor. Microprocessor uses data to
determine if car is at a safe distance. If distance < safe distance it sends a
signal to sound a warning buzzer and sends signals to actuators to operate
brakes automatically.
2

Application Suitable
sensor
control water content in the soil in a greenhouse moisture

measure the quality of air in a building O2/CO2

switch on the headlights of a car automatically when

light
it gets dark
automatically turn on the wiper blades of a car when
infrared
it starts to rain
pick up footsteps of an intruder in a building acoustic/sound
 control the acidity levels in a chemical process pH

3
LEFT 90 FORWARD 40
PENDOWN RIGHT 45
REPEAT 3 PENDOWN
FORWARD 40 FORWARD 30
RIGHT 90 RIGHT 90
ENDREPEAT FORWARD 30
LEFT 90 (PENUP)
PENUP
4 a Robot is programmed with the sequence of instructions. Each instruction
copies the action of a human being. Each instruction is tested on a
simulation program to ensure correct action. Program then tested on real
vehicle and undergoes further modifications if required.
Human operator manually carries out a sequence of instructions. The robot
arm is guided by the human operator. Each arm movement is stored as a
series of instructions. Once all instructions stored robot arm can do tasks in
correct sequence.
Human operator straps sensors to his arm. Actions are then carried out by
human operator. Each movement is stored as a set of instructions in
computer memory. Sensor sends back data about the arm movements,
which are stored in the computer memory.
b Engineers are consulted and key data is collected from them. A knowledge
base is designed and the engineer’s knowledge collected is used to populate
the knowledge base. Rules base is designed and created together with the
inference engine. An explanation system is also developed alongside this.
The input/output interface is designed. The system is fully tested using data
with known outcomes. The system is further modified if test results
unsatisfactory.
5 Barcodes on items are scanned by barcode readers at the checkout. If the
barcode on the item can’t be read by the scanner, the number under the
barcode is keyed in manually. The barcode is searched for on the stock
database until a match is found. If no match found, an error message is sent
 back to the checkout desk. If a match is found, the item price and description
is sent back to the checkout. The stock level of the item is read, reduced by 1
and then rewritten back to the item’s record on the database. If the stock level
of the item <= pre-order level, a check is made to see if a flag has been set to
indicate an order has already been made. If no flag has been set, an order for
new items is made automatically. When new stock arrives, the stock level
database is updated accordingly.
6 a Advantages: driver doesn’t need to consult any maps; system can warn of
speeding; system can give an estimated time of arrival; it is possible to
program in the fastest route or a route avoiding road tolls, and so on;
system can give key information such nearest petrol station, and so on.
Disadvantages: if the map is out of date, the GPS can give incorrect
instructions; loss of satellite signal can give many problems; incorrect start
and end points can give problems.
b

Stage description Order

brightness and contrast of the number plate are adjusted 4
so it can be read clearly
on his return, the driver puts the car park ticket into the 10
machine and pays for his parking
sensors detect the car and send signals to the computer 1
each character on the number plate is recognised using 6
OCR software
sensors detect the rear of the car and the barrier is 12
automatically dropped
each character on the number plate is segmented 5
using OCR software, the characters are converted into a 7
string of editable text
an algorithm is used to locate and isolate the number 3
plate from the initial camera image
the text string is stored on a database 8
motorist drives to exit barrier and ANPR system 11
recognises number plate and the barrier is automatically
raised
car park barrier is raised and the driver is issued with a 9
car park ticket
computer instructs the digital camera to capture an 2
image of the front of the car
Chapter 7
1 a Observation: this involves watching personnel using the existing system to
see how it works; people tend to work in a different way when they know
they are being watched – this could skew the results.
Questionnaires: distribution of questionnaires to the workforce, managers
or customers to find their views on the current system and how it works;
questions are not very flexible and there is no way to clarify a vague or
incomplete answer to a question.
Interviews: one-to-one question-and-answer session which is either face-to-
face or over the telephone; it is possible to probe more deeply by
modifying questions based on previous answers; it is very time consuming
and expensive in terms of analyst’s time; interviewees cannot be
anonymous.
Examine paper documents: the analyst goes through the existing paperwork
(for example, operating instructions, accounts, training records) allowing
them to decide on memory requirements, input/output devices, and so on; it
is a very time-consuming exercise and is therefore, relatively expensive.
b

Item Analysis Design

identify suitable hardware and software ✓
create file structures ✓
produce data flow diagrams ✓
produce a cost–benefit report ✓
research current system ✓
production of algorithms and program ✓
flowcharts

c Sample of possible order form:

2 a
length check, character check, range check on dd, mm or
date of birth
yyyy, format check
title character check
gender consistency check, character check
order
format check, length check, look-up check
number
number of
range check, character check
items
email
look-up check
address
b i Input password twice and computer software compares the two entries.
ii normal: for example 3, 8, 15
abnormal: for example, –2, 60, TWENTY
extreme: for example 1 or 50
3 Direct: old system stopped overnight and new system introduced immediately.
Benefits are immediate and costs are low compared to other methods. Method
can be disastrous if it fails.
Parallel: old system and new system run side by side for a time. Provides a
 back-up if the new system fails. System is relatively expensive and slow since
two sets of staff are required to work on the systems.
Pilot: one branch of a company introduces the new system; the other branches
use the existing/current system. If the system in the single branch fails, the
existing/current system is still available. Still some risk associated with new
system and it is slower and more expansive to implement than direct method.
Phased: the new system is introduced part by part; only when each part
proves to be successful is the next part introduced. If the system fails, it is
possible to go back to the point prior to the failure. It is very time consuming
as each part needs to be fully assessed before the next part is introduced
4
Chapter 8
1 a encryption
b cookies
c plain text
d spam
e firewall
f e-safety
2 Spyware:
software that gathers data by monitoring key presses on a user’s keyboard; the
gathered data is sent back to the person who sent the spyware and gives the
originator access to personal data which can lead to fraud, loss of data, and so
on; it can also install other spyware and change the user’s default web
browser
use anti-spyware; use dropdown boxes when entering passwords or use touch
screens
Phishing:
creator sends out legitimate-looking emails to target users; as soon as the
email is opened and user clicks on a link, they are sent to a fake/bogus
website claiming to be the legitimate company
user is asked to enter personal data leading to fraud, identity theft, loss of
money, and so on
many ISPs filter out phishing; don’t click on links from emails unless you are
100% certain they are legitimate
Hacking:
act of gathering unauthorised access to a computer
it can lead to identity theft, loss of data, illegal use of personal data, and so on
can minimise the risk using firewalls; use strong passwords and user ids
Chapter 9
1 a product key
b software piracy
c morality
d ethics
e culture
2 a Age, experience and knowledge of the audience. Language being used;
expectations of audience. Use of multi-media and whether it should be
interactive. Length of the presentation. Which examples are appropriate for
the audience.
b Use of product keys on the software package. The need to sign a licence
agreement when loaded up. Use of a hologram on the package.
c The need to supply some of the files on a dongle for each user. Use of the
features shown in part b, above. Software features which prevent copying
being done.
Chapter 10
1 a netiquette
b public cloud
c data redundancy
d hits
e active
2 a Public cloud: storage environment where client and provider are different
companies.
Private cloud: storage provided by dedicated environment behind a
firewall; client and provider are integrated as a single entity.
Hybrid cloud: this is a mixture of a public and private cloud; sensitive data
resides on a private cloud and the remaining data on a public cloud.
b i Rules to be obeyed when posting or transmitting material over a
network.
ii No abusive language and messages should be clear. Posts can be read by
the public so spelling and grammar should be correct; also privacy
should be considered. Don’t use capital letters except where necessary
and keep emoticons to a minimum.
c Blogs: personal internet journals; one person writes/owns the blog; other
people can only read it; entries organised most recent to least recent.
Wikis: allow users to create and edit web pages using a web browser;
anyone can edit or write a wiki; document history is maintained.
Chapter 11
1 .mp4 and .gif
2 .txt, .rtf and .csv
3 Both file types are containers.
Both file types can hold a number of files with different types.
Both file types contain compressed data …
… and are used to reduce the number of bytes needed to save a file …
… to save storage space/reduce transmission time.
.rar file extension is an acronym for Roshal ARchive; developed by Russian
software engineer Eugene Roshal.
Chapter 12
1
Image B Reflection/rotation through 180 degrees
Image C Rotation through 90 degrees clockwise
Image D Cropped
2 Aspect ratio: The ratio of the width to the height of an image.
Chapter 13
1 Author’s name; Document title; Chapter title; Company email/address
2 Page numbering; Section numbering; Date of publication; Filename and path
Chapter 14
1 A serif font is a font style where the ends of characters contain small strokes
called serifs; if these strokes are not present then it is a sans serif font.
2 Corporate branding/a method of recognising a company through elements like
its logo/colour scheme, and so on.
3 To give consistency to documents and other materials. To save time in
planning/setting up/creating/formatting documents. Creates brand
recognition. Reduces the risk of mistakes in documents.
Chapter 15
1 ‘marshhland’ – Two h’s suggest it is not a word, nor the name of a place or
object. This is a spelling error.
‘Tawara’ – This appears to be the name of a place so is unlikely to be held in
the dictionary of the spell check program. The capital T also gives us a clue to
this, suggesting it is a name.
2 ‘Mrs jones’ should have a capital letter for her name (‘Mrs Jones’).
The first sentence suggests a female examiner and the second suggests a male
examiner. The spell check and grammar check would not identify these
errors.
Chapter 16
1 a Pie chart
b Line graph
c None of these (it would be a scatter diagram)
d Line graph
Chapter 17
1 The area between the edge of a page…
… and the main content of the page.
This is usually white space.
Text flows between the page margins.
2 Text which is aligned…
Text which displays straight (not ragged) margins…
… to both left and right margins.
3 The first line of each paragraph is aligned to the left margin. All other lines
are left hanging/indented from the margin. It is useful for short headings
followed by blocks of text.
This is set using hanging indent and first line indent markers on the ruler.
4 One master letter could be created rather than 5450 individual letters …
… reducing the time taken to type the letters
… reducing the number of errors as they are typed.
Different rates for each course only need to be entered once (into the data
source) – rather than entered into every letter.
All student data can be taken from existing data files so no need to retype it.
Chapter 18
1 a A record is a collection of fields containing information about one data
subject, usually one person or object.
b A field holds a single item of data.
c A file is a logically organised collection of records.
d A table is a two-dimensional grid of data organised by rows and columns
within a database.
e A report is a document that provides information; in a database it is
designed to make the data presented easy to understand.
f A query is a request for information from a database/search to interrogate a
database.
g A calculated control is a special field in a database report that is calculated
as the report is run.
2 A flat file database contains a single two-dimensional table …
… which holds data about one subject/type of item.
A relational database has more than one table …
… each table holds data about one subject/type of item.
These tables are linked together …
… through common data elements …
… using a system of primary key and foreign key fields.
3 a Price
Descending order
b Tracks
Ascending order
c Released > 2015 AND Price < 10
d Emile Sande, Phil Collins, Michael Buble
Chapter 19
1 Presenter notes often contain more content than shown on the slides. Presenter
notes can include greater detail than the audience notes. Presenter notes can
contain anecdotes to ‘hook’ the audience.
2 Continuous looping
Chapter 20
1 a Looks through the contents of cells H2 to H21.
Checks to see if contents are equal to contents of cell B5.
The contents of the corresponding/matching cells from I2 to I21 are added
to the total/summed.
Which gives the value 746.50.
b =SUMIF($H$2:$H$21,B6,$I$2:$I$21)
c =COUNT(I2:I21)
2 When the result of A42*A43 gives a response …
… that has a decimal part of 0.5 or greater …
… then different answers will occur.
The INT function will remove the decimal part.
The ROUND(…,0) function will round up to the next whole number …
… if the decimal part is greater than or equal to 0.5.
Any two suitable examples of data in A42 and A43.
3 a It counts the number of times the contents of cell A3 …
… is stored in the named range ObjectTable …
… which has already been defined by the user.
b $A$3 is an absolute cell reference.
This cell reference will not change when the cell is replicated/copied.
If a relative cell reference like A3 was used, the reference would change
when it was replicated/copied.
Chapter 21
1 a http: hypertext transfer protocol.
Rules that must be obeyed when transferring data over the internet.
b Web browser: this is software that allows a user to display a web page on a
computer screen; interprets HTML from a web page. It shows the results as
text/images/sound/video.
c ftp: network protocol used when transferring files from one computer to
another over the internet.
2 http is used to access the world wide web.
ftp is used to download data from file servers …
… whereas http is used to download data from web servers.
ftp files are transferred from one device to another and then copied into
memory.
http transfers the contents of a web page into web browser for viewing.
ftp upload is used for larger files …
… and http is used for smaller files.
3
h1 colour should be color
sans serif should be sans-serif
20 px should be 20px (i.e. no space between 20 and px)
h2 000040 should be #000040
Times New Roman should be Times New Roman
centre should be center
table solid should have no quotes
td border-colour should be border-color
4 Content layer
Is used to create the page structure/layout
Is usually HTML/ uses HTML tags/saved in HTML format
Contains text, images and hyperlinks
Presentation layer
Is used to set display features/parameters of the page
Is usually CSS/saved in CSS format
Presentation layer can be attached as an external stylesheet, set as an internal
stylesheet or as embedded tags within the HTML.
Index
A
abnormal data 66, 70, 72, 134
absolute references 134, 137
ADSL 28, 29
analysis stage 66–67
ANPR 61
application software 1–2
archives 95, 96
aspect ratios 99, 131
ATM 43, 53–54
attached stylesheets 143, 149, 150, 151
audiences 83–85
authentication 28, 34, 79–81

B
back-ups 23–24, 95, 96
banking 39, 53–56
behaviour layers 142, 143
Bluetooth 28, 30
booking systems 52–53

C
calculations 128
cells 134, 135, 139, 140
charts and graphs 113–17
cloud security 81
cloud storage 88–89
colour depth 99, 101
columns 134, 135
communication 34–37, 44–45, 86–94
computer modelling 43, 50–51
computer systems 1–10
content layers 142, 143
control applications 11, 49–50
cookies 75, 77
copyright, software 83
corporate house style 106
CPU 1, 3
cropping 99, 100, 101
CSS 142, 143, 144, 149, 150

D
data
analysis 134–41
capture forms 67, 124, 127
entry forms 124, 127
handling applications 45
manipulation 124–30
models 134–35, 138–39
security 76–78
types 125
DDE 11, 14–17
design stage 67–68
development 70
DFD 66, 67
digital certificates 75, 79
document production 118–23
documentation 71

E
editing methods 103
EFT 43, 55, 56
EFTPOS 43, 60
emails 34–35, 87
embedded styles 143, 149, 150
emerging technologies 7–9
employment 39–40
encryption 75, 79
evaluation 72
expert systems 57, 58
extranet 86, 88
extreme data 66, 134, 138

F
fields 23, 124
files 23, 68, 124
management 95–98
firewalls 75, 78–79, 81
flat-file databases 124, 125
footers 103–4
foreign key fields 124, 125
formulae 134, 135–36, 140
ftp 91, 143
functions 134, 137

G
GIS 43, 62
GPS 43, 60, 61, 62
grammar check 110, 111

H
hardware, internal computer 3, 4
headers 103–4
HTML 142, 143, 144
http 86, 90
hyperlinks 143, 148–52

I
ICT
applications 43–65
effects of using 39–42
impact of solutions 83–84
images 97, 99–102, 146
implementation 70–71, 72
input devices 11–14
internet 31, 33–34, 88
terms 90–92, 93
intranets 86, 88
IP addresses 28, 30, 32
ISP 86, 91, 93

L
LAN 28, 29, 30
layout 103–5
library systems 60
live data 66, 70, 139

M
MAC addresses 28, 30, 32
magnetic storage media 23, 25
manufacturing 39, 52
measurement 11, 48–49
medicine, computers in 57–60
microprocessors 1, 3, 40–41
Microsoft Access 124, 125, 129
Microsoft Office 107, 108
Microsoft Word 104, 107, 108, 119
modems 28, 29

N
named cells 134, 135, 137
named ranges 134, 135, 137
nested functions 134, 137
netiquette 86, 87
networks 28–38
normal data 66, 70, 134, 138

O
operating systems 1, 3–4
optical storage media 23, 25–26
ordered lists 142, 147
orphans 118, 119
output devices 11, 18–20

P
page breaks 120
piracy, software 83, 84
pointing devices 11, 12
presentation layers 142, 143, 149, 150
presentations 131–33
primary key fields 124, 125
proofing 110–12
protocols 79, 90, 91

Q
queries 124, 127, 128

R
records 23, 124
reflection 99, 100, 101
relational databases 124, 125
relative references 134, 137
reports 124, 125, 129
rotation 99, 100, 101
rows 134, 135
S
safety and security 75–82
saving work 96
school management 45, 46
search engines 86, 92
security 33–34, 76–78
sensors 11, 13, 43, 48, 50, 51
software and hardware 1–5
solid state media 23, 26
spam 75, 76–77, 88
spell check 110
SSL 75, 79
stock control systems 60
storage devices and media 23–27
styles 106–9
systems life cycle 66–74
systems software 1, 2–3, 4

T
tables 121–22, 124, 152
tags 142, 144, 146, 147, 148
testing strategies 70
text wrap 99, 100
TLS 75, 79
tracking systems 61
types of computer 5–7

U
unordered lists 143, 147
URL 86, 91, 92

V
validation 66, 68
verification 66, 68
VoIP 28, 45

W
WAN 28, 29, 31
WAP 28, 30, 31
web browsers 90–91, 93
websites 44, 142–54
wi-fi 28, 30
widows 118, 119
WLAN 28, 31
working patterns 40