TOPIC 3: ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM FUNDAMENTALS

Matter - Anything that occupies space and has

mass.
Law of Impenetrability - No two things can
occupy the same space at the same time.
Element - A substance that cannot be reduced to a
simpler substance by chemical means. It is the
simplest substance.
Compound - is a substance that resulted from two
or more elements chemically combined. Questions:
Mixture - is a combination of elements and
compounds, not chemically combined, but can be
separated by physical means.
Atoms - composes all matter whether a liquid,
solid or gas. Ionization - refers to the process by which an
- Basic building block of all matter. atom loses or gains electrons.
- Smallest particle of an element that retains the - This happens when the valence electron
characteristics of that element. (electron in the valence shell) becomes
- It consists of proton, electron and neutron. energized enough to break its bond with the
Molecule - is a chemical combination of two or parent atom.
more atoms. - When an atom loses or gains an electron it is
now called an ion.
The number of protons determine the atomic
number of an element. However, the number of Free Electron – is the electron that is removed
protons is sometimes equal to the number of from its valence shell due to the application of
electrons. ionization energy.

Atomic Weight – is almost equal to the mass Electricity – phenomenon where the free electrons
number. from materials are flowing.
Classification of Materials
Conductor – the valence electron is 1-3
- Conductors have energy gap in the order of 0 eV
- The conduction and valence band are
overlapping
Insulator – the valence electron is 5-8
Bohr Atomic Model – states that atoms can be - Insulators have energy gap in the order of 5 eV
modelled as planets orbiting the sun where the sun - Usually, with this amount of eV, the insulator
is the nucleus (protons and neutrons) and the begins to burn
planets are the electrons. Semiconductor – the valence electron is 4
Shells – The orbits around the nucleus. It can be - Semiconductors have energy gap in the order of
labelled with numbers or letters. 1 eV

Valence Shell – the outermost shell of the atom. More valence electrons → more ionization energy
The number of electrons residing in a certain shell needed to dislodge them to make free electrons.
is given by: Electron Volt (eV) is used for small quantities of
energy this is similar to joule and other units of
energy.
Two bands in the energy band diagram: Coulomb’s Second Law of Electrostatics - The
size of the force varies INVERSELY as the square
Valence band – the electrons here are still bound
of the distance between the two charges
to the parent atom (valence electron).
Conduction band – the electrons here are now
free electrons dislodged from the parent atom
(free electron).
Questions:
q = charges and R = distance
Example:

Electric Field Intensity - Defined as the force per

unit positive charge that would be experienced by
a stationary point charge in a given location in a
field.
- The space between and around the charged
bodies where their influence is felt.
- The unit for field intensity is Newton/Coulomb
or Volts/meter.
Electricity - refers to set of physical phenomena
- For positive charges, the movement of the
associated with the presence of electric charge.
electric field is outward while the negative
- When an atom is ionized it becomes charged
charges are inward.
either positive or negative.
- This is why same charges repel while opposites
- It is negatively charged when an electron is
attract.
added and positively charged when it loses an
electron.
- Came from the Greek word electricus meaning
amber.
Questions:
4 Main Areas of Study in Electricity and
Magnetism: Electrostatics, Electrodynamics,
Magnetism, and Electromagnetism
Electrostatics – The study of charge body at rest
which is said to exhibit electric field, which
interacts with other bodies.
- Deals with the phenomena due to the attractions
or repulsions of electric charges that are not
moving.
Coulomb’s Law – relationship between the
electrostatic force of two charged bodies.
Coulomb’s First Law of Electrostatics - The size
of the force of attraction or repulsion between two
charges is DIRECTLY proportional to the value
of the charge.
 Potential difference - This refers to the difference
in potential between two points that represents the
work involved or the energy released in the
transfer of a unit quantity of electricity from one
point to the other.
As the permittivity increases, the electric field Electromotive force (EMF) – is the source of the
intensity decreases because they are inversely circuit which initiates the flow of charges.
proportional.
The formula for potential:
Note: Meters is the standard unit for distance and
Seconds is the unit for time.
Friction between two insulators - is the easiest
way to accumulate a static electric charge.
Examples:
Triboelectric Effect - A type of contact
electrification in which certain materials become
electrically charged after they come into contact
with another different material through friction.
You can store over 30,000 volts of static charge in
your body by walking across a carpet.
Electrodynamics - This refers to the study of
phenomena associated with charged bodies in
motion and varying electric fields.
2 types of current:
Drift Current - Refers to the flow of electric
current due to the motion of charge carriers due to
application of an external electric field.
- Occurs when there is a source.
Diffusion Current - When one side has more
carriers than the other, carriers will move (diffuse)
from the higher concentration to lower
concentration side.
- Occurs when the carriers tend to balance
themselves. Usually found in semiconductors.
The mobility of holes is Note: To get the total current, the currents from
excluded when we are not different directions will be added together. Take
dealing with semiconductors. note that the current opposing the direction we
want to get the current from will have its sign
Examples: reversed.
Magnetism - is the phenomenon whereby
substance attracts pieces of iron.
Maxwell – cgs unit for flux lines or lines of force.
Note: C/S is the same as Amperes
Weber – si unit for flux lines or lines of force.
Electric potential – The ability / potential per unit
charge of any point in the circuit to push or allow
current.
 Conversion of Ampere-turn to Gilbert:

Example:

Conversion of Maxwell to Weber:

Formula for Flux Density:

Magnetic Flux
Magnetizing Force – the amount of force or
energy needed to make the material magnetic.

Conversion to Gauss (unit for magnetic flux Formula for Magnetizing Force:
density):

Conversion from A-t/m to Oersted:

Note: Tesla is Weber/meter2

Example:
Example:

Other solution:
Hysteresis - The lagging effect between the flux
density of the material and the magnetizing force
producing it.
Residual Magnetism – The magnetism left in the
material after the magnetizing force returns to
zero.

Magnetomotive force (MMF)– the counterpart of Coercive Force – the amount of reverse
EMF in magnetism, it is the source of magnetic magnetizing force used to reduce the residual
potential. Its unit can either be Gilbert or Ampere- magnetism to 0.
turn.
Formula for MMF:
MMF = current x no. of turns
Retentivity – ability of a material to have residual The coils of wire enable the electrons to flow in a
magnetism. circular manner creating a magnetic field.
Permeability - This refers to the ability of a The direction of the magnetic field can be
material to allow magnetic flux to flow through it. determined by using your right hand. Point your
thumb towards the direction of the current and
Reluctance – synonymous to resistance, it hinders
check which direction your wrist can fold inward
the flow of magnetic flux in the material.
(clockwise or counter-clockwise). This will be the
Formula of Reluctance: direction of the magnetic field.
Length Formula for Force Acting on a Conductor:
permeability

Example:

Other way to solve for R:

Example:

Fleming’s left-hand rule - Let the thumb, first

finger and second finger of the left hand be
extended such that they are all at right-angles to
each other. If the first finger points in the direction
of the magnetic field, the second finger points in
the direction of the current, then the thumb will
Different Types of Materials in Magnetism point in the direction of the motion of the
conductor.
Ferromagnetic - Materials that are relatively easy
to magnetize. Example:
- Relative permeability: much greater than 1.
- Pemalloy, Nickel, Steel, Cobalt
A ferromagnetic material concentrates magnetic
flux lines within itself.
Paramagnetic - Materials that show a weak
magnetic attraction when placed near a magnet.
- Relative permeability: slightly greater than 1.
- Aluminum, Chromium, Platinum, Manganese,
Carbon.
Electromagnetic Induction - When a conductor is
Diamagnetic - Materials that are composed of
moved across a magnetic field so as to cut through
atoms that have no net magnetic moments.
the lines of force (or flux), an electromotive force
- Relative permeability: slightly less than 1.
(emf) is produced in the conductor. Concept
Ferrimagnetic or Ferrites – are non-metals that behind generators.
exhibit magnetic properties.
Faraday’s First Law - An induced emf is set up
Electromagnetism whenever the magnetic field linking that circuit
changes.
Magnetic fields can be set-up by moving charges
and on the other hand, move other charges.
Faraday’s Second Law - The magnitude of the
induced emf in any circuit is proportional to the
rate of change of the magnetic flux linking the
circuit.
Lenz’ law - The direction of an induced EMF is
always such that it tends to set up a current
opposing the motion or the change of flux
responsible for inducing that EMF.
Formula for Induced Voltage:

Example:

Fleming’s right-hand rule - Let the thumb, first

finger and second finger of the right hand be
extended such that they are all at right angles to
each other. If the first finger points in the direction
of the magnetic field and the thumb points in the
direction of motion of the conductor relative to the
magnetic field, then the second finger will point in
the direction of the induced EMF.
TOPIC 4: CIRCUITS 1
Resistance - is the property of material that Inferred Zero
opposes or resist the flow of electrons and makes Temperature
Resistance
Materials Coefficient at
it necessary to apply a voltage to cause current to Temperature
20°C (/°C)
flow. (°C)
- The SI unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω). Tungsten -202 0.0045
- The quantity symbol of resistance is R. Copper -234.5 0.00393
Aluminum -236 0.00391
Factors Affecting Resistance: Silver -243 0.0038
• Type of material Constantan -125 000 0.000 008
• Length of the material Carbon -0.0005
• Cross – sectional area of the material
• Temperature Note:
Formulas for Resistance: A good conductor has resistivity close to 1x10-8
Ω-m. Silver is the best conductor but too
Resistivity Length (usually in expensive for most uses. Copper is a common
meters)
conductor as is aluminum.
Area
Inferred Absolute 0 Materials with resistivity greater that 1010 are
Temperature called insulators. They provide physical support
without significant current losses.
Temperature Coefficient
Materials with resistivities in the range of 103 to
107 are called semiconductors from which
transistors are made.
𝝅𝒅𝟐
The area is usually since wires are cylindrical. Conductance - is the property of a material that
𝟒
aids the flow of electrons. Put another way, it is
Resistivity property of a material to resist the flow the inverse of resistance. In general,
of current.
Resistivity and Other Properties of Different
Materials:
- The SI unit of conductance is the Siemens (S).
Materials Resistivity (Ω-m) - The quantity symbol for conductance is G.
Silver 1.645x10-8 - The conductance of a material depends on a
Copper (annealed) 1.723x10-8 property called conductivity, denoted by the
Aluminum 2.825x10-8 symbol σ. For a conductor of uniform cross-
Iron 12.299x10-8 section, we have
Constantan 49x10-8
Nichrome 100x10-8
Silicon 2500
Paper 1010
Mica 5x1011
Quartz 1017
Gold 2.443x10-8
Nickel 7.811x10-8
Platinum 10.8x10-8
Carbon 3.5x10-5
Ohm’s Law - An ideal resistor is a device that In AWG the smaller the number (9 AWG, 30
exhibits linear resistance properties according to AWG, etc.) the bigger the size.
Ohm’s law which states that in metallic and some
other conductors, the current is directly
proportional to the applied voltage.

Reviewer Questions:

Note: To solve the previous 2 questions, use the

formula for R or G then create equations for the
initial R or G (R1 / G1) and final R2 / G2. Equate
the two using its resistivity or conductivity (since
they are fixed based on the problem). You can
cancel out the similar variables from each side of
the equation and use shift solve to get the answer.

Note:
Bigger diameter/area = smaller resistance
Smaller diameter/area = bigger resistance
To solve the problem above, we will assume that
the resistances inside the box in the figure will be
equals to R. Then redraw the circuit, where R is
parallel to the 2-ohm resistor. Using the new
diagram, create an equation for R then manipulate
it so that one side of the equation is 0. With this
you can use MODE+5+3 to get the value for R.
Note that there is no negative resistance so any
negative answers will be omitted.
Resistor Values:

When solving problems like this, start on the

opposite side from where you want to find the
resistance (from the farthest resistor).

Converting Delta to Wye:

1. For the Δ-to-Y conversion formulas, all have
the same denominator, which is the sum of the Δ
resistances or impedances.
2. Each numerator is the product of the two Δ
resistances or impedances adjacent to the Y
resistance or impedance you are looking for.
Tolerance Table for Resistors: Converting Wye to Delta:
1. For the Y-to-Δ conversion formulas, all have
Brown 1%
the same numerator, which is the sum of different
Red 2%
products of the pairs of the Y resistances or
Green 0.5%
Blue 0.25% impedances.
Violet 0.1% 2. Each denominator is the Y resistances or
Gold 5% impedance opposite the resistance or impedance
Silver 10% you are looking for.
None 20%
 change in value). However, the value of the
current source will be equal to the voltage source
divided by the resistor. The direction of the
current source will be based on the direction of the
voltage source.
Current source to Voltage source: The parallel
resistor will be in series with the voltage source
(without changing the value) and the value for the
Basic Laws
voltage source will be current source multiplied
1. Ohm’s Law – V = I x R by the resistor. The direction of the voltage source
2. Kirchhoff’s Current Law – algebraic sum of will be based on the direction of the current
the currents entering the node = algebraic sum source.
of the currents leaving the node.
3. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law – algebraic sum of
voltage rise = algebraic sum of voltage drops.

Mesh Analysis - In mesh analysis, preferably all

current sources are converted to voltage sources
and all conductance are converted to resistances.
KVL is applied with mesh currents which are
current preferably referenced to flow clockwise
around the meshes, one at a time.
Basically, the steps to conduct mesh analysis are
as follows:
1. Assign a loop current to each independent,
closed loop in a clockwise direction.
2. The number of required equations is equal to
Mesh and Node Equations: the number of chosen independent, closed loops.
3. Apply self-resistance / mutual resistance
Branch – Branch of a circuit is any electrical
concept (format approach) of mesh analysis.
component such as a battery or a resistor.
4. The column to the right of the equality sign is
Node – Connection point between two or more the algebraic sum of the voltage sources through
branches. 2 nodes joined by a wire is considered which the loop current of interest passes.
as 1 node. 5. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations for
the desired loop currents.
Loop – closed path formed by branches
Nodal Analysis - In nodal analysis, preferably all
Mesh – loop that does not have any closed path
voltage sources are converted to current sources
inside.
and all resistances are converted to conductance.
Junction – similar to node but it is not connected Then, KCL is applied to all nodes except for the
to other components. ground node.
- Almost always the bottom node is considered as
Source Conversion
the ground node.
Voltage source to Current source: The series
resistor will be parallel to the current source (no
- Conventionally voltages on all non-graduated
nodes are considered to be positive in potential
with respect to the ground node.
Basically, the steps to conduct nodal analysis are
as follows:
1. Choose a reference node and assign a
subscripted voltage label to the remaining nodes
of the network.
2. The number of equations required for a
complete solution is equal to the number of
subscripted voltages.
3. Apply self-conductance / mutual conductance
concept of nodal analysis.
4. The column to the right of the equality sign is
the algebraic sum of the current sources tied to
the node of interest. A current source is assigned
a positive sign if it supplies current to a node
and a negative sign if it draws current from the
node.
5. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations for
the desired voltages.
 Solving for Thevenin’s Resistance and Voltage:
1. Divide the circuit into two parts (A and B)
where A is the network to be simplified; B will
be left untouched. Disconnect B (usually the
load) leaving the two wire terminals an open
circuit.
2. Find the Thevenin voltage by getting the
voltage of the resistor parallel to network B. The
simplest way to do this is by using the voltage
divider rule.
3. To get RTH, replace the voltage source with a
short circuit and calculate for the total
resistance, this will be the value for RTH.

Note: Super Mesh – when there is a current source

in between two meshes. The current source will be
replaced by an open circuit.
Super Node – when there is a voltage source in
between two nodes. The voltage source will be
replaced by a short circuit.
Network Theorems
Superposition - This circuit theorem states that
the response of a linear circuit to several inputs
working together is equal to the sum of the
responses to each of the inputs working
separately.
Thevenin’s Theorem - Theorem used to simplify
complex circuits wherein, the simplified circuit
contains an equivalent open circuit resistance and
open circuit voltage.
Norton’s Theorem - This circuit theorem allows When deactivating current source, it is considered
us to replace part of a circuit by a current source to be an open circuit. On the hand, voltage sources
and parallel resistor. Doing so does not change the are converted to short circuit. However, if there is
element current or voltage of any element in the a given internal resistance, use it as the value of a
rest of the circuit. resistor replacing the two sources.

The maximum power transfer theorem states that

the maximum power delivered to a load by a
source is attained when the load resistance is
equal to the Thevenin resistance of the source.
Formulas with RTH & VTH:
 Formulas for Capacitance:

Where ∈0 is the permittivity of free space

(CONS 32) and ∈𝑟 is relative permittivity.

Note: Voltage divider rule – Use the value of the

resistor you want to get the voltage of and
multiply it to the value of the voltage source. Then
divide the result to the total resistance.
Current divider rule – Use the value of the Inductance - refers to the property of a circuit
resistor opposite to the one you want to get the whereby there is an emf induced into the circuit
current of and multiply it to the current source. by the change of flux linkages produced by a
Then divide the result to the total resistance. current change.
- Inductors store energy in the form of magnetic
To get the total resistance – simply add series
field.
resistors, and for parallel, use the product over
- It opposes the change in current
sum. Multiply the parallel resistors and divide it
by their sum. Factors Affecting Inductance:
• Number of turns of the coil
Transient Analysis
• Length of the coil
Natural response refers to the zero-input • Cross-sectional area of the core
response, where only initial conditions generate • Material used as core
the system response. • Number of layers of windings in the coil
Transient response refers to the system response Formula for Inductance:
to a time domain input signal, such as an impulse
or a step. This case presents the opposite
conditions of the natural response.
Capacitance - refers to the ability of a system to
store electric charge. It stores energy in the form Where 𝜇0 is the vacuum permeability
electrostatic field. (CONS 33) and 𝜇𝑟 is the relative
- It opposes the change in voltage. permeability.
- The unit is Farad (F)
Mutual Inductance - The property shared
Factors Affecting Capacitance:
by neighboring inductors or inductive
• Area of the plates
devices that enables induction to occur.
• Distance between the plates
• Dielectric material Formula for mutual Inductance:
Coefficient of coupling (k) indicates the degree of
flux linkage between two inductors.

Formula for total Inductance:

Where LTA is total inductance aiding each other

and LTO is total inductance opposing each other.

When solving for parallel capacitance, you

treat/solve it like series resistance. As for series
capacitance, treat it like parallel resistors.