Integrated samt lg Module 14 Propulsion EASA Part-66 Engine core Licence Category B2 ae ie Exclusively trom WWW. airtechbooks.compy Integrated Training System Preface Thank you for purchasing the Total Training Support Integrated Training System. We are sure you will need no other reference material to pass your EASA Part-66 exam in this Module. These notes have been written by instructors of EASA Part-66 courses, specifically for practitioners of varying experience within the aircraft maintenance industry, and especially those who are self-studying to pass the EASA Part-66 exams. They are specifically designed to meet the EASA Part-66 syllabus and to answer the questions being asked by the UK CAA in their examinations. The EASA Part-66 syllabus for each sub-section is printed at the beginning of each of the chapters in these course notes and is used as the “Learning Objectives’. We suggest that you take each chapter in-tum, read the text of the chapter a couple of times, if only to familiarise yourself with the location of the information contained within. Then, using your club66pro.com membership, attempt the questions within the respective sub-section, and continually refer back to these notes to read-up on the underpinning knowledge required to answer the respective question, and any similar question that you may encounter on your real Part-66 examination. Studying this way, with the help of the question practice and their explanations, you will be able to master the subject piece-by-piece, and become proficient in the subject matter, as well as proficient in answering the CAA style EASA part-66 multiple choice questions. We regularly have a review of our training notes, and in order to improve the quality of the Notes, and of the service we provide with our Integrated Training System, we would appreciate your feedback, whether positive or negative. So, if you discover within these course notes, any errors or typos, or any subject which is not Particularly well, or adequately explained, please tell us, using the ‘contact-us’ feedback page of the club66pro.com website. We will be sure to review your feedback and incorporate any changes necessary. We look forward to hearing from you. Finally, we appreciate that self-study students are usually also self-financing. We work very hard to cut the cost of our Integrated Training System to the bare minimum that we can provide, and in making your training resources as cost efficient as we can, using, for example, mono printing, but providing the diagrams which would be better provided in colour, on the club66pro.com website. In order to do this, we request that you respect our copyright policy, and refrain from copying, scanning or reprinting these course notes in any way, even for sharing with friends and colleagues. Our survival as a service provider depends on it, and copyright abuse only devalues the service and products available to yourself and your colleagues in the future, and makes them more expensive too. TTS integrated Training Systom Module 14 Preface © Copynget 2011ining System “7 (ay aS es Intentionally Blank ii Module 14 Preface ‘TTS Integrated Training System 2Cenyrant 2011ow Integrated Training System Module 14 Chapters 1. Turbine Engines 2. Engine Indicating Systems 5 f i i t i i i i i I I i I | | | | | | ili TIS integrated Teaning System Module 14 Preface © Copyngnt 2011ining System Intentionally Blank Module 14 Preface ‘TTS Intograted Training Systorn | © Copyright 2011, |eee ee ee ee ee ee ee s Integrated Training System Designed ‘ TTS Integrated Training System Module 14 Licence Category B2 Propulsion 14.1 Turbine EnginesMean System (ay Copyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training Support Ltd Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels. The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL 1 ‘A familiarisation withthe principal elements of the subject. Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject. The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples. The applicant should be able to use typical terms. LEVEL 2 ‘A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. ‘An abilty to apply that knowledge. Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples. The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in cenjunction with physical laws describing the subject. The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject. The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures. LEVEL 3 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. ‘A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner. Objectives: ‘The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects. The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples. ‘The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject. The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject. The applicant should be able to apply his Knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate. 1 Poe TS agate Taning System 2 Module 14.1 Turbine Engine: rang Syste ‘prea ne saenect5 i i a i i i i i i i I I | | | | | | wy Integrated Training System be Scio : Table of Contents Module 14.1 Turbine Engines ee (a) - - — 5 5 Introduction = - 5 Newton's Laws of Motion __ 2 7 9 Convergent and Divergent Ducts The "Choked" Nozzle __ The Rocket and the Ram Jet The Rocket Engine The Ram Jet The Turbojet Engine - a Introduction - _ - "1 The Constant Pressure Cycle 13 Constructional Arrangements __ 14 Single Spool Axial Flow Engine 14 Multi-Spool Design__ i |.) Twin Spool Axial Flow Turbo Fan___ |) By-Pass Engines 16 Turbo Prop Engines a 18 Summary of Engine Types a *) (b) _ 7 27 Electronic Engine Control (EEC) _ 8 Supervisory Electronic Engine Control 27 A Typical Electronic Engine Control System OO 27 Full Authority Digital Engine Control_ ne... Overview _ - — - 33 Sections of aFADEC system SC~—CSSCS~tS: The Engine Control Unit (ECU) i ECU Architecture _ 8 Thrust Control Mode: a4 Power Supplies a.) Hydro Mechanical Unit (HMU) a 44 Glossary of Terms. ee 47 TTS integrated Training System 1-3 © Gopyngnt 2011 Module 14.1 Turbine Engines aera, onmasty erstIntegrated Training System Z ) Module 14.1 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement Certification Statement These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation 2042/2003 Annex II! (Part-66) Appendix |, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below: sna EASA 66 Level ] Objective Reference | _B2 (a) _ 14.4(a) | 4 Constructional arrangement and operation of turbojet, turbofan, turboshaft and turbopropeller engines: © 74.16) 2 Electronic Engine control and fuel metering systems T __(FADEC), iL | I — - | 1-4 Module 14.1 Turbine Engines. TTS Integrated Ctpngnt soIntegrated Training System Designed in soos Module 14.1 Turbine Engines (a) Introduction To understand the working principle of the gas turbine engine, the following facts about physics must be studied. These are; Newton's Laws of Motion Behaviour of a gas as it flows through ducts of non-constant cross section. Newton's Laws of Motion First Law A body at rest tends to stay at rest and a body in motion tends to stay in motion in a straight line unless caused to change its state by an external force. Second Law The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the force causing it and inversely proportional to the mass of the body. Third Law For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. The first law is of little importance to the function of the gas turbine engine. The second law is the law which is used to determine exactly the amount of thrust achieved by the gas turbine engine. The second law can be written as a formula: Force = Thrust = Mass x Acceleration The third law is of most importance to us in understanding the gas turbine engine. What it is saying is that if a mass of air is propelled backwards, the object which propelled it will be Propelled forwards at an equal rate. It follows then that the more air that the gas turbine engine can propel backwards, the greater will be the forward thrust of the engine. The second law also tells us that the greater the mass propelled backwards (m), the greater is the forward force (F) TTS integrates Training System ; Copy 2041 Module 14.1 Turbine Engines 15Integrated Training System Convergent and Divergent Ducts Velocity - increasing Pressure - decreasing Temperature - decreasing Figure 1.1: Gas Flowing Through a CONVERGENT DUCT - Subsonic Airflow Velocity - decreasing Pressure - increasing Temperature - increasing Figure 1.2: Gas flowing through a DIVERGENT DUCT - Subsonic airflow 4 ee TTS integrates Training System 16 Module 14.1 Turbine Engines Sooper ‘governed by He satonent a(ay Integrated Training System The "Choked" Nozzle An exception to the above rules There is one, and only one, exception to the above rule, and that is when the gas is at the ‘speed of sound (Sonic Velocity) just before it enters the DIVERGENT part of the duct. {tis extremely difficult to accelerate a gas to supersonic speed - the only way to do it is to have a very high pressure to begin with and increase its speed in a CONVERGENT duct. Once it has reached sonic speed, itis impossible to increase its speed any further - the duct (or nozzle) is then said to be CHOKED If this procedure is carried out in a CONVERGENT-DIVERGENT duct, an additional form of thrust (additional to Newton's Third Law) can be achieved. This can be visualised more easily if you think of a beach-ball being forced and compressed through a convergent-divergent duct. As it expands through the divergent duct, it will cause a forward reaction on the wall of the duct. FLOW INCREASES TO SONIC VELOCITY AT VENTURI NOZZLE ~ CHOKED I VELOCITY PRESSURE INCREASING DECREASING \ I PRESSURE VELOCITY DECREASING INCREASING | | Figure 1.3: The choked nozzle The application of the CHOKED CONVERGENT-DIVERGENT nozzle can be seen in supersonic military aircraft and rockets. TTS Integrated Training Systom 7 © Copyngn sort Module 14.1 Turbine Engines, UyIntegrated Training System cha aa Intentionally Blank Module 14.1 Turbine Engines TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2011(ay Integrated Training System The Rocket and the Ram Jet The Rocket Engine Although the rocket engine is a jet engine, it has one major difference in that it does not use atmospheric air as the propulsive fluid stream. Instead, it produces its own propelling fluid by the combustion of liquid or chemically decomposed fuel with oxygen, which it carries, thus enabling it to operate outside the earth's atmosphere. Itis therefore, only suitable for operating over short periods. The fuel or propellant is carried in one tank and an oxidizer in another tank. These are typically Pumped to and mixed in the combustion chamber where the fuel is bumed. As the gases rush Out of the nozzle at the back of the engine, thrust is produced. This nozzle has a definite shape and is known as a converging-diverging nozzle. This type of nozzle is required in rockets because of the desire for extremely high velocity (highly accelerated) exhaust gases. OxyGeN ~ Louie FUEL ComBusTion - CHAMBER Fue Figure 1.4: The rocket engine TTS integrated Teinng System © Copy aon Module 14.1 Turbine EnginesIntegrated Training System 7 The Ram Jet The Ram Jet requires initial forward motion to get it started. It's operation is then as follows FUEL BURNERS COMBUSTION CHAMBER AIR INTAKE PROPELLING NOZZLE Figure 1.5: The ram jet Intake The intake is convergent/divergent in shape and therefore the air flowing through it will decrease/increase in pressure. Combustion Ata certain pressure, the air is mixed with fuel and ignited. Its temperature will increase and it will expand. This expansion takes the form of an increase in velocity. If the gas increases in velocity inside the jet, it will obey Newton's 2”° Law, which is that: Force = Mass x Change in Velocity through the duct Exhaust Before entering the exhaust nozzle, the gas may be of high enough pressure to be accelerated to supersonic speed. The exhaust nozzle would then be choked. The force produced as a result of the acceleration is known as momentum or kinetic thrust. A second type of thrust is produced in the divergent part of the exhaust nozzle and is called pressure thrust. The total force produced will, according to Newton's 3 Law, produce an equal and opposite reaction on the inner workings of the engine. This is known as Thrust ir TTS Integrated Training System Module 14.1 Turbine Engines ‘® Copyright 2011 Q1 Integrated Training System wr prendre The Turbojet Engine Introduction In 1931 Sir Frank Whittle patented the self sustaining Gas Turbine Engine. It consists of a single rotating spool comprising of a compressor and turbine. The advantage of this engine over the ram jet is that it is self sustaining without the need for forward speed. In other words it can be started whilst stationary on the ground. COMBUSTION CHAMBER COMPRESSOR / TURBINE FUELBURNER JET PIPE AND AIR INTAKE PROPELLING NOZZLE Figure 1.6: The pure turbo-jet The engine is started by spinning the compressor. This establishes a rearward flow of air into the combustion zone where fuel is added and ignited. The gasses increase in temperature and therefore expand rearwards. Before the gasses reach the exhaust nozzle, some of its energy is extracted by rotating the turbine, which in tum drives the compressor. To increase the thrust of the gas turbine engine, more fuel is added which raises the energy level of the gas stream. The turbine will therefore be turned at a greater speed which will tum the compressor at a greater speed. The compressor will therefore deliver a greater mass of air, and the thrust force of the gas turbine engine is therefore increased according to Newton's 2nd Law. The thrust produced by the turbojet is proportional to the change in momentum of the gas. stream. To increase the thrust, more fuel is introduced which raises the energy level of the gas. stream and the turbine and compressor rotates at a higher speed. The compressor delivers a larger mass of air to the combustion zone and there is a corresponding increase in the thrust produced by the engine.Integrated Training System The gas turbine can also be compared with the piston engine where fuel and air are bumed inside a cylinder to cause a piston to move and tum a crankshaft. The working cycle of the gas turbine engine is indeed similar to that of the 4-stroke piston engine as in each gas turbine engine there is induction, compression, combustion and exhaust. In the piston engine cycle the combustion cycle is intermittent where as in the gas turbine engine it is continuous. The gas turbine engine has a separate compressor, combustion chamber, turbine wheel, and exhaust system with each part concemed only with its function. Thus the combustion in a gas turbine engine takes place as a continuous process at a constant pressure. This, combined with the absence of reciprocating parts, provides a much smoother running engine that can be of a lighter structure, enabling more energy to be released for useful propulsive work: The modern gas turbine engine is basically cylindrical in shape because it is essentially a duct in which a mass airflow is the same from the intake to the exhaust nozzle. Into this duct the necessary parts are fitted. The parts from front to rear are an air compressor, a combustion chamber, a turbine wheel, and an exhaust duct. A shaft connects the turbine wheel to the compressor, so that turing the turbine will also tum the compressor. In side the combustion chambers are fuel bumers and the means of igniting the fuel. Because the jet engine is basically an open ended duct it is not satisfactory to ignite the fuel in static air, because this would allow the gas to expand equally forwards and backwards without doing any useful work; when the air was used up the flame would die out. Before lighting the fuel itis, therefore, essential that the air is moving, and the moving columns of air must be moving through the engine from the front towards the rear. This movement is brought about by using a starter motor to spin the compressor and the turbine wheel in excess of 1500rpm; this drives a large volume of air through the combustion chamber. When the airflow is sufficient, fuel is injected into the chambers through spray nozzles, and is ignited by means of ignitor plugs. (Note that the gas turbine engine is not an alternate firing engine. The spark ignitors are only used for the initial firing, and the fuel in all the combustion chambers burns continuously like a blowtorch). This burning will cause the airflow towards the rear to increase in velocity and drive the turbine wheel as it flows over the turbine blades in its headlong rush through the exhaust system out to atmosphere. The spinning turbine wheel tums the compressor through the drive shaft, and the compressor feeds more air into the combustion chamber to complete a cycle of operations that continues as long as fuel is fed to the bumers. The turbine wheel also originates a drive to a gearbox that provides extemal drives for items such as: Fuel pumps Hydraulic pumps Electrical generators Other engine accessories - ines TTS imegrated Training System 112 Module 14.1 Turbine Engine: Sean eetBe — = a = a = Integrated Training System Destanednaseoauter th the The Constant Pressure Cycle The Constant Pressure Cycle or Brayton Cycle is so called because the heat is added within the combustion chamber where a theoretical constant pressure is maintained. (In fact there is always a very slight — less than 3% - pressure drop due to friction between the gases and the combustion liner. __—— COMBUSTION Cc (heat energy added) a EXPANSION (through turbine and nozzle} PHESSUHE 2 COMPRESSION pressure energy added) AIK INTAKE co exmaust Figure 1.7: The constant pressure cycle 1-13 ereneaoyine se TTS integrated Training System oto Module 14.1 Turbine EnginesIntegrated Training System Constructional Arrangements The basic design of Whittles gas turbine engine exists in all gas turbine engines. However various applications have been derived over the past 60 years to suit the airframe and industrial requirements. Single Spool Axial Flow Engine ‘Amodem single spool axial flow turbojet engine produces its thrust from the acceleration of the flow of the hot gases. Air enters the engine inlet and flows into the compressor where its pressure is increased. Fuel is added in the combustor where it is ignited and burns, expanding the gases as they leave the tail pipe produces the reaction we know as thrust. INTAKE COMPRESSION COMBUSTION EXHAUST Loe Ed Air Inet Compression Combustion Chambers Turbine Exhaust Cold Section Hot Section Figure 1.8: A single spool axial flow engine The use of a multi stage axial flow compressor enabled highar compression ratios to be obtained and hence more thrust. The single spool turbo jet has very low propulsive efficiency, high specific fuel consumption (SFC) and an undesirable noise level. F i 5 TS Integrated Training System 114 Module 14.1 Turbine Engines eae roar ert PesaroIntegrated Training System Multi-Spool Design Dual and triple spool axial compressors were developed for the operational flexibility they Provide to the engine in the form of high compression ratios, quick acceleration, and better control of stall characteristics. This operational flexibility is not possible with single spool axial flow engines. For any given power lever setting, the high pressure (HP) compressor speed is held fairly constant by a fuel control governor. Assuming that a fairly constant energy level is available at the turbine, the low pressure (LP) compressor will speed up and slow down with changes in aircraft inlet conditions resulting in changes in atmospheric changes or manoeuvres in flight. The varying LP compressor output therefore, provides the HP compressor with the best inlet condition within the limits of the design. That is, the LP compressor tries to supply the HP compressor with a fairly constant air pressure for a particular air pressure for a particular power setting. To better understand when the low pressure compressor speed up and slow down, consider that when ambient temperature increases, the air's molecular motion increases. In order to collect air molecules at the same rate as temperature increases, the compressor would have to change either its blade angles, which it cannot do, or its speed, which it in fact does. Twin Spool Axial Flow Turbo Fan LOW PRESSURE COMPRESSOR ‘AND TURBINE HIGH PRESSURE ‘COMPRESSOR ‘AND TURBINE Figure 1.9: A twin spool axial flow engine TTS imageated Trarng System : SCopyight 01 Module 14.1 Turbine Engines ees eatIntegrated Training System By-Pass Engines Twin Spool Low By-Pass Turbo Fan This type of engine has a twin spool layout with the addition that the L.P. compressor is of larger diameter than before and thus handles a greater mass of air than is required by the H.P. compressor. The airflow which is not required by the H.P. compressor is fed into the by-pass duct and it rejoins the normal gas flow behind the turbines. The airflow is split approximately 50 % each way. The mixing of the "hot" and "cold" gas streams promotes very rapid expansion of the gasses, which gives good power output with a low fuel consumption. Low bypass engines are defined as having a bypass ratio of 3:1 or less Figure 1.10: A twin-spool by-pass turbo-jet High By-Pass Turbo Fan The difference in operation between a propeller and a pure jet engine can be summarised as follows; A propeller accelerates a large quantity of air rearwards at a low rate. A pure jet engine accelerates a small quantity of air rearwards at a high rate. The net result is the same, but the efficiency of each depends on the required speed of the aircraft. For medium speed aircraft, a combination of the two has been developed. On the following pages are two examples of high bypass multi-spool engines. High Bypass is defined as a bypass ratio of 4:1 up to 8:1. Ultra high bypass engines are being researched with a bypass ratio of 10:1 and above. Ahigh bypass engine is more efficient than a pure turbo jet because its principle of operation is more akin to that of a propeller, in that it accelerates a relatively large mass of air at a low rate. E ri i TTS Integrated Training Systern 1-16 Module 14.1 Turbine Engines eee tatsontapy Integrated Training System Twin Spool High Bypass The amount of air going through the by-pass section (or "fan") is typically 5 or 6 times that going through the combustion section. Approximately 80% of the thrust produced is from the by-pass. air ducting High-pressure High-pressure Fan compressor ube \ \ High \ High-pressure shat | | eon ee ee < wee i a aoe Sear Spenbustien Low-presture Nozze Figure 1.11: A twin-spool high-bypass engine Figure 1.12: Pratt and Whitney GP7000 Thtopacs anny y Module 144 Turbine Engines semen?Integrated Training System Z i Turbo Prop Engines The advent of the twin spool engine enabled easier starting (only the small HP compressor needs to be rotated by the starter) and better surge resistance as the two spools run at their ‘own optimum speeds. This type was used as a pure thrust engine, but the example shown above drove a propeller on the end of the LP compressor sheft via a reduction gear Prop p. Gearbox Compressor Turbine Exhaust Combustion —_ => —_> chamber —-F—> Figure 1.13: Geared turbo-prop engines All types invariably use a multi-stage turbine and an epicyclic reduction gear. Multi-stage turbines with small diameter discs can run at higher rev/min and thus absorb more energy from the gas stream than a single large disc that must necessarily be restricted in rev/min because of high centrifugal loading. Epicyclic gearing is selected for the reduction gear because: - i TTS Integrated Training System 1-18 Module 14.1 Turbine Engines een ertce Integrated Training System (a) Ahigh degree of speed reduction can be obtained. (b) The propeller shaft and thrust lines remain on the same centre line as the compressor and turbine shafts, thus causing little interference with the entry of air into the air intake. Streamlining of the whole unit is, therefore, an easier task. This type of gas turbine engine is used wherever the direct thrust from the engine is not required, All the energy in the gasses is absorbed by the turbines and transformed into a rotational force - or TORQUE. There is usually little or no thrust produced in the exhaust. The reduction gearbox is required because the gas turbine engine is most efficient at high RPM, but the device which it drives (propeller, helicopter rotor etc. .) becomes inefficient at such high speed. Figure 1.14: A direct-coupled single spool centrifugal flow turbo-prop engine This example of a turboprop engine uses two centrifugal compressors in tandem. They are driven, along with the reduction gear by a three-stage turbine, all on one shaft. Compared to the axial flow twin spool turbo prop shown above this engine produces much less power and is very inefficient, TIS integrated Trang System ©Copyngnt 2011S Module 14.1 Turbine EnginesIntegrated Training System be ‘ jas Turbines TURBOSAFT ENGINE. one 220 senies1 Figure 1.16: The Allison 250 series turbo-shaft engine y ir 5 TTS integrated Training System 1-20 . Module 14.1 Turbine Engine: eee eon wereIntegrated Training System A turbo-shaft engine is used to drive any industrial application that requires high torque output. For example: Helicopter rotors Ship Drive shafts Hovercraft engines Oil pumps Generator sets This example uses a free or power turbine. All the energy not required to drive the gas generator compressor is used to drive the free turbine which drives the output shaft. The output shaft is shown above coming out o the front of the engine but it can be geared to come out at any angle, even through the exhaust directly connected to the rear of the turbine. rin rig on : Seon Mose 141 Tudine Enpnes seocwat 2hraining System pany) Intentionally Blank F , TTS Integrates Training System 1-22 Module 14.1 Turbine Engines “anna SysomIntegrated Training System Designed in astocraton wth th Summary of Engine Types LOW PRESSURE HIGH PRESSURE COMPRESSOR COMPRESSOR LOW PRESSURE HIGH PRESSURE COMPRESSOR o REVERSE FLOW LOW PRESSURE COMPRESSOR COMBUSTION SYSTEM FREE POWER TURBINE HIGH PRESSURE = TWIN-SPOOL TURBO-SHAFT ENGINE (with free power turbine} LOW PRESSURE BY-PASS By pass air mixing COMPRESSOR = HIGH PRESSURE FLOW with the exhaust . COMPRESSOR | ges stream TWIN-SPOOL AXIAL FLOW BY-PASS TURBO JET ENGINE(low by-pass ratio) yrated Training System 1-23Integrated Training System nt LOW PRESSURE INTERMEDIATE PRESSURE COMPRESSOR: COMPRESSOR TRIPLE-SPOOL AXIAL FLOW FRONT FAN TURBO JET ENGINE (high by-pass ratio) CONTRA-ROTATING PROP-FAN COMPRESSOR AXIAL FLOW CONTRA-ROTATING PROP-FANwith free power turbine) CONTRA -ROTATING FAN LOW PRESSURE COMPRESSOR HIGH PRESSURE COMPRESSOR TWIN-SPOOL AXIAL FLOW CONTRA-ROTATING REAR FAN (with free power turbine} Figure 1.17: Various engine types “TS inte Tenng Stor 1-24 Module 14.1 Turbine Engines eS Copyright 2011 SearTTS integrated Training System Integrated Traini Figure 1.18: The triple spool high-bypass engine Combustion Accessory Drive Section Figure 1.19: The sections of a fan engine Module 14.1 Turbine EnginesIntegrated Training System Intentionally Blank Module 14.1 Turbine Engines (A a TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 20115 i i a i a i i i i i I | I I | | | | | Integrated Training System Electronic Engine Control (EEC) Advances in gas turbine technology have demanded more precise control of engine parameters than can be provided by hydromechanical fuel controls alone. These demands are met by electronic engine controls, or EEC, of which there are two types: supervisory and full-authority. Supervisory Electronic Engine Control The first type of EEC is a supervisory control that works with a proven hydromechanical fuel control. The major components in the supervisory control system include the electronic control itself, the hydromechanical fuel control on the engine, and the bleed air and variable stator vane control. The hydromechanical element controls the basic operation of the engine including starting, acceleration, deceleration, and shutdown. High-pressure rotor speed (Nz), compressor stator vane angles, and engine bleed system are also controlled hydro-mechanically. The EEC, acting in a supervisory capacity, modulates the engine fuel flow to maintain the designated thrust. The pilot simply moves the throttle lever to a desired thrust setting position such as full takeoff thrust, or maximum climb. The EEC adjusts the fuel flow as required to maintain the thrust compensating for changes in flight and environmental conditions. The EEC control also limits engine operating speed and temperature, ensuring safe operation throughout the flight envelope. If a problem develops, control automatically reverts to the hydromechanical system, with no discontinuity in thrust. A warning signal is displayed in the cockpit, but no immediate action is required by the pilot. The pilot can also revert to the hydromechanical control at any time. A Typical Electronic Engine Control System A typical example of an EEC system is that used in many of the Pratt and Whitney 100 series engines currently in service. A brief explanation of how the system works, both in automatic and manual modes follows. rsa an Ste , rete as Mode 141 Tutine Engines seocuat2?7—_ = = ee eos eee ‘© Copyright 2011 TTS Integrated Training System & 3 2 3 = Figure 1.20: Pratt & Whitney 100 Series Fuel Control System Schematic. € cy o S no D> £ £ £ ec 3 sea g S £ =op ae eo ater Automatic Operation (EEC mode) The EEC receives signals from various sources: * Power Management Switch, enabling take off thrust, maximum continuous thrust, climb thrust or cruise thrust settings to be selected * Engine inlet pressure and temperature * Ambient pressure + Airdata computer inputs. (a computer that senses pitot pressure, static pressure and total air temperature) = Engine RPMs — Ny and No = Power lever position. (via a potentiometer) = Failure signals Based on these input signals the EEC will output command signals to adjust and control: * The Hydromechanical Fuel Control Unit via a stepper motor which adjusts the throttle metering valve. * Ignition circuits. + Bleed valves + Torque gauge Fuel Control The fuel control is provided by the hydro-mechanical unit (HMU) The HMU is supplied by the HP fuel pump and provides the required fuel quantity to the nozzles. In normal operation the fuel control is managed by the Electronic Engine Control (EEC). This enables accelerations and decelerations without engine surge or flame out whatever the displacement sequence of the power lever. The HMU is also mechanically connected to the power lever thus ensuring fuel control in case of failure of the EEC. Hydro-mechanical Unit (HMU) The HMU comprises: + A stepper motor controlled by the EEC * A lever which controls fuel shutoff * A lever which controls the fuel flow TTS integrated Tearing System y SCopyight 2011 Module 14.1 Turbine Engines edIntegrated Training System nace cone. at a 0s weve nae Lee C at eg } 1 HE Figure 1.21: PW100 Series Fuel System Auto/Normal Mode 1-30 Module 14.1 Turbine Engines TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Operation The fuel flow supplied to the nozzles is mainly obtained through two valves: * a bypass valve * a metering valve. The fuel enters the HMU from pump outlet with a constant flow. This flow is split by the bypass valve into two flows, one for the nozzles (via the metering valve) and one bypass return flow to the pump. The position of the bypass vaive is a function of the loss of fuel pressure caused by the metering valve. The metering valve is pneumatically actuated. In the pneumatic servo block, the reference pressure is the HP compressor outlet pressure, Ps. A controlled reduction of the Ps pressure results in a variable Py pressure which when opposed to a bellows device, moves the piston of the metering valve. The pneumatic servo block is managed: * in normal operation by the EEC = in manual operation, by the power input lever. Normal Operation (EEC Mode) According to the input data (pressures, temperatures, speeds) and to the commanded power (power lever), the EEC controls a stepper motor located in the HMU, The stepper motor regulates Py pressure thus modulating the fuel flow as requested. A governor acts on the Py pressure, thus setting an N., speed limit function of the compression of a spring by a cam (EEC cam) connected to the power lever. Manual Operation (Manual Mode) P, pressure is not regulated by the stepper motor but by the simultaneous actions of the NH speed govemor and the spring, compressed by a second cam (manual cam) connected to the power lever. Transfer from the EEC Mode to the Manual Mode. In normal operation the EEC manages the fuel regulation. The manual operation is automatically connected when the operation in the EEC mode is switched off. A solenoid in the HMU selects the manual cam instead of the EEC cam and cancels the regulation control through the stepper motor. Operation of the HMU in the fail mode In case of failure of the EEC, the position of the stepper motor is "frozen". Whatever the increase of power through the power lever, the last Nu speed remains unchanged (the load applied by the spring on the Nu speed governor increases).For any power reduction through the power lever, the N}, speed decreases according to the curve of the EEC cam (decreasing spring load). pepe rains nase eee a3 senrb sous ut coon off Figure 1.22: PW 100 Series Fuel System in Manual Mode 1-32 ‘TTS intagrated Training System Module 14.1 Turbine Engines ring System sIntegrated Training System Full Authority Digital Engine Control Overview FADEC is the name given to the system that controls the engine on modern Gas Turbine Engines. This section discusses the common features of FADEC and also the different applications used by the large commercial Passenger aircraft engine manufacturers, Rolls Royce and General Electric and their derivatives IAE and CFM. FADEC replaces the hydro- mechanical fuel control systems as exemplified by the Rolls Royce Spey or JT8D. Figure 1.23: Typical FADEC unit Benefits of FADEC: ‘Substitution of Hydromechanical control system reduces weight and hence fuel consumption Automation brings reduced pilot workload Optimized engine control reduces maintenance and optimizes fuel consumption Optimized airflow control allows the engine to work nearer the surge line thus increasing thrust whilst reducing the chance of surge or flameout. stem consists of Sensors A Central Processor Unit called an Electronic Engine Control (EEC) or an Engine Control Unit (ECU) A Hydro Mechanical Unit (HMU) ‘The Central Processor Unit, for the purposes of this document will be referred to as the ECU TTS imogated Training Sytem “ SCopymant aon Module 14.1 Turbine Engines —A FADEC system has the following inputs: 1 Analogue signals from electrical sensors. Digital signals, usually on an ARINC 429 Data Bus, from aircraft computers such as the Air Data Computer (ADC), Thrust Management Computer (TMC) and Flight Management Computer (FMC). 3 Thrust lever signals are transmitted by Rotational Variable Differential Transformers mechanically connected to a conventional thrust drum that is moved by the Manual Thrust Lever and the Auto Thrust Servo Motor. 4 Pressure inputs — apart from those received from the ADC. Po and Ps3 (Compressor Delivery Pressure) signals are tapped directly into pressure transducers located within the ECU. 5 Feedback signals from any moving mechanical device, such as Thrust Reverser, Variable Stator Vanes (VSVs) and Variable Bypass Valves, utilize Linear or Rotary Variable Differential Transducers (LVDTs or RVDTS). Sections of a FADEC system Engine Control Unit (ECU) The ECU is a dual channel processor that computes all functions of the FADEC system based on its inputs and stored data and then commands the HMU to take appropriate actions. The ECU also provides ARINC 429 data to te FMC TMC and EICAS (Boeing) or ECAM (Airbus) cockpit display computers. Hydro Mechanical Unit (HMU) The HMU provides an interface between the electrical analogue output from the ECU and the fuel. It is achieved by an Electrical Hydraulic Servo Valve (EHSV) actuating a Fuel Metering Valve (FMV), thus controlling fuel supply to the bumers. In addition the HMU will have EHSVs controlling fuel muscle pressure to VSVs and VBVs if fitted. Figure 1.24 shows a simple schematic overview of the FADEC system . TTS Integrate Teinng Systom 1-34 Module 14.1 Turbine Engines eaiing SystonIntegrated Training System Deeded i ELECTRICAL ORDERS ELECTRICAL FEEDBACKS MYDROMECHANICAL UNIT (HMU) wyDRAULIC vauves ano | oruatOne and VALVES Figure 1.24: FADEC Schematic Overview TIS intograted Training System - © copmgn aot Module 14.1 Turbine Engines 1-36ad Integrated Training System saednematreunte oS Cy’ Figure 1.25 shows the flow paths for a CFM 56-5 Engine, which is a typical FADEC engine. Please note the following: 1 FADEC is a very useful tool for gathering information for a condition monitoring system. Customers can choose whether to have Condition Monitoring for their system, therefore the sensors required are customer options and are marked *. 2 TLAstands for Thrust Lever Angle. This signal is received from the RVDT fitted to the thrust lever drum. However this angle is sometimes quoted as the TRA (Throttle or Thrust Resolver Angle) 3 The ECU is powered by its own altemator or by aircraft 28VDC Aircraft Bus for Starting Testing and Maintenance. 115VAC aircraft power is required for the AC Ignitor circuit. Control signals bbe Tos Ts Tease (CFM 56-5, ree i ae? oc ignition eaimechons , ei it cooled, 1 ae a toy contvolunt 77s Ad : Monitoring signals = O&_)8 oid solenulds ENP) Steer “Optional sensors required for engine monitoring snd switchos [LD vatvetsarer i PPE Figure 1.25: CFM 56-5 Airframe - ECU — Engine Flow Paths 1-36 Module 14.1 Turbine Engines is ieee Teen Se © Copyright 2011Integrated Training System The Engine Control Unit (ECU) The ECU is a dual channel processor housed within a single container, however all hardware within the container is partitioned into the two channels. Normally mounted on the fan casing cooling is either by natural Fan Case Cooling Air or directly by a dedicated Fan Air Ducting owner OT ELECTRICAL wit veuow Connectors (au ) J— suecraonte oar cee sree Figure 1.26: ECU Location and Connectors (CF6-80C2 FADEC) - similar for all other High Bypass Gas Turbine Engines Ts regaled tara yn F Sep enna se Module 141 Turbine Engines veer at37Integrated Training System tex Degepainesosene nein cy ECU Architecture 1-38 Dual Channel ‘The FADEC System is fully redundant built around two independent control channels. Dual Input, dual outputs and automatic switching from one channel to the other eliminate any dormant failure. SIGNALS TO/FROM ‘AIRCRAFT TATERFACING CIRCUITS) eenana DIGITAL DATA >| suseverem PROCESSOR ENGINE A sensors [* | ENGINE CONTROL [ *| ‘SYSTEMS encine |, CONTROL | CROSS ELECTRONIC CONTROL CHANNEL A - CHANNEL" conTROL ~ — — ~ — — ~—F~-—---———— — — -- UNIT (ECU) ‘CONTROL CHANNEL B NK ACFT cwane SIGNALS TO/FROM PROCESSOR ‘AIRCRAFT 8 ‘SENSORS *| ENGINE | CONTROL > SENSING SUBSYSTEM UNTERFACING CIRCUITS) ENGINE CONTROL ‘SYSTEMS, Figure 1.27: ECU Dual Channel Philosophy Channel Selection The ECU will always select the “healthiest” channel as the Active channel based on a fault priority list. The fault priority list contains critical faults such as; processor, memory ‘or power failures, and other failures that involve a channel's capability to control the FMV, VSV, or VBV torque motor(s). During engine run status, each channel within the ECU will determine whether to be in the active state or standby state every 30 milliseconds based on a comparison of its own health and the health of the cross- channel. Either channel can become active if its health is better than the cross-channels health; likewise it will become standby if its health is not as good as the cross-channel. If the two channels have equal health statuses, the channels will alternate Active/Standby status on each engine shutdown and the standby channel will become the active channel on the next start. TTS lterated Trang System Module 14.1 Turbine Engines Taina Syston eerCay Integrated Training System * Channel Transfer Assuming the opposite channel is of equal or greater health, channel Active/Standby transfer will occur after the engine has been run above 76% Nz and subsequently shutdown (No less than 35%) Dual Inputs Electrical Inputs: All command inputs to the FADEC system are duplicated Only some secondary parameters used for monitoring and indicating are single (e.g. the EGT input on the CF6 engine). To increase the fault tolerant design, the parameters are exchanged between the two i control channels via the cross channel data link. Pressure inputs Pressure tapings from the engine are plumbed directly into the ECU, either discretely to each channel or a single tapping that is split within the ECU and then sent to discrete channel transducers. Hardwired Inputs Information exchanged between aircraft computers and the ECU is transmitted over digital data buses. In addition signals are hardwired directly from the aircraft where a computer is not used. (Thrust Reverser feedback via RVDTs or TLA via an RVDT) fe" LEVER ANGLE (TLA) ECUCH.A ECU CH. TRA SIGNAL THROTTLE RESOLVER ANGLE (TRA) Figure 1.28: Example Hardwired Dual Input Device — Thrust Lever Angle RVDTs Dual Outputs All the ECU outputs are double but only the channel in control supplies the engine control signals to the various receptors such as torque motors, actuators or solenoids. Further information on output signal receivers can be found below in the HMU section. TTS itegated Training Systom 1 © Copyngntz01 Module 14.1 Turbine Engines enna? sreeIntegrated Training System (ay BITE Capability The ECU is equipped with BITE, which provides maintenance information, and test capabilities via an aircraft mounted component called MCDU (Airbus) or PIMU (Boeing). The ECU performs a self-test on power up, and self monitors during operation. In addition operation of a ground test switch powers up the ECU and hence a real time ground test is carried out when this switch is operated. For Boeing airframes the ECU stores faults in the ECU volatile memory until the aircraft lands. On landing the faults are streamed to a Propulsion Interface Monitoring Unit (PIMU). There is a PIMU for each engine. The PIMU holds the fault until a BITE test is carried out. An EICAS message will advise maintenance staff to carry out this procedure even if the pilot has not noticed the problem. AIRBUS faults will be stored in the MCDU in real time. BITE interrogation is airframe specific and cannot be covered in a generic FADEC publication. Using the BITE system, the ECU can detect and isolate failures in real time and hence allows switching of engine control from the faulty channel to the healthy one. Fail Safe Control Ifa standby channel is faulty and the channel in control is unable to ensure one engine function, this control is moved to a fail-safe position. Example If the standby channel is faulty and the channel in control is unable to control VBV position, the valves are operated to the open position. Main Interfaces To perform all its tasks the ECU interfaces with aircrait computers, either directly or via the Engine Interface Monitoring Unit (EIMU). Principle among these are the aircraft Left and Right Air Data Computers which supply data , notably Ambient Temperature (Tam); Total Air Temperature (TAT); Static Pressure (P;0) and Total Pressure (Pr). All of these are required to determine that the thrust commanded remains constant for the ambient conditions and that thrust and EGT limits are not exceeded. Limits Protection The ECU has a dual channel limit protection section comprising max limits for N1 N2 and N3 (RR only) In addition various max limits are protected depending on the system, most commonly Compressor Delivery Pressure(P.3) 7 TTS itagiated Teainng Syst 1-40 Module 14.1 Turbine Engines a Tranng Syston sorerodty me sareIntegrated Training System Thrust Regulation Thrust regulation on high bypass engine is calculated using ADC inputs to calculate the required fuel to provide the commanded thrust. The thrust is measured in terms of Ny speed or EPR (RR Trent). For the EPR engine in the event of EPR signal failure then it reverts to control by Ns. As a back up there is a mechanical high pressure compressor (HP2 or HP3) governor located within the HMU Thrust Control Modes Systems vary, therefore below are three typical systems: CF6 FADEC Control Modes In the event that an ADC signal is lost then the ECU will use the opposite channel signal In the event that the channels inputs do not agree as to which signal is accurate then the ECU will revert to an alternate mode using the last known ambient pressure signal. This is also known as the soft reversionary mode. a The soft reversionary mode can cause throttle stagger as the other engine is still i operating in the normal mode. To prevent this the ECU mode switches can be pushed for both engines, to select hard reversionary mode which means they are using the fixed comerpoint ambient temperature for that engine. Because Tam may be higher than § Comerpoint there is now a danger of overboosting the engine. Consequently the pilot will always throttle back before selecting hard reversionary and subsequently be aware of his i max N1 indication to prevent overboosting or over temping the engine. R.R. Trent FADEC Control Modes The primary thrust control loop uses EPR .In the event that EPR computation is impossible then the ECU reverts to the N1 mode where N1 is used to control thrust. In the N1 mode Auto Throttle is no longer available. CFM 56 FADEC Control Modes The engine operates in one of three thrust modes, AUTO - MEMO -MANUAL Entering/exiting these three modes is controlled by inputs to the Engine Interface Unit (EIU). TTS itogratedTeining System P ©Cepyngn 2011 Module 14.1 Turbine Engines camara nl tetb) 1-42 Auto Thrust Mode The auto thrust mode is only available between idle and Max Climb Thrust when the aircraft is in flight. After take-off the throttle is pulled back to the max climb position, the auto thrust system will be active and the Automatic Flight system will provide an N; target to provide either - Max Climb Thrust. An Optimum Thrust. A Minimum Thrust. An Aircraft Speed (Mach Number). In association with the autopilot. Memo Mode The Memo Mode is entered automatically, from Auto mode if the N, target is invalid. One of the instinctive disconnect buttons on the throttle is activated. Auto thrust is disconnected by the EIU. In the memo mode, the thrust is frozen to the last actual N; value and will remain frozen until the throttle lever is moved manually, or, auto thrust is reset. Manual Thrust Mode This mode is entered any time the conditions for Auto or Memo are not present in this mode. Thrust is a function of throttle lever position. i TTS Integrated Training System Module 14.1 Turbine Engines Se rt ‘phere by me stomawear bam quasian pacts aid oy Integrated Training System Power Supplies Permanent Magnet Alternator (PMA) A dual coil Permanent Magnet Alternator driven from the Extemal or Accessory Gearbox powers the ECU. The dual output is fed independently to the two Channels. The PMA can provide all power requirements once the engine is running above 15% N2 (N3 for RR Engine). 28V DC Aircraft BUS For engine starting an aircraft 28V DC supply is used. In addition a 28V DC Bus supplies power for ground testing the system and for back up in the case of the primary 28V DC Bus failing. Aircraft 28 V DC is also always available in the event of PMA supply failing to both channels. 28V DC is applied to the ECU when: The start switch is activated The Fuel switch is placed to on (for an in-flight windmilling start) When ground test power is applied 115V AC 400Hz The aircraft supplies a 115V AC 400HZ power source to each channel for ignition excitor # 1 and ignition excitor # 2. The inputs are routed to the exciters or terminated within the ECU by switching relays. It should be noted that if the ECU has a double channel failure then the engine will not start as. the exciters can only be powered via the ECU. TTS Integrated Training System z Sooners Module 14.1 Turbine Engines eeeIntegrated Training System SJ) Hydro Mechanical Unit (HMU) Primary outputs from the ECU are directed to the torque motors of the EHSVs located on the HMU and to the torque motor controlling the primary fuel metering valve. The fuel metering subsystem is completely contained in the HMU. The HMU is mounted on the front, right side of the accessory gearbox. It is driven by a mechanical connection to the gearbox. The HMU responds to electrical signals from the ECU to meter fuel flow for combustion and to modulate servo fuel flow to operate the engine air systems. The HMU also receives signals from the aircraft fuel control system to control an intemal high pressure fuel shutoff valve (HPSOV). There are four external electrical connectors for electrical interfaces with the aircraft and ECU. Four fuel ports connect the HMU with the fuel pump and fuel nozzles. There are five hydraulic connections for control interfaces with the engine fuel and air systems. Each hydraulic interface is controlled by an electro-hydraulic servo valve (EHSV) that varies servo fuel pressure in response to EEC signals. The fuel connections to the HMU ere: Fuel inlet from the fuel pump Fuel discharge to the fuel nozzles Fuel bypass discharge to the fuel pump Servo fuel inlet from the servo fuel heater. The hydraulic connections from the HMU are: Servo fuel pressure to the low pressure turbine case cooling (LPTCC) valve Servo fuel pressure to the high pressure turbine case cooling (HPTCC) valve Servo fuel reference pressure to the LPTCC and HPTCC valves Servo fuel pressure to the variable bypass valves (VBVs) Servo fuel pressure to the variable stator vanes (VSVs). The electrical connections to the HMU are: Fuel control signals from EEC channel A Fuel control signals from EEC channel B HPSOV solenoid inputs from the fuel control valves HPSOV position indication outputs to the EEC. + ; TTS Inqtated Tang System 44 Module 14.1 Turbine Engines aig Sen tomers,a i i a i i f i i i i i 1 I I I I | | | | cw Integrated Training System The HMU has three hydraulic circuits: A fuel metering circuit A bypass circuit A servo control circuit. The fuel metering circuit controls fuel flow to the fuel nozzles in the engine combustor. It has a fuel metering valve and a high pressure fuel shutoff valve (HPSOV). Unmetered fuel from the fuel pump goes to the FMV. Metered fuel from the FMV goes to the HPSOV. If the HPSOV is open, metered fuel is routed to the fuel nozzles. The bypass circuit is composed of a bypass valve, a differential pressure (delta P) regulator, and an overspeed governor. The fuel pump supplies more fuel than needed for the metered fuel flow. The bypass circuit returns excess fuel to the fuel pump. The servo control circuit divides the fuel supply from the servo fuel heater into regulated and unregulated servo flows. These flows operate actuators located both inside and outside of the HMU. The circuit has a servo regulating and distribution section and five electro-magnetic servo valves. One of these servo valves supplies servo pressure for FMV control and is discussed below. The other servo valves control pressure to engine air system actuators as listed previously. Fuel Metering Valve A fuel metering valve (FMV) inside the HMU controls fuel flow to the nozzles. The hydraulically driven metering valve is controlled by the fuel metering valve EHSV. The EHSV has two coils, one for each EEC channel. The controlling EEC channel increases current through its EHSV Coil to hydraulically open the FMV. If neither coil has power, the FMV closes. The FMV has two Position-indicating resolvers, One resolver is excited by, and to, EEC channel A. The other resolver goes to EEC channel B TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyngnt 2011 Module 14.1 Turbine Engines provides a position feedback signal 1-45Integrated Training System FROM SERVO FUEL HEATER FROW ENGINE FUEL PUMP 1-46 eeu — FROMAC yorueL > ‘OVERSPEEO GOVERNOR 12> 1068 Figure 1.29: Typical HMU System Module 14.1 Turbine Engines NOZZLES ToFueL RETURN VALVE RETURN TO 00.01 COMER [AMD FUEL PUMP ‘TTS integrated Training System {© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Glossary of Terms ACFT Aircraft ADC Air Data Computer BITE Built In Test Equipment ECAM Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring (Airbus version of EICAS) ECU Engine Control Unit EEC Electronic Engine Control EGT Exhaust Gas Temperature EHSV Electro Hydraulic Servo Valve EICAS Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System (Boeing version of ECAM) EIMU Engine Interface Monitoring Unit EIU Engine Interface Unit EPR Engine Pressure Ratio FADEC Full Authority Digital Engine Control FMC Flight Management Computer FMV Fuel Metering Valve HMU Hydro-Mechanical Unit HPSOV High Pressure Shut Off Valve HPTCC High Pressure Turbine Case Cooling LPTCC Low Pressure Turbine Case Cooling LVDT _Linear Variable Differential Transformer (or Transducer) MCDU Maintenance Display Control Unit PIMU Propulsion Interface Control Unit PMA Permanent Magnet Altemator Po Atmospheric Pressure Pd Compressor Delivery Pressure Pr Total Pressure RACC Rotor Active Clearance Control RVDT —_Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (or Transducer) Tam Ambient Temperature TAT Total Air Temperature TLA Thrust (or Throttle) Lever Angle T™c Thrust Management Computer TRA Thrust (or Throttle) Resolver Angle vBV Variable Bleed Valves vsv Variable Stator Vanes SConyanrsont nee sen Module 14.1 Tubine Engines 147ted Training System Intentionally Blank Module 14.1 Turbine Engines TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System TTS Integrated Training System Module 14 Licence Category B2 Propulsion 14.2 Engine Indicating SystemsTraini integrated 1 raining System ow Copyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training Support Ltd. Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category 81 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels. The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL1 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject, Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples The applicant should be able to use typical terms. LEVEL 2 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. ‘An ability to apply that knowledge. Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples. ‘The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject. The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject. ‘The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures. LEVEL 3 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. ‘A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner. Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects. The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals, and specific examples. The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematicel formulae related to the subject. The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject. The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate 22 indicati TTS integrated Training System Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems eet Doves ne setenercy Integrated Training System Table of Contents Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems 7 Cockpit Displays 7 7 ‘Analogue 7 Electronic Indicating System 9 EICAS and ECAM - Gas Temperature Measurement. Thermocouple _ - 1 Resistance Thermometers _ oe WY Wheatstone Bridge Temperature Sensor _ 13, DC Ratiometer - 13 Turbine Engine Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) The Thermocouple A Modem Thermocouple System ___ Thermocouple Maintenance _ Piston Engine Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) Piston Engine Cylinder Head Temperature (CHT) Turbine Engine Speed Measurement and Indication Tacho-generator Phonic Wheel and Pulse Probe Propeller Speed Measurement and Indication Mechanical Tachometers__ Mechanical Indicators _ Electrical Tachometers __ Tacho Generators _ Indicators _ _ _ _ Maintenance Practices. Fuel Flow Measurement and In Vane Type Fuel Flowmeter __ Synchronous Fuel Flowmeter (Motor driven) The Motorless Integrated Fuel Flow Transmitter __ The Synchronous Integrated Fuel Flowmeter Maintenance Practices__ tion, Engine Thrust Measurement and Indication 49 Engine Pressure Ratio 49 RPM 52 Oil Pressure, Quantity and Temperature Measurement and Indication _ 53 Pressure Measurement Direct Reading Pressure Gauges Remote Reading Pressure Instruments Oil pressure Warning Light Oil Quantity Measurement _ TTS integrated Training System © Copynght 2011 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating SystemsIntegrated Training System Manifold Pressure and Boost Pressure Measurement and Indication 65 Construction and Action __66 Fuel Trap ___ 68 Testing Boost Gauges - 69 Engine Torque Measurement and Indication ” Vibration Indication Systems 75 24 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems SeemTTS Integrated Training System © Copyngrt 2011, Intentionally Blank Module 14.2 Engine Indicating SystemsIntegrated Training System on ow Module 14.2 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement Certification Statement These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation 2042/2003 Annex III (Part-66) Appendix |, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below: | Objective “EASA 66 Reference | Level B2 Exhaust gas temperature/Interstage turbine temperature systems; 14.2 2 [Engine speed; Engine Thrust indication: Engine Pressure Ratio, engine turbine discharge pressure or jet pipe pressure systems; [Oil pressure and temperature; [Fuel pressure, temperature and flow; Manifold pressure; Engine torque; [Propeller speed. 26 Module 14.2 Engine indicating Systems ‘TTS Integrated Training System "© Copyright 2011é Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems Cockpit Displays Analogue The following examples of cockpit displays of engine instrumentation relate to turbine engine powered aircraft. Figure 2.1: Analogue engine indication TTS integrates Training System ©Copynant sont Module 14.2 Engine Indicating SystemsIntegrated Training System Figure 2.2: Analogue engine instruments (B737) Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems ‘TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2011 |Integrated Training System Electronic Indicating System Display of engine performance and condition parameters has changed dramatically in terms of Presentation, with the advent of the glass cockpit. Instead of individual analogue dials the flight deck display is now show digitally on flat screen displays. Figure 2.3: Electronic engine indications (B737)Integrated Training System EICAS and ECAM Boeing aircraft use a system called EICAS (Engine Indicating and Crew Alert System) and Airbus use a system called ECAM (Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor). In both cases whilst the flight deck instrument display has changed the system sensors have not changed dramatically and the principles of operation are the same. AFT. CARGO FIRE Par rkorus alee Ce Figure 2.4: Typical EICAS screens , ; i TS integrated Training System 2-10 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems anaIntegrated Training System Gas Temperature Measurement Temperatures of the air/gas entering and leaving an engine are measured. These are known as “Intake (or Inlet) Air Temperature” and “Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)". There are two types of sensors: * Thermocouple sensors * Resistance Bulb thermometers Thermocouple Works exactly the same way as the EGT system and requires no extemal power. There is likely to be only one thermocouple however - this is the reason that Iron and Constantan is sometimes used as the dissimilar metals as they give a greater current flow per degree Celsius than Alumel/Chromel. Resistance Thermometers Resistance thermometers are used as the sensing device for both Wheatstone bridge and DC Ratiometer circuits. The device is usually a platinum or nickel wire sensor wound on a former made of an insulating material such as mica. This assembly will be enclosed within a steel tube. The resistance of the wire will increase with increasing heat and hence it will act as the variable resistance element of either of the above instrument types. Connection Resistance Thermometer !!848 Connection Leads ShEatM —ingulator Figure 2.6: Resistance thermometer probe j Resistance thermometers can often be found with double | a“ windings to act as dual channel devices in a single unit, particularly for FADEC controlled engines. Figure 2.7: Resistance thermometer probes 17S inograted Training System Scopyight 21 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating SystemsFigure 2.8: Fan inlet temperature sensor in the CFM56-3 engine intake (B737) Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems ea Ocoriien) Int Traini ay Integrated : raining System Wheatstone Bridge Temperature Sensor A Wheatstone bridge circuit consists of three fixed resistors and one resistance thermometer whose resistance varies with temperature. When power is applied to a Wheatstone bridge circuit and all four resistances are equal, no difference in potential exists between the bridge junctions. However, when the variable resistor is exposed to heat, its resistance increases, causing more current to flow through the fixed resistor RS than the variable resistor R4. The disproportionate current flow produces a voltage differential between the bridge junctions, causing current to flow through the galvanometer indicator. The greater the voltage differential, the greater the current flow through the indicator and the greater the needle deflection. Since indicator current flow is directly proportional to the temperature, an indicator calibrated in degrees provides an accurate means of registering temperature. Figure 2.9: Wheatstone Bridge meter A ratiometer circuit measures current ratios and is more reliable than a Wheatstone bridge, especially when the supply voltage varies. Typically, a simple ratiometer circuit consists of two parallel branches powered by the aircraft electrical system. One branch consists of a fixed resistor and coil, and the other branch consists of a variable resistor and coil. The two coils are wound on a rotor that pivots between the poles of a permanent magnet, forming a meter movement in the gauge The shape of the permanent magnet provides a larger air gap between the magnet and coils at the bottom than at the top. Therefore, the flux density, or magnetic field, is progressively stronger from the bottom of the air gap to the top. Current flow through each coil creates an electromagnet that reacts with the polarity of the permanent magnet, creating torque that fepositions the rotor until the magnetic forces are balanced. If the resistances of the temperature probe and fixed resistor are equal, current flow through each coil is the same and the indicator pointer remains in the centre position. However, if the probe temperature increases, its resistance also increases, causing a decrease in current through the temperature- sensing branch. Consequently, the electromagnetic force on the temperature sensing branchIntegrated Training System “i on decreases, creating an imbalance that allows the rotor to rotate until each coil reaches a null, or balance. The pointer attached to the rotor then indicates the oil temperature Ratiometer temperature measuring systems are especially useful in applications where accuracy is critical or large variations of supply voltages are encountered. Therefore, a ratiometer circuit type temperature sensing system is generally preferred over Wheatstone bridge circuits by aircraft and engine manufacturers. Figure 2.10: DC Ratiometer A ~ aT \ = i 8 wocAaTon ont Figure 2.11: DC Ratiometer - : im: ‘TTS inegratod Training System 214 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems arraning SysIntegrated Training System Variation in input voltage does not affect readout, An open circuit in the sensor will cause the instrument to go to FSD A short circuit in the sensor will cause the instrument to go to a minimum (off-scale) position A hairspring is not required (as in a moving coil instrument), any hairspring used is only to take the needle indicator off scale TTS integrate Training System - © Copyngntaon Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems seam nS,Intentionally Blank Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems ‘TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2011 a — er eee eee DORN ARRIntegrated Training System Desgned i he Turbine Engine Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) The temperature of the exhaust gases is always monitored closely during engine operation, especially during the starting cycle when overheat damage is most prevalent. Hot section temperature is considered the most critical of all engine-operating parameters because an out of limit condition can render the engine unserviceable in a matter of seconds. The temperature gauge in the flight deck, when labelled Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT), indicates the temperature is being monitored forward of the turbine wheel(s). When labelled Interstage Turbine Temperature (ITT), it indicates that the temperature is being monitored at some intermediate position between adjacent turbine wheels; and when labelled Turbine Outlet Temperature (TOT), it indicates the temperature is being taken aft of the turbine wheels. A generic term of Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) is commonly used for all of the above The Thermocouple 'f two wires of any different metals are joined together at both ends as shown, then heat is applied to one of the junctions, a very small current will flow around the wires. The reason for this is the fact that every metal has a different electrical potential to the next, or a different amount of free electrons, or even a deficiency of free electrons compared to other metals. The heating of one of the junctions, known as the hot junction allows free electrons from the wire with the greatest electrical potential, to flow into the wire of the lesser electrical potential - this is known as the Seebeck Effect. The flow of electrons is continuous for as long as the heat is applied and is directly proportional to the amount of heat applied. The current flows right around through the cold junction and back to the hot junction in a complete loop. Although the current is very small, it can be measured at any point in the loop by a sensitive ammeter. Note that no extemal electrical supply is needed TTS intgiated Teng Systm - © Copyight 2011 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems 247Integrated Training System Alumel Figure 2.12: The Thermocouple Principle Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2011; Integrated Training System The exhaust gas temperature EGT system for a turbine engine is similar to that for a reciprocating engine except that several thermocouples are used. These are arranged around the exhaust so they can sample the temperature in several locations. For accurate temperature indication, the reference junction temperature must be held constant {tis not practical to do this in an aircraft instrument, so the indicator needle is mounted on a bimetallic hairspring in such a way that it moves back as the cockpit temperature increases. This compensates for reference junction temperature changes. <<] | Thermocouple a Mf “af ree a Pylon Disconnect ® Left Engine Exhaust Gas Temperature 4) 7 Bimota Temp Correction Figure 2.13: EGT Indication (Copper Constantan) Small indicators operate without any additional electrical power except for the illumination. For more complex indicators, electrical power supply is used for the amplifiers and motors inside the indicator. + Chromel (alloy of chromium and nickel) + Alumel (alloy of aluminium and nickel) “TS Integrated Training Sytem copyignzo11 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating SystemsIntegrated Training System ‘i, = (ap <5} —Atumer — SS eer fie Exhaust oor <4 |W ee Ba on ! aot I ~ Alumel () il -¢-—- Chromel (.)— # Ky 1 mt) Lats { Chrome! — i Loft Engine Ect ‘Thermocouple Figure 2.14: EGT Indication (Chrome! Alumel) Figure 2.13 shows a typical aircraft system. Its features are as follows: 1 The two different metals used are; Nickel Aluminium (Alumel) Nickel Chromium (Chrome!) Alumel has an excess of free electrons and is usually colour coded GREEN Chromel has a deficiency of free electrons and is usually colour coded WHITE These metals are used as a standard in the aircraft industry, not because they give the best current flow per degree centigrade, but because they are most reliable. 2 There are at least eight thermocouple placed in parallel around the exhaust and each within a casing which helps to protect the delicate wires from the hot gases. In this way, a thermocouple may burn out and it will not affect the sensitivity of the system 3 All the thermocouple come together at a common cold junction which is where the indicator is situated. The indicator is a sensitive ammeter but indicating degrees Celsius instead of amps. This is a moving coil ammeter and is very delicate. During transit of the instrument, the terminals should be shorted by a piece of copper wire. This will help to damp the internal mechanism and should only be removed when the indicator is connected to a thermocouple. This type of instrument is sometimes called a D’Arsonval meter. 4 In the circuit will be situated a calibrating resistor (or sometimes a dummy thermocouple). This resistor is temperature sensitive and is subject to ambient temperature. It has two functions: It calibrates the system since the lengths of the wires from the sensors to the indicators is critical (see below) ¥ i TTS integrated Training System 2-20 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems. eecoprae oot Seer he Stetcoh _ (ay Integrated Training System It compensates for ambient air temperature. 5 The complete circuit resistance is critical, usually 8, 15 or 22 ohms and is measured between the thermocouple hamess and the flight deck indicator. For this reason, all connections must be accurately torque loaded and all screw threads should be smeared with graphite grease. No alterations are allowed in the wiring of any part of the system. ‘thermocouple compensating lends millivolt meter (catorated i cegrees! instrument connected ballast, bot junction 10 cold juncuon resistor Figure 2.15: Thermocouple thermometer WITH INDICATOR DISCONNECTED ‘SYSTEM RESISTANCE 1815 OHMS Figure 2.16: Simple aircraft thermocouple system Temes se Module 142 Erie ladeatng Systems seen 22hIntegrated Training System op’ Thermocouples are usually of the rapid response or stagnation type as shown opposite. Gas Turbine engines are usually of the stagnation type due to the rapid velocity of the jet efflux. Thermocouples are inserted into the gas stream at a depth to obtain the most accurate reading. Many systems use double or triple element units (see below) to obtain an even more accurate indication. These multiple units are of differing lengths in order to obtain a temperature reading from different depths in the gas stream to provide a better average reading than can be obtained from a single probe. STAGNATION TYPE RAPID RESPONSE TYPE Figure 2.17: Stagnation Type and Rapid Response Type thermocouple probes 2.22 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems TTS grate ring yetIntegrated Training System JET PIPE THERMOCOUPLES AIR INTAKE THERMOCOUPLE JUNCTION BOX ‘TO.GAS TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEM Figure 2.18: TGT thermocouple system TTS integrates Training Syste - Copy aor? St Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems fecesIntegrated Training System A Modern Thermocouple System Modern thermocouple systems do not use the simple moving coil instrument. If the engine uses an instrument, them it is likely to be a moving coil ratiometer, where the cold junction is in fact one leg of the ratiometer device. In. a FADEC engine the cold junction is within the FADEC EEC. For Non FADEC engines with glass cockpit (Boeing 757) the cold junction will terminate at the EICAS computer. See below for the RB211/B757 EGT system THERHOCOUPLE RT Test RECEPTACLE — > "|(See (leg EICAS DISPLAY MIT (P2) 17 DUAL HEAD THERAO- couetes | ai} GREEN ~ waite + rs COMPENSATING Lock RESISTOR (GUIDE VANE eae entuasr TERAINAL, stup CINK STANDBY ENGINE RESISTOR INDICATORS. ¢P1-3) ‘TERMINAL BLOCK ‘UPPER RT SIDE OF FAN CASED EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE INDICATING SYSTEM (L ENG TYPICAL) Figure 2.19: RB211/B757 EGT System Note that the compensating resistor is fitted to adjust for vanation in ambient temperature at the cold junction, whilst the ballast resistor standardizes EGT output to enable variation in individual engine performance to be eradicated in the interest of fleet commonality. 2-24 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems Tire eyay Integrated Training System Thermocouple Maintenance Maintenance of thermocouple EGT system consists of testing the circuit. This may be done in 2 ways. The Jetcal Analyser The Jetcal analyzer is a RPM and EGT test set. In the EGT mode it tests the following: Continuity Check of aircraft EGT circuit Functional Check of Aircraft EGT Circuit Resistance and Insulation Check EGT Indicator check The first three above are carried out by heating a probe that fits over a thermocouple and the output is cross checked between the test set and the cockpit gauge. None of these tests require compensation for ambient temperature because the aircraft circuit and the test set are automatically corrected. The EGT indicator test is carried out by removing the indicator from the aircraft and connecting to the test set. Correction for ambient temperature is not required. Resistance and Continuity Checks ‘On modern engines you should confirm serviceability of the system by checking continuity and resistance of the system using Multimeter and Ohmmeter. Thermocouples are also checked individually by isolating them and checking resistance. Fault diagnosis For all power settings False LowEGT Circuit resistance is high - Corroded terminals - leads too long after repair False High EGT Circuit resistance low - Loose terminals - Gauge Fault Seaman Module 14.2 Engine seating Systems snot,2-26 Intentionally Blank Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems TTS Integrated Training Syston ‘© Copyright 2011a oy Integrated Training Sa - Piston Engine Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) = Fitted on the hottest cylinder exhaust pipe of some carburetted engines and used for leaning the engine. If done properly, each cylinder should have an EGT indicator. FADEC controlled fuel injected engines can not live without this important measurement, since they regulate the = amount of fuel in combination with RPM and MAP to obtain the best mixture for the power _ requirement without detonation in the cylinders. - Figure 2.20: EGT indicator To measure the temperature of exhaust gases a number of thermocouples may be equally = spaced around the area where the temperature is to be measured. They are interconnected to provide a mean or average temperature reading at the indictor. “ Z spat Figure 2.21: EGT sensor Each thermocouple protrudes into the exhaust gas stream, and is secured in position by a union nut. “TS Integrated Training System - Scapa Module 14,2 Engine Indicating Systems 227Integrated Training System The materials used for exhaust gas thermocouples (EGTs) are nickel-chromium and nickel- aluminium, and all extension leads must be of the same material or material of similar thermal/EMF characteristics. The leads to the two conductors are silver soldered and together they provide the hot junction. The leads are insulated with an asbestos / fireclay composition to withstand the high operating temperatures. They also have an armoured outer covering of metal braid. These types of thermocouple are termed immersion type. Thermocouple Harness Assemblies Thermocouple sensors and their leads are linked up into looms whose design varies with the type of aircraft they are required for and the number of sensors (probes) required. In some engines the probes, thermocouple leads and junction boxes are separated, but in other syst4ms they are welded to stainless steel junction boxes. The leads terminate at a main junction box and the extension leads are joined to connect the hot junction to the cold junction: Adjustable Resistors Adjustable resistors are connected in series and their purpose is to adjust the line resistance. Figure 2.8 illustrates the type of resistance wire which is fitted to the terminal with a screw, so that the resistance can be adjusted by winding some wire off and then cutting it to size. The other end is a soldered connection. The resistor is connected in series with the positive conductor of the extension cable at the terminal block, Figure 2.23: Bobbin resistor Indicators Figure 2.24 illustrates exhaust gas temperature indicators. The movement is a moving coil mmllivoltmeter, and there are two types of presentation, the single pointer and the dual pointer. The dual pointer has two separate movements for indicating and temperature of two engines. The indicator cases are enclosed in a metal screen to prevent the meter movement affecting the magnetic compass. Note in Figure 2.24 the zero adjuster. - 7 T'S integrated Training System 2-28 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems eeetaentt doremad ye sateen!Figure 2.24: EGT indicator types — single and dual pointers TTS integrated Training System e Copyaght 2011 eye Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems Integrated Training System Designod in thIntegrated Training System Intentionally Blank 2-30 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems ocr he stern oy TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2011(ay Integrated en eae Piston Engine Cylinder Head Temperature (CHT) Also a thermocouple probe fitted in the cylinder head. Each cylinder should have one, but it is usually installed on the hottest cylinder (which ever that maybe, this doesn't so much depend on the position but on the mixture entering the cylinders). Made from iron- or copper-constantan (copper and nickel alloy) and able to measure up to 400T. CYL HE@D TEMP Figure 2.25: CHT indicator The system consists of three parts:- A thermocouple, The extension leads, The indicator. Thermocouple The thermocouple is in the form of a bimetallic lug with a lead attached. The lug is made of copper and constantan, which is an alloy of copper and nickel; it is bored to take the cylinder head bolt. The cylinder head bolt when it is torqued down secures the lug to the surface of the cylinder head. The lead which is attached to the lug has two conductors, one copper, the other, constantan. The copper conductor is connected to the indicator copper led via a thermal block as illustrated in Figure 2.26. TTS ntogratd Training System - © copyrgin 2011 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems caIntegrated Training System ey ae a7, =e poate SS ae ret reese oom Figure 2.26: Thermocouple sensors The copper conductor is identified with a red sleeve, and the constantan has a blue sleeve. Extension Leads To maintain the continuity of the correct material between the hot junction and cold junction of the circuit, a special extension lead is used to connect the thermocouple to the instrument to give continuity. These leads may be called either extension leads or compensating leads. Copper/constantan extension leads are identifiable by their yellow outer covering. The conductors are marked in the same way as on the thermocouples, with red sleeves for copper and blue sleeves for constantan. ¥ i TTS Integrated Training System 2-32 Module 14.2 Engine indicating Systems oa eee oacy Integrated Training System The thermocouple and its lead have a resistance of about 0.25 ohm; compensating or extension leads measure about 1.75 ohms. These leads are supplied in various lengths for installations where a continuous led can be used. Extension leads must not be cut or altered in any way. The Indicator The indicator is usually a moving coil millivoltmeter which is very sensitive. An EMF is generated by the heat applied to two different materials; there will also be a current to flow and a voltage. The sensing element at the cylinder head is referred to as the hot junction, the indicator the cold junction. ‘The amount of EMF generated depends on the amount of heat which is sensed by the thermocouple. The more heat, the greater the current flow, the bigger the EMF and the greater the temperature reading on the indicator. There is a zero adjustment on the indicator in the form of a screw which is fitted to the end of a bimetallic spiral. This spiral compensates for the effect in changes of atmospheric temperature and the screw sets the zero position of the pointer. To prevent damage to the instrument when it is not fitted to an aircraft system, a shorting wire is fitted between the terminals at the rear of the instrument. This shorting link should not be moved until the indicator is securely fitted to the instrument panel. The same rule applies for removal; ensure that a shorting link is fitted before you remove the indicator. The zero must be set before connecting the extension leads. To do this the indicator, which is already fitted must be left for half an hour so that the temperature reading settles. A check of the temperature is advisable by taping a thermometer to the indicator glass. Note both readings after half an hour and if required, adjust the zero screw until the pointer reads the same temperature as the thermometer. TTS integrated Training System 2-33 © Copyright 2011 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems asantov neonateIntegrated Training System Figure 2.27: Piston engine Cylinder Head Temperature sensor, sensor and Exhaust Gas Temperature 2:34 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems TTS Integrated Tearing System (© Copyright 2011 ‘Integrated Training System Turbine Engine Speed Measurement and Indication Because no two engines and no two compressors N; and No operate at the same speed, percent revolutions per minute is used to simplify the flight deck indications. There are two systems in common use, often both systems are used on the same engine. + Tacho-generator * Phonic wheel and pulse probe Tacho-generator The tachometer is an independent electrical system, consisting of an engine driven three phase AC generator and a synchronous motor driven indicator. The frequency of the generated current is dependent upon the speed of the engine. The tacho-generator is connected to the main gearbox, which is driven by the high pressure spool, and therefore is most commonly used to indicate the HP spool speed. SYNCHRONOUS. MOTOR FIELD FLUX COUPLING. TACHOMETER INDICATOR’ TYPICAL ROTOR \ DRIVE GEAR RATIO. Nz 248 TO 1 CW. Ny 489 701 CW. VERNER, a POINTER, ; LOCATION TACHOMETER [GENERATOR Nz ACCESSORY DRIVE PAD Nr ACCESSORY DRIVE CASE ‘THE THREE-PHASE GENERATOR IS DRIVEN BY THE ENGINE TO PRODUCE AC WHOSE FREQUENCY RELATES TO ENGINE RPM. THE INDICATOR HOLDS A SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR WHICH DRIVES A MAGNETIC DRAG TACHOMETER MAGNET. Figure 2.28: Tacho Generator TTS inlegrated Training System 7 eeeeesr meas Module 14.2 Engine Inaicating Systems comme.Integrated Training System Devnet a‘ Phonic Wheel and Pulse Probe Often called a “Variable Reluctance" system. It consists of either one or two permanent magnets in close proximity to a toothed wheel on the engine shaft called a "phonic wheel" However, no contact is made with the wheel. A pickup coil is situated in the magnetic field, which is greatest when the teeth of the wheel are in-line with the pole pieces as shown, since the magnetism does not have such a great air gap to travel through. The resulting fluctuating induced current in the coil has a frequency proportional to the speed of the engine shaft. This can then be indicated in a similar way to the tacho-generator indicator. ZS PHONIC WHEEL Figure 2.29: Pulse probe tachometer 2-36 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Propeller Speed Measurement and Indication Located on the instrument panel, the propeller RPM indicator is graduated in 50-RPM increments from 0 to 2700 RPM typically. The normal governed operating range of the propeller is 1800-2200 RPM with a maximum allowable of 2200 RPM typically. Figure 2.30: Tacho Generator Older aircraft have a mechanical cable driven tachometer, inside the instrument are a couple of fiyweights to which a pointer is attached indicating RPM. Figure 2.31: Tachometer gauge often combines with an engine hours meter, sometimes known as a "Hobbs Meter” TTS Integrated Training Sytem Gcopyngn 201 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating SystemsIntegrated Training System Not common in moder aircraft. Later types have the cable attached to a magnet which rotates inside an aluminium cup. In this cup eddy currents (generated by the rotating magnet) create a magnetic field coinciding with the magnetic field from the magnet. The cup is fixed to a spring and pointer so it can not rotate but it is dragged along by the magnetic field, hence the name: drag-cup. Electrical tacho's have either a DC or AC generator on the engine. The DC generator generates a voltage related to RPM, which drops if the wires are too long. The AC types relate RPM to a frequency and these are immune to wire length or resistance and are more reliable than the DC models. The latest modern engines have an electric pickup from either a separate coil on the engine or on the magneto. This signal is pulsed so that a digital counter can be used to indicate engine RPM. Mechanical Tachometers These are not much used nowadays, but you may encounterthem. The basic components are a flex drive from a drive outlet on the engine and an indicator in the cockpit, Mechanical drive tachometers have one main drawback, and that is the flexible drive. It has a limited wear life and it is not recommended for use over more than 25-feet and is limited to a nine inch radius bend. Flexible Drive The flex drive consists of an outer flexible casing supporting the inner drive. The casing is formed by spirally wound interlocking metal strips of either brass or steel. The interlock is packed with asbestos stringing and at each end of the casing a union is crimped with a union nut. At the remote, receiving end of the control run the cable passes through an adjustable stop and is connected to the component operating lever by the nipple or bolts. The purpose of the stop is to provide a means of adjusting the length of the conduit, thus altering the range of movement of the control cable. Where two components are operated by a single cable, a junction box is. used. The inner drive is made up of a central steel core on which layers of steel wire are wound left then right alternatively. A square drive is then soldered, or waged onto each end, The inner drive is retained in the outer case by slip washers which are located in a recess in the casing union and clip into a groove on the shank of the drive connector. The two vent holes in the union prevent oil reaching the indicator. Ifa flex drive longer than 12-feet is used, the readout on the gauge is erratic and is in frequent need of attention, as well as having a short working life. - 7 ; TTS integrated Training Sytem 2:38 Module 14.2 Engine indicating Systems Tearing Sten@ Integrated Training System Mechanical Indicators Figure 2.32 shows a basic indicator. It consists of a pivoted weight on a spindle which rotates at ending speed, causing the centrifugal forces to act on the weight; it tries to assume a horizontal position but is opposed by the springs. FLEXIBLE DRIVE SHAFT SECTOR GEAR FLYWEIGHTS Figure 2.32: Mechanical engine speed indicator Electrical Tachometers Electrical tachometers are the ones you are most likely to be concemed with. They are preferable to the mechanical type as they do not require a flexible drive to give information to the indicator. Main Components The electrical tachometer consists of two units:- A transmitter, An indicator. They are electrically connected together by a three cored cable. The generator, which is driven by the engine, has a three phase alternating current output TTS integrated Traning System x SCopyaght 2011 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems poe enonady esateIntegrated Training System Tacho Generators Most tacho generators work on similar principles but variations in design are common. Each generator consists of a stator and a rotor, the stator being a hollow cylinder of laminated iron which has a three phase star connected winding. The conductors of the stator are arranged in slots cut around the inner surface of the cylinder. The rotor will either be a 2-pole or a 4-pole type; a 2-pole is ilustrated in Figure 2.33. The 4-pole version has skewed poles, so that when the end of one pole leaves a stator the other end is entering the next stator. This produces a better wavelorm and an even driving torque and prevents the ‘cogging effect’. The 2-pole version achieves the same effect by skewing the stator teeth and the individual coils which make up a phase. POINTER =>. PERMANENT \ DRAG CUP DRIVE CABLE Figure 2.33: Generator rotor The rotor is a permanent magnet which rotates inside the stator inducting alternating electromotive forces in the stator windings. The rotor is mounted on a spindle and runs in ball or Oilite bearing. The Oilite bearings retain oil and allow for long periods for use without maintenance. There are three types of drive coupling used on tacho generators, they are:- Flexible, Splined, Two pin The most common type in use is the splined type. in ‘TTS Integrated Training System 2-40 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems eee re ‘remedy ltreet Qcp’ Integrated Training System To reduce the mechanical load on the generator the operating speed is reduced by gears in the engine drive system. If the generator is running at one quarter engine speed, then the indicator will be calibrated to read four times engine speed. The type of generator shown in Figure 2.34 has a 2-pole permanent magnet rotor with a three Phase stator coil producing an altemating current whose frequency is related to the speed of rotation. <—— SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR FIELD FLUX COUPLING \ TACHOMETER INDICATOR VERNIER POINTER SPRING | DRAG ——— ue GENERATOR FIELD — Nal! Figure 2.34: Tacho generator and indicator The mounting flange also carries the electrical termination. The square drive shaft is flexible enough to allow slight misalignment with the drive coupling At each end of the rotor shaft are ball bearing assemblies which are pre-packed with grease The rear bearing is pre-loaded to eliminate end shake. TIS grate Tang Systm - Scopyran anne Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems eosIntegrated Training System wsned Indicators The indicator is a synchronous motor type. The output of the generator tums a rotor inside the indicator. When the speed of the rotor field equals the rotating field of the generator, the two fields lock and they both rotate synchronized with each other. ‘The measuring device consists of a 4-pole magnet mounted on the end of the motor spindle and a copper drag cup with surrounds the magnet. As the magnet rotates it tends to turn the copper drag cup which in tum moves the pointers over the scale. The reason for the hair springs is to give the pointer a dead beat type of movement, thus reducing the fluctuations of the pointer. Figure 2.35 shows a basic engine speed indicator display. The smaller pointer indicates in 1,000s up to 10,000 RPM. Figure 2.35: Typical tacho indicator 7 i ; TTS integrated Training System 2-42 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems ed ee aeIntegrated Training System Maintenance Practices Flexible Drives If you are required to install a flexible drive, here are some points which you must observe: The drive should be fitted with the union vent holes at the engine end. No part of the drive should come within 11 inches of a magnetic compass Bends should be avoided it possible but especially one of less than nine inches. The drive must be firmly cleaned throughout its whole length; pay special attention to any bends which you may have. Check for easy fit of square drives in their respective sockets. Before final fitting grease the connections Before connecting the engine drive end, adjust the inner drive so that it does not bend or stand up more than a quarter of an inch. Adjustment is made by twisting the outer case as appropriate. Before you install a flex drive and at periodic intervals: Remove the slip washer and withdraw the drive from the casing. Wipe off old grease; examine the drive carefully looking for broken strands, loose ends, connections and burns on the square drive. If any of these faults are in evidence, then fit anew drive. Grease drive end connections thoroughly using low temperature grease and refit drive to casing, making sure that the end is located in its drive. Gearboxes should be inspected internally periodically and repacked with low temperature grease. Tachometer indicators need no servicing other than cleaning. TIS integrated Talning Systom -. Copan 20 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems 2-43 a i i a i i i i i Other Servi i i I I I | | l | J |Intentionally Blank Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems (aS ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 20111 ti ee kUiy Integrated heen System Fuel Flow Measurement and Indication Although the amount of fuel consumed during a given flight may vary slightly between engines of the same type, fuel flow does provide a useful indication of the satisfactory operation of the engine. Vane Type Fuel Flowmeter A typical system consists of a fuel flow transmitter, which is fitted in the low pressure fuel system. The simplest being of the vane type, its position is determined by the speed of flow. This position is then transmitted to the flight deck by either a Desynn or an Autosyn position indicator. Whatever system is used, it required external power. 't will indicate in Ibs/hr or kg/hr. It may also indicate the amount of fuel used since the start of the flight, which is a better measure of the fuel usage over a period of time. BY PASS VALVE Figure 2.36: Vane type fuel flowmeter TTS integrated Training System -. © Cooynant 2014? Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems cao gnvenasby estanIntegrated Training System The vane type flowmeter shown above is generally fitted in the low pressure fuel system downstream of the LP Fuel Pump. Also note that the Bypass valve operates when the differential pressure across the valve increases above a set value, due to the vane seizing. Synchronous Fuel Flowmeter (Motor driven) Also known as an Autosyn Fuel Flowmeter. This system, more recently developed than the vane type, is said to have greater accuracy in that it measures mass flow rather than volume. In this way, it compensates for fuel temperature in its read-out. The system measures in kilograms or pounds per hour. Fuel enters the transmitter impeller, which is rotated at a constant 60 revolutions per minute by the synchronous impeller motor. The temperature of the fuel will determine its volume and the amount of force to be created by the action of the impeller. The turbine is twisted against its restraining spring by the mass flow force created by impeller movement. The mass flow electrical transmitter arrangement is similar to the vane type system. DECOUPLING DISK ‘CALIBRATED RESTRAINING ‘SPRINGS. PASSAGE seer RS S — Figure 2.37: A mass-flow type flowmeter system 2-46 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems Se nl eronesy he seme; ti ining S uy Integrated Training 5 irene The Motorless Integrated Fuel Flow Transmitter This type of fuel flow transmitter consists of a housing containing a swirl generator, a free- spinning rotor and a turbine, which is restrained by a spring attached to the housing. Two permanent magnets are fixed, 180 degrees apart, at the forward and aft end of the rotor. With each complete revolution of the rotor, the forward end magnet induces an electrical pulse in a small coil mounted on the outer wall of the housing. This is known as the ‘start’ pulse. The aft end magnet aligns with a signal blade fixed on the turbine. As the magnet passes the signal blade, another pulse is induced into a second, larger coil, which is also on the outer wall of the housing. This is known as the ‘stop’ pulse. One ‘start’ pulse and one ‘stop’ pulse are generated through the coils at each revolution of the rotor. If the rotor could spin without fuel flow, the start and stop pulses would occur simultaneously. When the fuel starts flowing, the rotor spins at a speed that is proportional to the fuel flow and the signal blade on the turbine, restrained by the spring, begins to deflect along the path of rotation. The stop pulses now begin to occur after the start pulses. As the mass flow (weight) of fuel through the transmitter increases, the turbine deflects further and further, and the time difference between the start and stop pulses increases proportionally. Itis this time difference which is measured by the ECU, and converted to Fuel Flow and Fuel Used values, which are then made available to the aircraft for cockpit indication. The operating range of the fuel flow transmitter output is from 0 to 170 milliseconds, which corresponds to a fuel flow range of 0 to 27,000 Ibs/hr. START COM PERMANENT: MAGNET HousING. — stop con. flow omecror —— tureme — restrain SPRING smn — GenenaTon SIGNAL BLADE (eee SPINNING) PERMANENT woner Figure 2.38: Motorless integrated fuel flow transmitter TTS integrated Training System .. Scopyigneaon Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems eauIntegrated Training System ey) in ase om (oy The Synchronous Integrated Fuel Flowmeter This device still uses the pulse difference method to produce a signal. It was developed as an interim between the synchronous motor type and the motor lass integrated type. An integrator is essential if total fuel used is to be measured as the Kg/hr figure must be integrated to produce Kg alone. Maintenance Practices Fuel flow transmitters that are not installed within 24-hours must be treated to prevent corrosion. Fill the transmitter with engine oil to coat all internal parts, then drain. Install protective covers on the open ports. 2-48 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems TTS leteprted Ting Systemoy Integrated Training System ‘ a ‘ Engine Thrust Measurement and Indication Thrust can only be measured in an engine static test cell. Reference to the fundamental section of these notes should remind you why this is! Engines are rated by Static or Gross thrust, this figure is always quoted on the engine data plate. Because of the above the indication of thrust, in the cockpit is always going to be an analogy, that is, some other indication that can be used to indicate the thrust performance of the engine. The examples discussed below are: * Engine Pressure Ratio + Engine turbine discharge/Jet pipe pressure system + High Bypass fan RPM (N;) Engine Pressure Ratio The engine pressure ratio (EPR) is a widely used thrust indicating system and is becoming more popular than the RPM as an indication of thrust. The pressures sensed are usually compressor inlet pressure (P1) and turbine outlet pressure (P6), by a series of pitot Pressure probes. A ratio of the two pressures are converted into an electrical signal by the Pressure ratio transmitter for transmittal to the flight deck indicator. Although an EPR of say, 1.6 (typical for cruise) is not a direct indication of the thrust itself, since other factors are involved (such as nozzle area), the ratio does vary linearly with thrust and can therefore be used as a thrust ‘indicator’. The Pressure Ratio Transmitter consists of a series of bellows sensitive to the air pressure tappings, which when processed into a ratio by mechanical means, is converted into an electrical signal for indication in the flight deck by a voltmeter, or, a Desynn or an Autosyn Position indicator is used. Whichever system is used, it requires an electrical input. Engine pressure ratio does vary with increased forward speed due to Ram Effect. Increased P1 will affect the P6/P1 ratio so that the ratio will decrease. Note that High Bypass Fan engines variously define EPR as Fan Outlet Pressure to Fan Inlet Pressure or Turbine Integrated Pressure plus Fan Outlet Pressure to Fan Inlet Pressure. Engine Turbine Discharge / Jet Pipe Pressure This indication of thrust utilizes a pitot probe to measure the dynamic pressure of the jet stream aft of the turbine. The output will be in to a gauge that is calibrated in either = Lb/in® * Inches of mercury (in Hg ) + Percentage of the maximum thrust TTS integrated Training System : © Copymant zor Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems 2-49Integrated Training System Pressure Sensors The exact position of sensors varies from engine to engine * ForaTurboJet P6:P1=EPR * Fora High Bypass Engine a variety of pressure sensors are used «RB 211-535 Pf (Fan outlet pressure) : P1 (Fan inlet pressure) * CFM 56 P6 + Pf : P1 (known as Integrated EPR) Note: With increased forward speed EPR indication decreases due to the rise in P1. The engine will normally have been set up to maintain a certain EPR (Cruise, climb, Max-T/O) and as a result will increase fuel flow to provide extra RPM which will produce the extra thrust to maintain the EPR value. . i ‘TTS integrated Training System 2-50 Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems "@ Copyright 2011