Brain–computer interface

A brain–computer interface (BCI), sometimes called a brain–machine interface (BMI) or smartbrain,

is a direct communication pathway between the brain's electrical activity and an external device, most
commonly a computer or robotic limb. BCIs are often directed at researching, mapping, assisting,
augmenting, or repairing human cognitive or sensory-motor functions.[1] They are often conceptualized as
a human–machine interface that skips the intermediary component of the physical movement of body parts,
although they also raise the possibility of the erasure of the discreteness of brain and machine.
Implementations of BCIs range from non-invasive (EEG, MEG, EOG, MRI) and partially invasive (ECoG
and endovascular) to invasive (microelectrode array), based on how close electrodes get to brain tissue.[2]

Research on BCIs began in the 1970s by Jacques Vidal at the University of California, Los Angeles
(UCLA) under a grant from the National Science Foundation, followed by a contract from DARPA.[3][4]
Vidal's 1973 paper marks the first appearance of the expression brain–computer interface in scientific
literature.

Due to the cortical plasticity of the brain, signals from implanted prostheses can, after adaptation, be
handled by the brain like natural sensor or effector channels.[5] Following years of animal experimentation,
the first neuroprosthetic devices implanted in humans appeared in the mid-1990s.

Recently, studies in human-computer interaction via the application of machine learning to statistical
temporal features extracted from the frontal lobe (EEG brainwave) data has had high levels of success in
classifying mental states (Relaxed, Neutral, Concentrating),[6] mental emotional states (Negative, Neutral,
Positive),[7] and thalamocortical dysrhythmia.[8]

History
The history of brain–computer interfaces (BCIs) starts with Hans Berger's discovery of the electrical
activity of the human brain and the development of electroencephalography (EEG). In 1924 Berger was the
first to record human brain activity by means of EEG. Berger was able to identify oscillatory activity, such
as Berger's wave or the alpha wave (8–13 Hz), by analyzing EEG traces.

Berger's first recording device was very rudimentary. He inserted silver wires under the scalps of his
patients. These were later replaced by silver foils attached to the patient's head by rubber bandages. Berger
connected these sensors to a Lippmann capillary electrometer, with disappointing results. However, more
sophisticated measuring devices, such as the Siemens double-coil recording galvanometer, which displayed
electric voltages as small as one ten thousandth of a volt, led to success.

Berger analyzed the interrelation of alternations in his EEG wave diagrams with brain diseases. EEGs
permitted completely new possibilities for the research of human brain activities.

Although the term had not yet been coined, one of the earliest examples of a working brain-machine
interface was the piece Music for Solo Performer (1965) by the American composer Alvin Lucier. The
piece makes use of EEG and analog signal processing hardware (filters, amplifiers, and a mixing board) to
stimulate acoustic percussion instruments. To perform the piece one must produce alpha waves and thereby
"play" the various percussion instruments via loudspeakers which are placed near or directly on the
instruments themselves.[9]
UCLA Professor Jacques Vidal coined the term "BCI" and produced the first peer-reviewed publications
on this topic.[3][4] Vidal is widely recognized as the inventor of BCIs in the BCI community, as reflected in
numerous peer-reviewed articles reviewing and discussing the field (e.g.,[10][11][12]). A review pointed out
that Vidal's 1973 paper stated the "BCI challenge"[13] of controlling external objects using EEG signals,
and especially use of Contingent Negative Variation (CNV) potential as a challenge for BCI control. The
1977 experiment Vidal described was the first application of BCI after his 1973 BCI challenge. It was a
noninvasive EEG (actually Visual Evoked Potentials (VEP)) control of a cursor-like graphical object on a
computer screen. The demonstration was movement in a maze.[14]

After his early contributions, Vidal was not active in BCI research, nor BCI events such as conferences, for
many years. In 2011, however, he gave a lecture in Graz, Austria, supported by the Future BNCI project,
presenting the first BCI, which earned a standing ovation. Vidal was joined by his wife, Laryce Vidal, who
previously worked with him at UCLA on his first BCI project.

In 1988, a report was given on noninvasive EEG control of a physical object, a robot. The experiment
described was EEG control of multiple start-stop-restart of the robot movement, along an arbitrary
trajectory defined by a line drawn on a floor. The line-following behavior was the default robot behavior,
utilizing autonomous intelligence and autonomous source of energy.[15][16] This 1988 report written by
Stevo Bozinovski, Mihail Sestakov, and Liljana Bozinovska was the first one about a robot control using
EEG.[17][18]

In 1990, a report was given on a closed loop, bidirectional adaptive BCI controlling computer buzzer by an
anticipatory brain potential, the Contingent Negative Variation (CNV) potential.[19][20] The experiment
described how an expectation state of the brain, manifested by CNV, controls in a feedback loop the S2
buzzer in the S1-S2-CNV paradigm. The obtained cognitive wave representing the expectation learning in
the brain is named Electroexpectogram (EXG). The CNV brain potential was part of the BCI challenge
presented by Vidal in his 1973 paper.

Studies in 2010s suggested the potential ability of neural stimulation to restore functional connectively and
associated behaviors through modulation of molecular mechanisms of synaptic efficacy.[21][22] This opened
the door for the concept that BCI technologies may be able to restore function in addition to enabling
functionality.

Since 2013, DARPA has funded BCI technology through the BRAIN initiative, which has supported work
out of the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center,[23] Paradromics,[24] Brown,[25] and Synchron,[26]
among others.

BCIs versus neuroprosthetics

Neuroprosthetics is an area of neuroscience concerned with neural prostheses, that is, using artificial
devices to replace the function of impaired nervous systems and brain-related problems, or of sensory
organs or organs itself (bladder, diaphragm, etc.). As of December 2010, cochlear implants had been
implanted as neuroprosthetic device in approximately 220,000 people worldwide.[27] There are also several
neuroprosthetic devices that aim to restore vision, including retinal implants. The first neuroprosthetic
device, however, was the pacemaker.
The terms are sometimes used interchangeably. Neuroprosthetics and BCIs seek to achieve the same aims,
such as restoring sight, hearing, movement, ability to communicate, and even cognitive function.[1] Both
use similar experimental methods and surgical techniques.

Animal BCI research

Several laboratories have managed to record signals from monkey and rat cerebral cortices to operate BCIs
to produce movement. Monkeys have navigated computer cursors on screen and commanded robotic arms
to perform simple tasks simply by thinking about the task and seeing the visual feedback, but without any
motor output.[28] In May 2008 photographs that showed a monkey at the University of Pittsburgh Medical
Center operating a robotic arm by thinking were published in a number of well-known science journals and
magazines.[29] Sheep too have been used to evaluate BCI technology including Synchron's Stentrode.

In 2020, Elon Musk's Neuralink was successfully implanted in a pig,[30] announced in a widely viewed
webcast. In 2021, Elon Musk announced that he had successfully enabled a monkey to play video games
using Neuralink's device.[31]

Early work

In 1969 the operant conditioning studies of Fetz and colleagues, at

the Regional Primate Research Center and Department of
Physiology and Biophysics, University of Washington School of
Medicine in Seattle, showed for the first time that monkeys could
learn to control the deflection of a biofeedback meter arm with
neural activity.[32] Similar work in the 1970s established that
monkeys could quickly learn to voluntarily control the firing rates Monkey operating a robotic arm with
of individual and multiple neurons in the primary motor cortex if brain–computer interfacing
they were rewarded for generating appropriate patterns of neural (Schwartz lab, University of
activity.[33] Pittsburgh)

Studies that developed algorithms to reconstruct movements from

motor cortex neurons, which control movement, date back to the 1970s. In the 1980s, Apostolos
Georgopoulos at Johns Hopkins University found a mathematical relationship between the electrical
responses of single motor cortex neurons in rhesus macaque monkeys and the direction in which they
moved their arms (based on a cosine function). He also found that dispersed groups of neurons, in different
areas of the monkey's brains, collectively controlled motor commands, but was able to record the firings of
neurons in only one area at a time, because of the technical limitations imposed by his equipment.[34]

There has been rapid development in BCIs since the mid-1990s.[35] Several groups have been able to
capture complex brain motor cortex signals by recording from neural ensembles (groups of neurons) and
using these to control external devices.

Prominent research successes

Kennedy and Yang Dan

Phillip Kennedy (who later founded Neural Signals in 1987) and colleagues built the first intracortical
brain–computer interface by implanting neurotrophic-cone electrodes into monkeys.
In 1999, researchers led by Yang Dan at the University of
California, Berkeley decoded neuronal firings to reproduce images
seen by cats. The team used an array of electrodes embedded in the
thalamus (which integrates all of the brain's sensory input) of sharp-
eyed cats. Researchers targeted 177 brain cells in the thalamus
lateral geniculate nucleus area, which decodes signals from the
retina. The cats were shown eight short movies, and their neuron Yang Dan and colleagues' recordings
firings were recorded. Using mathematical filters, the researchers of cat vision using a BCI implanted
decoded the signals to generate movies of what the cats saw and in the lateral geniculate nucleus (top
were able to reconstruct recognizable scenes and moving row: original image; bottom row:
objects.[36] Similar results in humans have since been achieved by recording)
researchers in Japan (see below).

Nicolelis

Miguel Nicolelis, a professor at Duke University, in Durham, North Carolina, has been a prominent
proponent of using multiple electrodes spread over a greater area of the brain to obtain neuronal signals to
drive a BCI.

After conducting initial studies in rats during the 1990s, Nicolelis and his colleagues developed BCIs that
decoded brain activity in owl monkeys and used the devices to reproduce monkey movements in robotic
arms. Monkeys have advanced reaching and grasping abilities and good hand manipulation skills, making
them ideal test subjects for this kind of work.

By 2000, the group succeeded in building a BCI that reproduced owl monkey movements while the
monkey operated a joystick or reached for food.[37] The BCI operated in real time and could also control a
separate robot remotely over Internet Protocol. But the monkeys could not see the arm moving and did not
receive any feedback, a so-called open-loop BCI.

Later experiments by Nicolelis using rhesus monkeys succeeded in

closing the feedback loop and reproduced monkey reaching and
grasping movements in a robot arm. With their deeply cleft and
furrowed brains, rhesus monkeys are considered to be better models
for human neurophysiology than owl monkeys. The monkeys were
trained to reach and grasp objects on a computer screen by
manipulating a joystick while corresponding movements by a robot
arm were hidden.[38][39] The monkeys were later shown the robot
directly and learned to control it by viewing its movements. The Diagram of the BCI developed by
BCI used velocity predictions to control reaching movements and Miguel Nicolelis and colleagues for
simultaneously predicted handgripping force. In 2011 O'Doherty use on rhesus monkeys
and colleagues showed a BCI with sensory feedback with rhesus
monkeys. The monkey was brain controlling the position of an
avatar arm while receiving sensory feedback through direct intracortical stimulation (ICMS) in the arm
representation area of the sensory cortex.[40]

Donoghue, Schwartz and Andersen

Other laboratories which have developed BCIs and algorithms that decode neuron signals include the
Carney Institute for Brain Science at Brown University and the labs of Andrew Schwartz at the University
of Pittsburgh and Richard Andersen at Caltech. These researchers have been able to produce working
BCIs, even using recorded signals from far fewer neurons than did
Nicolelis (15–30 neurons versus 50–200 neurons).

John Donoghue's lab at the Carney Institute reported training rhesus

monkeys to use a BCI to track visual targets on a computer screen
(closed-loop BCI) with or without assistance of a joystick.[41]
Schwartz's group created a BCI for three-dimensional tracking in
virtual reality and also reproduced BCI control in a robotic arm.[42]
The same group also created headlines when they demonstrated that
a monkey could feed itself pieces of fruit and marshmallows using a
robotic arm controlled by the animal's own brain signals.[43][44][45]

Andersen's group used recordings of premovement activity from the

posterior parietal cortex in their BCI, including signals created
when experimental animals anticipated receiving a reward.[46]

BCIs are a core focus of the Carney

Other research Institute for Brain Science at Brown
University.
In addition to predicting kinematic and kinetic parameters of limb
movements, BCIs that predict electromyographic or electrical
activity of the muscles of primates are being developed.[47] Such BCIs could be used to restore mobility in
paralyzed limbs by electrically stimulating muscles.

Miguel Nicolelis and colleagues demonstrated that the activity of large neural ensembles can predict arm
position. This work made possible creation of BCIs that read arm movement intentions and translate them
into movements of artificial actuators. Carmena and colleagues[38] programmed the neural coding in a BCI
that allowed a monkey to control reaching and grasping movements by a robotic arm. Lebedev and
colleagues[39] argued that brain networks reorganize to create a new representation of the robotic
appendage in addition to the representation of the animal's own limbs.

In 2019, researchers from UCSF published a study where they demonstrated a BCI that had the potential to
help patients with speech impairment caused by neurological disorders. Their BCI used high-density
electrocorticography to tap neural activity from a patient's brain and used deep learning methods to
synthesize speech.[48][49] In 2021, researchers from the same group published a study showing the
potential of a BCI to decode words and sentences in an anarthric patient who had been unable to speak for
over 15 years.[50][51]

The biggest impediment to BCI technology at present is the lack of a sensor modality that provides safe,
accurate and robust access to brain signals. It is conceivable or even likely, however, that such a sensor will
be developed within the next twenty years. The use of such a sensor should greatly expand the range of
communication functions that can be provided using a BCI.

Development and implementation of a BCI system is complex and time-consuming. In response to this
problem, Gerwin Schalk has been developing a general-purpose system for BCI research, called BCI2000.
BCI2000 has been in development since 2000 in a project led by the Brain–Computer Interface R&D
Program at the Wadsworth Center of the New York State Department of Health in Albany, New York,
United States.

A new 'wireless' approach uses light-gated ion channels such as Channelrhodopsin to control the activity of
genetically defined subsets of neurons in vivo. In the context of a simple learning task, illumination of
transfected cells in the somatosensory cortex influenced the decision-making process of freely moving
mice.[52]
The use of BMIs has also led to a deeper understanding of neural networks and the central nervous system.
Research has shown that despite the inclination of neuroscientists to believe that neurons have the most
effect when working together, single neurons can be conditioned through the use of BMIs to fire at a
pattern that allows primates to control motor outputs. The use of BMIs has led to development of the single
neuron insufficiency principle which states that even with a well tuned firing rate single neurons can only
carry a narrow amount of information and therefore the highest level of accuracy is achieved by recording
firings of the collective ensemble. Other principles discovered with the use of BMIs include the neuronal
multitasking principle, the neuronal mass principle, the neural degeneracy principle, and the plasticity
principle.[53]

BCIs are also proposed to be applied by users without disabilities. A user-centered categorization of BCI
approaches by Thorsten O. Zander and Christian Kothe introduces the term passive BCI.[54] Next to active
and reactive BCI that are used for directed control, passive BCIs allow for assessing and interpreting
changes in the user state during Human-Computer Interaction (HCI). In a secondary, implicit control loop
the computer system adapts to its user improving its usability in general.

Beyond BCI systems that decode neural activity to drive external effectors, BCI systems may be used to
encode signals from the periphery. These sensory BCI devices enable real-time, behaviorally-relevant
decisions based upon closed-loop neural stimulation.[55]

The BCI Award

The Annual BCI Research Award is awarded in recognition of outstanding and innovative research in the
field of Brain-Computer Interfaces. Each year, a renowned research laboratory is asked to judge the
submitted projects. The jury consists of world-leading BCI experts recruited by the awarding laboratory.
The jury selects twelve nominees, then chooses a first, second, and third-place winner, who receive awards
of $3,000, $2,000, and $1,000, respectively.

Human BCI research

Invasive BCIs

Invasive BCI requires surgery to implant electrodes under scalp for communicating brain signals. The main
advantage is to provide more accurate reading; however, its downside includes side effects from the
surgery. After the surgery, scar tissues may form which can make brain signals weaker. In addition,
according to the research of Abdulkader et al., (2015),[56] the body may not accept the implanted electrodes
and this can cause a medical condition.

Vision

Invasive BCI research has targeted repairing damaged sight and providing new functionality for people
with paralysis. Invasive BCIs are implanted directly into the grey matter of the brain during neurosurgery.
Because they lie in the grey matter, invasive devices produce the highest quality signals of BCI devices but
are prone to scar-tissue build-up, causing the signal to become weaker, or even non-existent, as the body
reacts to a foreign object in the brain.[57]

In vision science, direct brain implants have been used to treat non-congenital (acquired) blindness. One of
the first scientists to produce a working brain interface to restore sight was private researcher William
Dobelle.
Dobelle's first prototype was implanted into "Jerry", a man blinded in adulthood, in 1978. A single-array
BCI containing 68 electrodes was implanted onto Jerry's visual cortex and succeeded in producing
phosphenes, the sensation of seeing light. The system included cameras mounted on glasses to send signals
to the implant. Initially, the implant allowed Jerry to see shades of grey in a limited field of vision at a low
frame-rate. This also required him to be hooked up to a mainframe computer, but shrinking electronics and
faster computers made his artificial eye more portable and now enable him to perform simple tasks
unassisted.[58]

In 2002, Jens Naumann, also blinded in adulthood, became the first

in a series of 16 paying patients to receive Dobelle's second
generation implant, marking one of the earliest commercial uses of
BCIs. The second generation device used a more sophisticated
implant enabling better mapping of phosphenes into coherent
vision. Phosphenes are spread out across the visual field in what
researchers call "the starry-night effect". Immediately after his
implant, Jens was able to use his imperfectly restored vision to drive
an automobile slowly around the parking area of the research
institute.[59] Unfortunately, Dobelle died in 2004[60] before his
processes and developments were documented. Subsequently,
when Mr. Naumann and the other patients in the program began
having problems with their vision, there was no relief and they
eventually lost their "sight" again. Naumann wrote about his
experience with Dobelle's work in Search for Paradise: A Patient's
Account of the Artificial Vision Experiment[61] and has returned to
his farm in Southeast Ontario, Canada, to resume his normal
activities.[62]
Dummy unit illustrating the design of
a BrainGate interface
Movement

BCIs focusing on motor neuroprosthetics aim to either restore movement in individuals with paralysis or
provide devices to assist them, such as interfaces with computers or robot arms.

Researchers at Emory University in Atlanta, led by Philip Kennedy and Roy Bakay, were first to install a
brain implant in a human that produced signals of high enough quality to simulate movement. Their patient,
Johnny Ray (1944–2002), developed 'locked-in syndrome' after having a brain-stem stroke in 1997. Ray's
implant was installed in 1998 and he lived long enough to start working with the implant, eventually
learning to control a computer cursor; he died in 2002 of a brain aneurysm.[63]

Tetraplegic Matt Nagle became the first person to control an artificial hand using a BCI in 2005 as part of
the first nine-month human trial of Cyberkinetics's BrainGate chip-implant. Implanted in Nagle's right
precentral gyrus (area of the motor cortex for arm movement), the 96-electrode BrainGate implant allowed
Nagle to control a robotic arm by thinking about moving his hand as well as a computer cursor, lights and
TV.[64] One year later, professor Jonathan Wolpaw received the prize of the Altran Foundation for
Innovation to develop a Brain Computer Interface with electrodes located on the surface of the skull,
instead of directly in the brain.
More recently, research teams led by the BrainGate group at Brown University[65] and a group led by
University of Pittsburgh Medical Center,[66] both in collaborations with the United States Department of
Veterans Affairs, have demonstrated further success in direct control of robotic prosthetic limbs with many
degrees of freedom using direct connections to arrays of neurons in the motor cortex of patients with
tetraplegia.

Communication

In May 2021, a Stanford University team reported a successful proof-of-concept test that enabled a
quadraplegic participant to input English sentences at about 86 characters per minute and 18 words per
minute. The participant imagined moving his hand to write letters, and the system performed handwriting
recognition on electrical signals detected in the motor cortex, utilizing hidden Markov models and recurrent
neural networks for decoding.[67][68]

A report published in July 2021 reported a paralyzed patient was able to communicate 15 words per minute
using a brain implant that analyzed motor neurons that previously controlled the vocal tract.[69][50]

In a recent review article, researchers raised an open question of whether human information transfer rates
can surpass that of language with BCIs. Given that recent language research has demonstrated that human
information transfer rates are relatively constant across many languages, there may exist a limit at the level
of information processing in the brain. On the contrary, this "upper limit" of information transfer rate may
be intrinsic to language itself, as a modality for information transfer.[70]

Technical challenges

There exist a number of technical challenges to recording brain activity with invasive BCIs. Advances in
CMOS technology are pushing and enabling integrated, invasive BCI designs with smaller size, lower
power requirements, and higher signal acquisition capabilities.[71] Invasive BCIs involve electrodes that
penetrate brain tissue in an attempt to record action potential signals (also known as spikes) from individual,
or small groups of, neurons near the electrode. The interface between a recording electrode and the
electrolytic solution surrounding neurons has been modelled using the Hodgkin-Huxley model.[72][73]

Electronic limitations to invasive BCIs have been an active area of research in recent decades. While
intracellular recordings of neurons reveal action potential voltages on the scale of hundreds of millivolts,
chronic invasive BCIs rely on recording extracellular voltages which typically are three orders of
magnitude smaller, existing at hundreds of microvolts.[74] Further adding to the challenge of detecting
signals on the scale of microvolts is the fact that the electrode-tissue interface has a high capacitance at
small voltages. Due to the nature of these small signals, for BCI systems that incorporate functionality onto
an integrated circuit, each electrode requires its own amplifier and ADC, which convert analog extracellular
voltages into digital signals.[74] Because a typical neuron action potential lasts for one millisecond, BCIs
measuring spikes must have sampling rates ranging from 300  Hz to 5  kHz. Yet another concern is that
invasive BCIs must be low-power, so as to dissipate less heat to surrounding tissue; at the most basic level
more power is traditionally needed to optimize signal-to-noise ratio.[73] Optimal battery design is an active
area of research in BCIs.[75]

Challenges existing in the area of material science are central to the design of invasive BCIs. Variations in
signal quality over time have been commonly observed with implantable microelectrodes.[76][77] Optimal
material and mechanical characteristics for long term signal stability in invasive BCIs has been an active
area of research.[78] It has been proposed that the formation of glial scarring, secondary to damage at the
electrode-tissue interface, is likely responsible for electrode failure and reduced recording performance.[79]
Research has suggested that blood-brain barrier leakage, either
at the time of insertion or over time, may be responsible for the
inflammatory and glial reaction to chronic microelectrodes
implanted in the brain.[79][80] As a result, flexible[81][82][83]
and tissue-like designs[84][85] have been researched and
developed to minimize foreign-body reaction by means of
matching the Young's modulus of the electrode closer to that of
brain tissue.[84]

Partially invasive BCIs Illustration of invasive and partially

invasive BCIs: electrocorticography
Partially invasive BCI devices are implanted inside the skull (ECoG), endovascular, and intracortical
but rest outside the brain rather than within the grey matter. microelectrode.
They produce better resolution signals than non-invasive BCIs
where the bone tissue of the cranium deflects and deforms
signals and have a lower risk of forming scar-tissue in the brain than fully invasive BCIs. There has been
preclinical demonstration of intracortical BCIs from the stroke perilesional cortex.[86]

Endovascular

A systematic review published in 2020 detailed multiple studies, both clinical and non-clinical, dating back
decades investigating the feasibility of endovascular BCIs.[87]

In recent years, the biggest advance in partially invasive BCIs has emerged in the area of interventional
neurology.[2] In 2010, researchers affiliated with University of Melbourne had begun developing a BCI that
could be inserted via the vascular system. The Australian neurologist Thomas Oxley (Mount Sinai
Hospital) conceived the idea for this BCI, called Stentrode, which has received funding from DARPA.
Preclinical studies evaluated the technology in sheep.

The Stentrode, a monolithic stent electrode array, is designed to be delivered via an intravenous catheter
under image-guidance to the superior sagittal sinus, in the region which lies adjacent to motor cortex.[88]
This proximity to motor cortex underlies the Stentrode's ability to measure neural activity. The procedure is
most similar to how venous sinus stents are placed for the treatment of idiopathic intracranial
hypertension.[89] The Stentrode communicates neural activity to a battery-less telemetry unit implanted in
the chest, which communicates wirelessly with an external telemetry unit capable of power and data
transfer. While an endovascular BCI benefits from avoiding craniotomy for insertion, risks such as clotting
and venous thrombosis are possible.

First-in-human trials with the Stentrode are underway.[88] In November 2020, two participants with
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis were able to wirelessly control an operating system to text, email, shop, and
bank using direct thought through the Stentrode brain-computer interface,[90] marking the first time a brain-
computer interface was implanted via the patient's blood vessels, eliminating the need for open brain
surgery. In January 2023, researchers reported no serious adverse events during the first year for all four
patients who could use it to operate computers.[91][92]

ECoG

Electrocorticography (ECoG) measures the electrical activity of the brain taken from beneath the skull in a
similar way to non-invasive electroencephalography, but the electrodes are embedded in a thin plastic pad
that is placed above the cortex, beneath the dura mater.[93] ECoG technologies were first trialled in humans
in 2004 by Eric Leuthardt and Daniel Moran from Washington University in St. Louis. In a later trial, the
researchers enabled a teenage boy to play Space Invaders using his ECoG implant.[94] This research
indicates that control is rapid, requires minimal training, and may be an ideal tradeoff with regards to signal
fidelity and level of invasiveness.[note 1]

Signals can be either subdural or epidural, but are not taken from within the brain parenchyma itself. It has
not been studied extensively until recently due to the limited access of subjects. Currently, the only manner
to acquire the signal for study is through the use of patients requiring invasive monitoring for localization
and resection of an epileptogenic focus.

ECoG is a very promising intermediate BCI modality because it has higher spatial resolution, better signal-
to-noise ratio, wider frequency range, and less training requirements than scalp-recorded EEG, and at the
same time has lower technical difficulty, lower clinical risk, and may have superior long-term stability than
intracortical single-neuron recording.[96] This feature profile and recent evidence of the high level of
control with minimal training requirements shows potential for real world application for people with motor
disabilities.[97][98] Light reactive imaging BCI devices are still in the realm of theory.

Recent work published by Edward Chang and Joseph Makin from UCSF revealed that ECoG signals
could be used to decode speech from epilepsy patients implanted with high-density ECoG arrays over the
peri-Sylvian cortices.[99][100] Their study achieved word error rates of 3% (a marked improvement from
prior publications) utilizing an encoder-decoder neural network, which translated ECoG data into one of
fifty sentences composed of 250 unique words.

Non-invasive BCIs

There have also been experiments in humans using non-invasive neuroimaging technologies as interfaces.
The substantial majority of published BCI work involves noninvasive EEG-based BCIs. Noninvasive
EEG-based technologies and interfaces have been used for a much broader variety of applications.
Although EEG-based interfaces are easy to wear and do not require surgery, they have relatively poor
spatial resolution and cannot effectively use higher-frequency signals because the skull dampens signals,
dispersing and blurring the electromagnetic waves created by the neurons. EEG-based interfaces also
require some time and effort prior to each usage session, whereas non-EEG-based ones, as well as invasive
ones require no prior-usage training. Overall, the best BCI for each user depends on numerous factors.

Non-EEG-based human–computer interface

Electrooculography (EOG)

In 1989, a report was given on control of a mobile robot by eye movement using electrooculography
(EOG) signals. A mobile robot was driven from a start to a goal point using five EOG commands,
interpreted as forward, backward, left, right, and stop.[101] The EOG as a challenge of controlling external
objects was presented by Vidal in his 1973 paper.[3]

Pupil-size oscillation

A 2016 article[102] described an entirely new communication device and non-EEG-based human-computer
interface, which requires no visual fixation, or ability to move the eyes at all. The interface is based on
covert interest; directing one's attention to a chosen letter on a virtual keyboard, without the need to move
one's eyes to look directly at the letter. Each letter has its own (background) circle which micro-oscillates in
brightness differently from all of the other letters. The letter selection is based on best fit between
unintentional pupil-size oscillation and the background circle's brightness oscillation pattern. Accuracy is
additionally improved by the user's mental rehearsing of the words 'bright' and 'dark' in synchrony with the
brightness transitions of the letter's circle.

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy

In 2014 and 2017, a BCI using functional near-infrared spectroscopy for "locked-in" patients with
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) was able to restore some basic ability of the patients to communicate
with other people.[103][104]

Electroencephalography (EEG)-based brain-computer interfaces

After the BCI challenge was stated by Vidal in 1973, the initial
reports on non-invasive approach included control of a cursor in 2D
using VEP (Vidal 1977), control of a buzzer using CNV
(Bozinovska et al. 1988, 1990), control of a physical object, a
robot, using a brain rhythm (alpha) (Bozinovski et al. 1988), control
of a text written on a screen using P300 (Farwell and Donchin,
1988).[13]

In the early days of BCI research, another substantial barrier to

Recordings of brainwaves produced
using electroencephalography (EEG) as a brain–computer interface
by an electroencephalogram
was the extensive training required before users can work the
technology. For example, in experiments beginning in the mid-
1990s, Niels Birbaumer at the University of Tübingen in Germany trained severely paralysed people to
self-regulate the slow cortical potentials in their EEG to such an extent that these signals could be used as a
binary signal to control a computer cursor.[105] (Birbaumer had earlier trained epileptics to prevent
impending fits by controlling this low voltage wave.) The experiment saw ten patients trained to move a
computer cursor by controlling their brainwaves. The process was slow, requiring more than an hour for
patients to write 100 characters with the cursor, while training often took many months. However, the slow
cortical potential approach to BCIs has not been used in several years, since other approaches require little
or no training, are faster and more accurate, and work for a greater proportion of users.

Another research parameter is the type of oscillatory activity that is measured. Gert Pfurtscheller founded
the BCI Lab 1991 and fed his research results on motor imagery in the first online BCI based on oscillatory
features and classifiers. Together with Birbaumer and Jonathan Wolpaw at New York State University they
focused on developing technology that would allow users to choose the brain signals they found easiest to
operate a BCI, including mu and beta rhythms.

A further parameter is the method of feedback used and this is shown in studies of P300 signals. Patterns of
P300 waves are generated involuntarily (stimulus-feedback) when people see something they recognize
and may allow BCIs to decode categories of thoughts without training patients first. By contrast, the
biofeedback methods described above require learning to control brainwaves so the resulting brain activity
can be detected.

In 2005 it was reported research on EEG emulation of digital control circuits for BCI, with example of a
CNV flip-flop.[106] In 2009 it was reported noninvasive EEG control of a robotic arm using a CNV flip-
flop.[107] In 2011 it was reported control of two robotic arms solving Tower of Hanoi task with three disks
using a CNV flip-flop.[108] In 2015 it was described EEG-emulation of a Schmitt trigger, flip-flop,
demultiplexer, and modem.[109]
While an EEG based brain-computer interface has been pursued extensively by a number of research labs,
recent advancements made by Bin He and his team at the University of Minnesota suggest the potential of
an EEG based brain-computer interface to accomplish tasks close to invasive brain-computer interface.
Using advanced functional neuroimaging including BOLD functional MRI and EEG source imaging, Bin
He and co-workers identified the co-variation and co-localization of electrophysiological and hemodynamic
signals induced by motor imagination.[110] Refined by a neuroimaging approach and by a training protocol,
Bin He and co-workers demonstrated the ability of a non-invasive EEG based brain-computer interface to
control the flight of a virtual helicopter in 3-dimensional space, based upon motor imagination.[111] In June
2013 it was announced that Bin He had developed the technique to enable a remote-control helicopter to be
guided through an obstacle course.[112]

In addition to a brain-computer interface based on brain waves, as recorded from scalp EEG electrodes, Bin
He and co-workers explored a virtual EEG signal-based brain-computer interface by first solving the EEG
inverse problem and then used the resulting virtual EEG for brain-computer interface tasks. Well-controlled
studies suggested the merits of such a source analysis based brain-computer interface.[113]

A 2014 study found that severely motor-impaired patients could communicate faster and more reliably with
non-invasive EEG BCI, than with any muscle-based communication channel.[114]

A 2016 study found that the Emotiv EPOC device may be more suitable for control tasks using the
attention/meditation level or eye blinking than the Neurosky MindWave device.[115]

A 2019 study found that the application of evolutionary algorithms could improve EEG mental state
classification with a non-invasive Muse device, enabling high quality classification of data acquired by a
cheap consumer-grade EEG sensing device.[116]

In a 2021 systematic review of randomized controlled trials using BCI for upper-limb rehabilitation after
stroke, EEG-based BCI was found to have significant efficacy in improving upper-limb motor function
compared to control therapies. More specifically, BCI studies that utilized band power features, motor
imagery, and functional electrical stimulation in their design were found to be more efficacious than
alternatives.[117] Another 2021 systematic review focused on robotic-assisted EEG-based BCI for hand
rehabilitation after stroke. Improvement in motor assessment scores was observed in three of eleven studies
included in the systematic review.[118]

Dry active electrode arrays

In the early 1990s Babak Taheri, at University of California, Davis demonstrated the first single and also
multichannel dry active electrode arrays using micro-machining. The single channel dry EEG electrode
construction and results were published in 1994.[119] The arrayed electrode was also demonstrated to
perform well compared to silver/silver chloride electrodes. The device consisted of four sites of sensors
with integrated electronics to reduce noise by impedance matching. The advantages of such electrodes are:
(1) no electrolyte used, (2) no skin preparation, (3) significantly reduced sensor size, and (4) compatibility
with EEG monitoring systems. The active electrode array is an integrated system made of an array of
capacitive sensors with local integrated circuitry housed in a package with batteries to power the circuitry.
This level of integration was required to achieve the functional performance obtained by the electrode.

The electrode was tested on an electrical test bench and on human subjects in four modalities of EEG
activity, namely: (1) spontaneous EEG, (2) sensory event-related potentials, (3) brain stem potentials, and
(4) cognitive event-related potentials. The performance of the dry electrode compared favorably with that of
the standard wet electrodes in terms of skin preparation, no gel requirements (dry), and higher signal-to-
noise ratio.[120]
In 1999 researchers at Case Western Reserve University, in Cleveland, Ohio, led by Hunter Peckham, used
64-electrode EEG skullcap to return limited hand movements to quadriplegic Jim Jatich. As Jatich
concentrated on simple but opposite concepts like up and down, his beta-rhythm EEG output was analysed
using software to identify patterns in the noise. A basic pattern was identified and used to control a switch:
Above average activity was set to on, below average off. As well as enabling Jatich to control a computer
cursor the signals were also used to drive the nerve controllers embedded in his hands, restoring some
movement.[121]

SSVEP mobile EEG BCIs

In 2009, the NCTU Brain-Computer-Interface-headband was reported. The researchers who developed this
BCI-headband also engineered silicon-based microelectro-mechanical system (MEMS) dry electrodes
designed for application in non-hairy sites of the body. These electrodes were secured to the DAQ board in
the headband with snap-on electrode holders. The signal processing module measured alpha activity and
the Bluetooth enabled phone assessed the patients' alertness and capacity for cognitive performance. When
the subject became drowsy, the phone sent arousing feedback to the operator to rouse them. This research
was supported by the National Science Council, Taiwan, R.O.C., NSC, National Chiao-Tung University,
Taiwan's Ministry of Education, and the U.S. Army Research Laboratory.[122]

In 2011, researchers reported a cellular based BCI with the capability of taking EEG data and converting it
into a command to cause the phone to ring. This research was supported in part by Abraxis Bioscience
LLP, the U.S. Army Research Laboratory, and the Army Research Office. The developed technology was
a wearable system composed of a four channel bio-signal acquisition/amplification module, a wireless
transmission module, and a Bluetooth enabled cell phone.  The electrodes were placed so that they pick up
steady state visual evoked potentials (SSVEPs).[123] SSVEPs are electrical responses to flickering visual
stimuli with repetition rates over 6 Hz[123] that are best found in the parietal and occipital scalp regions of
the visual cortex.[124][125][126] It was reported that with this BCI setup, all study participants were able to
initiate the phone call with minimal practice in natural environments.[127]

The scientists claim that their studies using a single channel fast Fourier transform (FFT) and multiple
channel system canonical correlation analysis (CCA) algorithm support the capacity of mobile
BCIs.[123][128] The CCA algorithm has been applied in other experiments investigating BCIs with claimed
high performance in accuracy as well as speed.[129] While the cellular based BCI technology was
developed to initiate a phone call from SSVEPs, the researchers said that it can be translated for other
applications, such as picking up sensorimotor mu/beta rhythms to function as a motor-imagery based
BCI.[123]

In 2013, comparative tests were performed on android cell phone, tablet, and computer based BCIs,
analyzing the power spectrum density of resultant EEG SSVEPs. The stated goals of this study, which
involved scientists supported in part by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory, were to "increase the
practicability, portability, and ubiquity of an SSVEP-based BCI, for daily use". Citation It was reported that
the stimulation frequency on all mediums was accurate, although the cell phone's signal demonstrated some
instability. The amplitudes of the SSVEPs for the laptop and tablet were also reported to be larger than
those of the cell phone. These two qualitative characterizations were suggested as indicators of the
feasibility of using a mobile stimulus BCI.[128]

Limitations

In 2011, researchers stated that continued work should address ease of use, performance robustness,
reducing hardware and software costs.[123]
One of the difficulties with EEG readings is the large susceptibility to motion artifacts.[130] In most of the
previously described research projects, the participants were asked to sit still, reducing head and eye
movements as much as possible, and measurements were taken in a laboratory setting. However, since the
emphasized application of these initiatives had been in creating a mobile device for daily use,[128] the
technology had to be tested in motion.

In 2013, researchers tested mobile EEG-based BCI technology, measuring SSVEPs from participants as
they walked on a treadmill at varying speeds. This research was supported by the Office of Naval
Research, Army Research Office, and the U.S. Army Research Laboratory. Stated results were that as
speed increased the SSVEP detectability using CCA decreased. As independent component analysis (ICA)
had been shown to be efficient in separating EEG signals from noise,[131] the scientists applied ICA to
CCA extracted EEG data. They stated that the CCA data with and without ICA processing were similar.
Thus, they concluded that CCA independently demonstrated a robustness to motion artifacts that indicates it
may be a beneficial algorithm to apply to BCIs used in real world conditions.[125] One of the major
problems in EEG-based BCI applications is the low spatial resolution. Several solutions have been
suggested to address this issue since 2019, which include: EEG source connectivity based on graph theory,
EEG pattern recognition based on Topomap, EEG-fMRI fusion, and so on.

Prosthesis and environment control

Non-invasive BCIs have also been applied to enable brain-control of prosthetic upper and lower extremity
devices in people with paralysis. For example, Gert Pfurtscheller of Graz University of Technology and
colleagues demonstrated a BCI-controlled functional electrical stimulation system to restore upper extremity
movements in a person with tetraplegia due to spinal cord injury.[132] Between 2012 and 2013, researchers
at the University of California, Irvine demonstrated for the first time that it is possible to use BCI
technology to restore brain-controlled walking after spinal cord injury. In their spinal cord injury research
study, a person with paraplegia was able to operate a BCI-robotic gait orthosis to regain basic brain-
controlled ambulation.[133][134] In 2009 Alex Blainey, an independent researcher based in the UK,
successfully used the Emotiv EPOC to control a 5 axis robot arm.[135] He then went on to make several
demonstration mind controlled wheelchairs and home automation that could be operated by people with
limited or no motor control such as those with paraplegia and cerebral palsy.

Research into military use of BCIs funded by DARPA has been ongoing since the 1970s.[3][4] The current
focus of research is user-to-user communication through analysis of neural signals.[136]

DIY and open source BCI

In 2001, The OpenEEG Project[137] was initiated by a group of DIY neuroscientists and engineers. The
ModularEEG was the primary device created by the OpenEEG community; it was a 6-channel signal
capture board that cost between $200 and $400 to make at home. The OpenEEG Project marked a
significant moment in the emergence of DIY brain-computer interfacing.

In 2010, the Frontier Nerds of NYU's ITP program published a thorough tutorial titled How To Hack Toy
EEGs.[138] The tutorial, which stirred the minds of many budding DIY BCI enthusiasts, demonstrated how
to create a single channel at-home EEG with an Arduino and a Mattel Mindflex at a very reasonable price.
This tutorial amplified the DIY BCI movement.

MEG and MRI

Magnetoencephalography (MEG) and functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI) have both been used successfully as
non-invasive BCIs.[139] In a widely reported experiment, fMRI
allowed two users being scanned to play Pong in real-time by
altering their haemodynamic response or brain blood flow through
biofeedback techniques.[140]

fMRI measurements of haemodynamic responses in real time have

also been used to control robot arms with a seven-second delay
between thought and movement.[141] ATR Labs' reconstruction of human
vision using fMRI (top row: original
In 2008 research developed in the Advanced Telecommunications
image; bottom row: reconstruction
Research (ATR) Computational Neuroscience Laboratories in
from mean of combined readings)
Kyoto, Japan, allowed the scientists to reconstruct images directly
from the brain and display them on a computer in black and white
at a resolution of 10x10 pixels. The article announcing these achievements was the cover story of the
journal Neuron of 10 December 2008.[142]

In 2011 researchers from UC Berkeley published[143] a study reporting second-by-second reconstruction of

videos watched by the study's subjects, from fMRI data. This was achieved by creating a statistical model
relating visual patterns in videos shown to the subjects, to the brain activity caused by watching the videos.
This model was then used to look up the 100 one-second video segments, in a database of 18 million
seconds of random YouTube videos, whose visual patterns most closely matched the brain activity recorded
when subjects watched a new video. These 100 one-second video extracts were then combined into a
mashed-up image that resembled the video being watched.[144][145][146]

BCI control strategies in neurogaming

Motor imagery

Motor imagery involves the imagination of the movement of various body parts resulting in sensorimotor
cortex activation, which modulates sensorimotor oscillations in the EEG. This can be detected by the BCI
to infer a user's intent. Motor imagery typically requires a number of sessions of training before acceptable
control of the BCI is acquired. These training sessions may take a number of hours over several days before
users can consistently employ the technique with acceptable levels of precision. Regardless of the duration
of the training session, users are unable to master the control scheme. This results in very slow pace of the
gameplay.[147] Advanced machine learning methods were recently developed to compute a subject-specific
model for detecting the performance of motor imagery. The top performing algorithm from BCI
Competition IV[148] dataset 2 for motor imagery is the Filter Bank Common Spatial Pattern, developed by
Ang et al. from A*STAR, Singapore.[149]

Bio/neurofeedback for passive BCI designs

Biofeedback is used to monitor a subject's mental relaxation. In some cases, biofeedback does not monitor
electroencephalography (EEG), but instead bodily parameters such as electromyography (EMG), galvanic
skin resistance (GSR), and heart rate variability (HRV). Many biofeedback systems are used to treat certain
disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), sleep problems in children, teeth
grinding, and chronic pain. EEG biofeedback systems typically monitor four different bands (theta: 4–7 Hz,
alpha:8–12  Hz, SMR: 12–15  Hz, beta: 15–18  Hz) and challenge the subject to control them. Passive
BCI[54] involves using BCI to enrich human–machine interaction with implicit information on the actual
user's state, for example, simulations to detect when users intend to push brakes during an emergency car
stopping procedure. Game developers using passive BCIs need to acknowledge that through repetition of
game levels the user's cognitive state will change or adapt. Within the first play of a level, the user will react
to things differently from during the second play: for example, the user will be less surprised at an event in
the game if they are expecting it.[147]

Visual evoked potential (VEP)

A VEP is an electrical potential recorded after a subject is presented with a type of visual stimuli. There are
several types of VEPs.

Steady-state visually evoked potentials (SSVEPs) use potentials generated by exciting the retina, using
visual stimuli modulated at certain frequencies. SSVEP's stimuli are often formed from alternating
checkerboard patterns and at times simply use flashing images. The frequency of the phase reversal of the
stimulus used can be clearly distinguished in the spectrum of an EEG; this makes detection of SSVEP
stimuli relatively easy. SSVEP has proved to be successful within many BCI systems. This is due to several
factors, the signal elicited is measurable in as large a population as the transient VEP and blink movement
and electrocardiographic artefacts do not affect the frequencies monitored. In addition, the SSVEP signal is
exceptionally robust; the topographic organization of the primary visual cortex is such that a broader area
obtains afferents from the central or fovial region of the visual field. SSVEP does have several problems
however. As SSVEPs use flashing stimuli to infer a user's intent, the user must gaze at one of the flashing
or iterating symbols in order to interact with the system. It is, therefore, likely that the symbols could
become irritating and uncomfortable to use during longer play sessions, which can often last more than an
hour which may not be an ideal gameplay.

Another type of VEP used with applications is the P300 potential. The P300 event-related potential is a
positive peak in the EEG that occurs at roughly 300 ms after the appearance of a target stimulus (a stimulus
for which the user is waiting or seeking) or oddball stimuli. The P300 amplitude decreases as the target
stimuli and the ignored stimuli grow more similar.The P300 is thought to be related to a higher level
attention process or an orienting response using P300 as a control scheme has the advantage of the
participant only having to attend limited training sessions. The first application to use the P300 model was
the P300 matrix. Within this system, a subject would choose a letter from a grid of 6 by 6 letters and
numbers. The rows and columns of the grid flashed sequentially and every time the selected "choice letter"
was illuminated the user's P300 was (potentially) elicited. However, the communication process, at
approximately 17 characters per minute, was quite slow. The P300 is a BCI that offers a discrete selection
rather than a continuous control mechanism. The advantage of P300 use within games is that the player
does not have to teach himself/herself how to use a completely new control system and so only has to
undertake short training instances, to learn the gameplay mechanics and basic use of the BCI
paradigm.[147]

Synthetic telepathy/silent communication

In a $6.3 million US Army initiative to invent devices for telepathic communication, Gerwin Schalk,
underwritten in a $2.2 million grant, found the use of ECoG signals can discriminate the vowels and
consonants embedded in spoken and imagined words, shedding light on the distinct mechanisms associated
with production of vowels and consonants, and could provide the basis for brain-based communication
using imagined speech.[98][150]

In 2002 Kevin Warwick had an array of 100 electrodes fired into his nervous system in order to link his
nervous system into the Internet to investigate enhancement possibilities. With this in place Warwick
successfully carried out a series of experiments. With electrodes also implanted into his wife's nervous
system, they conducted the first direct electronic communication experiment between the nervous systems
of two humans.[151][152][153][154]

Another group of researchers was able to achieve conscious brain-to-brain communication between two
people separated by a distance using non-invasive technology that was in contact with the scalp of the
participants. The words were encoded by binary streams using the sequences of 0's and 1's by the
imaginary motor input of the person "emitting" the information. As the result of this experiment, pseudo-
random bits of the information carried encoded words "hola" ("hi" in Spanish) and "ciao" ("goodbye" in
Italian) and were transmitted mind-to-mind between humans separated by a distance, with blocked motor
and sensory systems, which has low to no probability of this happening by chance.[155]

In the 1960s a researcher was successful after some training in using EEG to create Morse code using their
brain alpha waves. Research funded by the US army is being conducted with the goal of allowing users to
compose a message in their head, then transfer that message with just the power of thought to a particular
individual.[156] On 27 February 2013 the group with Miguel Nicolelis at Duke University and IINN-ELS
successfully connected the brains of two rats with electronic interfaces that allowed them to directly share
information, in the first-ever direct brain-to-brain interface.[157][158][159]

Cell-culture BCIs
Researchers have built devices to interface with neural cells and entire neural networks in cultures outside
animals. As well as furthering research on animal implantable devices, experiments on cultured neural
tissue have focused on building problem-solving networks, constructing basic computers and manipulating
robotic devices. Research into techniques for stimulating and recording from individual neurons grown on
semiconductor chips is sometimes referred to as neuroelectronics or neurochips.[160]

Development of the first working neurochip was claimed by a Caltech team

led by Jerome Pine and Michael Maher in 1997.[161] The Caltech chip had
room for 16 neurons.

In 2003 a team led by Theodore Berger, at the University of Southern

California, started work on a neurochip designed to function as an artificial
or prosthetic hippocampus. The neurochip was designed to function in rat
brains and was intended as a prototype for the eventual development of
higher-brain prosthesis. The hippocampus was chosen because it is thought The world's first neurochip,
to be the most ordered and structured part of the brain and is the most developed by Caltech
studied area. Its function is to encode experiences for storage as long-term researchers Jerome Pine
memories elsewhere in the brain.[162] and Michael Maher

In 2004 Thomas DeMarse at the University of Florida used a culture of

25,000 neurons taken from a rat's brain to fly a F-22 fighter jet aircraft simulator.[163] After collection, the
cortical neurons were cultured in a petri dish and rapidly began to reconnect themselves to form a living
neural network. The cells were arranged over a grid of 60 electrodes and used to control the pitch and yaw
functions of the simulator. The study's focus was on understanding how the human brain performs and
learns computational tasks at a cellular level.

Collaborative BCIs
The idea of combining/integrating brain signals from multiple individuals was introduced at Humanity+
@Caltech, in December 2010, by a Caltech researcher at JPL, Adrian Stoica; Stoica referred to the concept
as multi-brain aggregation.[164][165][166] A provisional patent application was filed on January 19, 2011,
with the non-provisional patent following one year later.[167] In May 2011, Yijun Wang and Tzyy-Ping
Jung published, "A Collaborative Brain-Computer Interface for Improving Human Performance", and in
January 2012 Miguel Eckstein published, "Neural decoding of collective wisdom with multi-brain
computing".[168][169] Stoica's first paper on the topic appeared in 2012, after the publication of his patent
application.[170] Given the timing of the publications between the patent and papers, Stoica, Wang & Jung,
and Eckstein independently pioneered the concept, and are all considered as founders of the field. Later,
Stoica would collaborate with University of Essex researchers, Riccardo Poli and Caterina Cinel.[171][172]
The work was continued by Poli and Cinel, and their students: Ana Matran-Fernandez, Davide Valeriani,
and Saugat Bhattacharyya.[173][174][175]

Ethical considerations
Sources:[176][177][178][179][180]

User-centric issues
Long-term effects to the user remain largely unknown
Obtaining informed consent from people who have difficulty communicating
The consequences of BCI technology for the quality of life of patients and their families
Health-related side-effects (e.g. neurofeedback of sensorimotor rhythm training is reported to
affect sleep quality)
Therapeutic applications and their potential misuse
Safety risks
Non-convertibility of some of the changes made to the brain
Lack of access to maintenance, repair and spare parts in case of company bankruptcy[181]

Legal and social

Issues of accountability and responsibility: claims that the influence of BCIs overrides free
will and control over sensory-motor actions, claims that cognitive intention was inaccurately
translated due to a BCI malfunction.
Personality changes involved caused by deep-brain stimulation.
Concerns regarding the state of becoming a "cyborg" - having parts of the body that are
living and parts that are mechanical.
Questions personality: what does it mean to be a human?
Blurring of the division between human and machine and inability to distinguish between
human vs. machine-controlled actions
Use of the technology in advanced interrogation techniques by governmental authorities
Selective enhancement and social stratification.
Questions of research ethics regarding animal experimentation
Questions of research ethics that arise when progressing from animal experimentation to
application in human subjects
Moral questions
Mind reading and privacy
Tracking and "tagging system"
Mind control
Movement control
 Emotion control

In their current form, most BCIs are far removed from the ethical issues considered above. They are
actually similar to corrective therapies in function. Clausen stated in 2009 that "BCIs pose ethical
challenges, but these are conceptually similar to those that bioethicists have addressed for other realms of
therapy".[176] Moreover, he suggests that bioethics is well-prepared to deal with the issues that arise with
BCI technologies. Haselager and colleagues[177] pointed out that expectations of BCI efficacy and value
play a great role in ethical analysis and the way BCI scientists should approach media. Furthermore,
standard protocols can be implemented to ensure ethically sound informed-consent procedures with locked-
in patients.

The case of BCIs today has parallels in medicine, as will its evolution. Similar to how pharmaceutical
science began as a balance for impairments and is now used to increase focus and reduce need for sleep,
BCIs will likely transform gradually from therapies to enhancements.[179] Efforts are made inside the BCI
community to create consensus on ethical guidelines for BCI research, development and dissemination.[180]
As innovation continues, ensuring equitable access to BCIs will be crucial, failing which generational
inequalities can arise which can adversely affect the right to human flourishing.[182]

The ethical considerations of BCIs are essential to the development of future implanted devices. End-users,
ethicists, researchers, funding agencies, physicians, corporations, and all others involved in BCI use should
consider the anticipated, and unanticipated, changes that BCIs will have on human autonomy, identity,
privacy, and more.[70]

Low-cost BCI-based interfaces

Recently a number of companies have scaled back medical grade EEG technology to create inexpensive
BCIs for research as well as entertainment purposes. For example, toys such as the NeuroSky and Mattel
MindFlex have seen some commercial success.

In 2006 Sony patented a neural interface system allowing radio waves to affect signals in
the neural cortex.[183]
In 2007 NeuroSky released the first affordable consumer based EEG along with the game
NeuroBoy. This was also the first large scale EEG device to use dry sensor technology.[184]
In 2008 OCZ Technology developed a device for use in video games relying primarily on
electromyography.[185]
In 2008 Final Fantasy developer Square Enix announced that it was partnering with
NeuroSky to create a game, Judecca.[186][187]
In 2009 Mattel partnered with NeuroSky to release the Mindflex, a game that used an EEG to
steer a ball through an obstacle course. It is by far the best selling consumer based EEG to
date.[186][188]
In 2009 Uncle Milton Industries partnered with NeuroSky to release the Star Wars Force
Trainer, a game designed to create the illusion of possessing the Force.[186][189]
In 2009 Emotiv released the EPOC, a 14 channel EEG device that can read 4 mental states,
13 conscious states, facial expressions, and head movements. The EPOC is the first
commercial BCI to use dry sensor technology, which can be dampened with a saline
solution for a better connection.[190]
In November 2011 Time magazine selected "necomimi" produced by Neurowear as one of
the best inventions of the year. The company announced that it expected to launch a
consumer version of the garment, consisting of catlike ears controlled by a brain-wave
reader produced by NeuroSky, in spring 2012.[191]
 In February 2014 They Shall Walk (a nonprofit organization fixed on constructing
exoskeletons, dubbed LIFESUITs, for paraplegics and quadriplegics) began a partnership
with James W. Shakarji on the development of a wireless BCI.[192]
In 2016, a group of hobbyists developed an open-source BCI board that sends neural
signals to the audio jack of a smartphone, dropping the cost of entry-level BCI to £20.[193]
Basic diagnostic software is available for Android devices, as well as a text entry app for
Unity.[194]
In 2020, NextMind released a dev kit including an EEG headset with dry electrodes at
$399.[195][196] The device can be played with some demo applications or developers can
create their own use cases using the provided Software Development Kit.

Future directions
A consortium consisting of 12 European partners has completed a
roadmap to support the European Commission in their funding
decisions for the new framework program Horizon 2020. The
project, which was funded by the European Commission, started in
November 2013 and published a roadmap in April 2015.[197] A
2015 publication led by Clemens Brunner describes some of the
analyses and achievements of this project, as well as the emerging
Brain-Computer Interface Society.[198] For example, this article
reviewed work within this project that further defined BCIs and
applications, explored recent trends, discussed ethical issues, and
evaluated different directions for new BCIs. Brain-computer interface

Other recent publications too have explored future BCI directions

for new groups of disabled users (e.g.,[10][199])

Disorders of consciousness (DOC)

Some people have a disorder of consciousness (DOC). This state is defined to include people in a coma
and those in a vegetative state (VS) or minimally conscious state (MCS). New BCI research seeks to help
people with DOC in different ways. A key initial goal is to identify patients who can perform basic
cognitive tasks, which would of course lead to a change in their diagnosis. That is, some people who are
diagnosed with DOC may in fact be able to process information and make important life decisions (such as
whether to seek therapy, where to live, and their views on end-of-life decisions regarding them). Some who
are diagnosed with DOC die as a result of end-of-life decisions, which may be made by family members
who sincerely feel this is in the patient's best interests. Given the new prospect of allowing these patients to
provide their views on this decision, there would seem to be a strong ethical pressure to develop this
research direction to guarantee that DOC patients are given an opportunity to decide whether they want to
live.[200][201]

These and other articles describe new challenges and solutions to use BCI technology to help persons with
DOC. One major challenge is that these patients cannot use BCIs based on vision. Hence, new tools rely
on auditory and/or vibrotactile stimuli. Patients may wear headphones and/or vibrotactile stimulators placed
on the wrists, neck, leg, and/or other locations. Another challenge is that patients may fade in and out of
consciousness and can only communicate at certain times. This may indeed be a cause of mistaken
diagnosis. Some patients may only be able to respond to physicians' requests for a few hours per day
(which might not be predictable ahead of time) and thus may have been unresponsive during diagnosis.
Therefore, new methods rely on tools that are easy to use in field settings, even without expert help, so
family members and other people without any medical or technical background can still use them. This
reduces the cost, time, need for expertise, and other burdens with DOC assessment. Automated tools can
ask simple questions that patients can easily answer, such as "Is your father named George?" or "Were you
born in the USA?" Automated instructions inform patients that they may convey yes or no by (for example)
focusing their attention on stimuli on the right vs. left wrist. This focused attention produces reliable
changes in EEG patterns that can help determine whether the patient is able to communicate. The results
could be presented to physicians and therapists, which could lead to a revised diagnosis and therapy. In
addition, these patients could then be provided with BCI-based communication tools that could help them
convey basic needs, adjust bed position and HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning), and
otherwise empower them to make major life decisions and communicate.[202][203][204]

Motor recovery

People may lose some of their ability to move due to many causes, such as stroke or injury. Research in
recent years has demonstrated the utility of EEG-based BCI systems in aiding motor recovery and
neurorehabilitation in patients who have had a stroke.[205][206][207][208] Several groups have explored
systems and methods for motor recovery that include BCIs.[209][210][211][212] In this approach, a BCI
measures motor activity while the patient imagines or attempts movements as directed by a therapist. The
BCI may provide two benefits: (1) if the BCI indicates that a patient is not imagining a movement correctly
(non-compliance), then the BCI could inform the patient and therapist; and (2) rewarding feedback such as
functional stimulation or the movement of a virtual avatar also depends on the patient's correct movement
imagery.

So far, BCIs for motor recovery have relied on the EEG to measure the patient's motor imagery. However,
studies have also used fMRI to study different changes in the brain as persons undergo BCI-based stroke
rehab training.[213][214][215] Imaging studies combined with EEG-based BCI systems hold promise for
investigating neuroplasticity during motor recovery post-stroke.[215] Future systems might include the fMRI
and other measures for real-time control, such as functional near-infrared, probably in tandem with EEGs.
Non-invasive brain stimulation has also been explored in combination with BCIs for motor recovery.[216]
In 2016, scientists out of the University of Melbourne published preclinical proof-of-concept data related to
a potential brain-computer interface technology platform being developed for patients with paralysis to
facilitate control of external devices such as robotic limbs, computers and exoskeletons by translating brain
activity.[217][218] Clinical trials are currently underway.[219]

Functional brain mapping

Each year, about 400,000 people undergo brain mapping during neurosurgery. This procedure is often
required for people with tumors or epilepsy that do not respond to medication.[220] During this procedure,
electrodes are placed on the brain to precisely identify the locations of structures and functional areas.
Patients may be awake during neurosurgery and asked to perform certain tasks, such as moving fingers or
repeating words. This is necessary so that surgeons can remove only the desired tissue while sparing other
regions, such as critical movement or language regions. Removing too much brain tissue can cause
permanent damage, while removing too little tissue can leave the underlying condition untreated and
require additional neurosurgery. Thus, there is a strong need to improve both methods and systems to map
the brain as effectively as possible.

In several recent publications, BCI research experts and medical doctors have collaborated to explore new
ways to use BCI technology to improve neurosurgical mapping. This work focuses largely on high gamma
activity, which is difficult to detect with non-invasive means. Results have led to improved methods for
identifying key areas for movement, language, and other functions. A recent article addressed advances in
functional brain mapping and summarizes a workshop.[221]

Flexible devices

Flexible electronics are polymers or other flexible materials (e.g. silk,[222] pentacene, PDMS, Parylene,
polyimide[223]) that are printed with circuitry; the flexible nature of the organic background materials
allowing the electronics created to bend, and the fabrication techniques used to create these devices
resembles those used to create integrated circuits and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). Flexible
electronics were first developed in the 1960s and 1970s, but research interest increased in the mid-
2000s.[224]

Flexible neural interfaces have been extensively tested in recent years in an effort to minimize brain tissue
trauma related to mechanical mismatch between electrode and tissue.[225] Minimizing tissue trauma could,
in theory, extend the lifespan of BCIs relying on flexible electrode-tissue interfaces.

Neural dust

Neural dust is a term used to refer to millimeter-sized devices operated as wirelessly powered nerve sensors
that were proposed in a 2011 paper from the University of California, Berkeley Wireless Research Center,
which described both the challenges and outstanding benefits of creating a long lasting wireless
BCI.[226][227] In one proposed model of the neural dust sensor, the transistor model allowed for a method
of separating between local field potentials and action potential "spikes", which would allow for a greatly
diversified wealth of data acquirable from the recordings.[226]

See also
Informatics Neural engineering
Intendix (2009) Neuralink
AlterEgo, a system that reads unspoken Neurorobotics
verbalizations and responds with bone- Neurostimulation
conduction headphones
Nootropic
Augmented learning
Project Cyborg
Biological machine Simulated reality
Cortical implants
Telepresence
Deep brain stimulation
Thought identification
Human senses
Wetware computer (Uses similar
Kernel (neurotechnology company) technology for IO)
Lie detection Whole brain emulation
Microwave auditory effect

Notes
1. These electrodes had not been implanted in the patient with the intention of developing a
BCI. The patient had had severe epilepsy and the electrodes were temporarily implanted to
 help his physicians localize seizure foci; the BCI researchers simply took advantage of
this.[95]

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Further reading
Brouse, Andrew. "A Young Person's Guide to Brainwave Music: Forty years of audio from the
human EEG" (http://cec.sonus.ca/econtact/14_2/brouse_brainwavemusic.html). eContact!
14.2 – Biotechnological Performance Practice / Pratiques de performance biotechnologique
(July 2012). Montréal: CEC.
Gupta, Cota Navin and Ramaswamy Palanappian. "Using High-Frequency
Electroencephalogram in Visual and Auditory-Based Brain-Computer Interface Designs" (htt
ps://econtact.ca/14_2/gupta-palaniappan_interfacedesign.html). eContact! 14.2 –
Biotechnological Performance Practice / Pratiques de performance biotechnologique (July
2012). Montréal: CEC.
Ouzounian, Gascia. "The Biomuse Trio in Conversation: An Interview with R. Benjamin
Knapp and Eric Lyon" (https://econtact.ca/14_2/ouzounian_biomuse.html). eContact! 14.2 –
Biotechnological Performance Practice / Pratiques de performance biotechnologique (July
2012). Montréal: CEC.

External links
The Unlock Project (https://web.archive.org/web/20131117040218/http://unlockproject.org/)

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