ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION

EEE 422
Outcomes:
At the end of this course, the student MUST be able to:
- Explain the operation of the means of power generation, Calculate the
currents in a grid supplying unbalanced loads.
- Explain the operating and connection constraints applicable to
centralized and decentralized Production facilities.
- Participate in the operations of power generating plants
 CHAPTER ONE
CENTRALIZED AND DECENTRALIZED ELECTRICITY GENERATION

- In 1993, the worldwide production of electricity was 12.3 trillion kilowatt hours
- A kilowatt hour is the amount of electricity needed to light ten 100-watt bulbs for 1
hour
- One can judge the magnitude of this endeavor by considering data from the United
States (United Nations 1995).
- The united States alone produced 25% of the total energy
- US electric utility industry, a mix of public and privately owned entities
- They generates 3.1 trillion kilowatt hours in 1993, using more than 10,000 generating
units
- This electricity generation is either made by small (Decentralized) and large scale
(Centralized) generating stations.
 Centralized Electricity Generation
■ “Centralized generation” refers to the large-scale generation of electricity at
centralized facilities
■ These facilities are usually located away from end-users
■ connected to a network of high-voltage transmission lines
■ The electricity generated by centralized generation is distributed through the
electric power grid to multiple end-user
■ Centralized generation facilities include:
- fossil-fuel-fired power plants
- nuclear power plants
- hydroelectric dams
- wind farms etc.
 Centralized Electricity Generation

■ The vast majority of the electricity that is used today is from centralized
generation

■ Centralized generation facilities in the United States currently have the capacity
to generate more than 1,100 gigawatts of electricity

■ The earliest electric utilities operated independently from each other

■ A consumer would only purchase electricity from a utility in their area

■ This electricity is provided through its own electricity delivery system

■ During the second half of the 20th century,

■ utilities found it more efficient and economical to connect their delivery systems,

■ resulting in the need to coordinate power plant operations

■ The majority of electricity generated today is coordinated by regional system

operators to ensure reliability

■ Therefore, the electricity delivered to consumers by their local electric utility may
be generated at a centralized power plant located in another city

■ These power plants are usually subject to economic, reliability, and

environmental regulations by federal, tribal, state, and/or local governments.
 Factors affecting the Growth of
Centralized Electricity Generation
■ Economies of scale:

- the advent of steam turbines made it possible to increase the size of the
turbines while decreasing the marginal cost of electricity production.

■ The search for high energy efficiency:

- gains in efficiency were achieved through larger facilities capable of handling

higher pressures and temperatures in steam used in electricity generation

■ Innovation in electricity transmission:

- the use of alternative current instead of direct current permitted to transmit

electricity over long distances with a significant loss reduction
■ The search for reliability:

- so as to increase the reliability at the customer’s end, large electricity

production facilities were connected to the transmission networks.

■ Regulation favoring larger generation facilities.

■ Environmental constraints:

- the use of transmission networks made it possible to relocate the generation

facilities outside the city centres thus removing pollution due to exhaust
from coal fired plants
 Drawbacks of Centralized Electricity
Generation
■ Transmission and distribution costs:

this amount for up to 30% of the cost of delivered electricity on average. The lowest cost
is achieved by industrial customers taking electricity at high to medium voltage and
highest for small customers taking electricity from the distribution network at low voltage

■ Rural electrification:

- in an integrated power system, rural electrification is challenging for two reasons. As

large capital expenditures are required to connect remote areas due to the distance to be
covered through overhead lines, connecting remote areas with small consumption might
prove uneconomical
■ Investment in transmission and distribution networks:

- over the next 20 years, significant investment will be required to upgrade the
transmission and distribution networks

■ Energy efficiency:

- in the 1960s, the marginal gains in energy efficiency through size increase
and use of higher temperature and pressure started to diminish. Higher
temperatures and pressure resulted in high material wear and tear leading
to lower than expected operating life for steam turbines

■ Security and reliability:

- The persistence of distributed generation contributed to energy security

through two effects: Fuel diversity and Back up generation
■ Environmental Impact:

- the environmental impact of the centralized energy system is significant due to the
heavy reliance on fuel, coal and to a lesser extent natural gas.

- The electricity sector is responsible for ¼ of the NOx emissions, 1/3 of the CO2
emissions and 2/3 of the SO2 emissions in the United States
 Environmental Impacts of Centralized
Generation
■ The environmental impacts of electricity generation can contribute to large-scale
regional environmental concerns

■ as well as localized concerns that affect the area directly surrounding a power
plant

■ Some impacts vary based on the energy resource—

e.g whether the power plant uses fossil fuel or a renewable resource

■ In addition to the impacts from power generation, there are also impacts
associated with extracting, producing, and transporting certain fuels such as
coal and natural gas.
 Effects of a Centralized Power plants to the
Environment
■ Air pollutant emissions:

– The amount and type of emissions will vary by fuel burned and other plant
characteristics.

– Air pollution from burning fuel often includes carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen oxides, mercury, and particulate matter.

■ Water use and discharge:

- Water used for steam production or cooling may be returned at warmer

temperatures to water bodies and may contain contaminants.

- Some water may also be lost to evaporation

■ Waste generation:

- Burning certain fuels results in solid waste such as ash, which must be
stored and eventually disposed of properly.

- Some wastes contain hazardous substances. For example, nuclear power

generation produces radioactive waste, while coal ash can contain heavy met

■ Land use:

- Large power plants require space for their operations

- Centralized generation requires transmission lines, which also use land.

 Decentralized/Distributed Electricity
Generation
■ Under the current centralized generation paradigm, electricity is mainly

■ produced at large generation facilities, shipped though the transmission and distribution
grids to the end consume
■ However, the recent quest for energy efficiency and reliability and reduction of
greenhouse gas emissions led to explore
■ possibilities to alter the current generation paradigm and increase its overall
performances.
■ In this context, one of the best candidates to complement or even replace the existing
paradigm is distributed generation where electricity is produced
■ Distributed generation refers to a variety of technologies that generate electricity at or
near where it will be used,

■ such as solar panels and combined heat and power

■ it may serve a single structure, such as a home or business, or it may be part of a

microgrid (a smaller grid that is also tied into the larger electricity delivery system)

■ such as at a major industrial facility, a military base, or a large college campus

■ When connected to the electricity utility’s lower voltage distribution lines,

■ distributed generation can help support delivery of clean, reliable power to additional
customers and

■ reduce electricity losses along transmission and distribution lines.

Common Distributed Generation systems
in Residential Sector
■ Solar photovoltaic panels
■ Small wind turbines
■ Natural-gas-fired fuel cells
■ Emergency backup generators, usually fueled by gasoline or diesel fue
Common Distributed Generation systems
in Commercial and Industrial sectors
■ Combined heat and power systems

■ Solar photovoltaic panels

■ Wind

■ Hydropower

■ Biomass combustion or cofiring

■ Municipal solid waste incineration

■ Fuel cells fired by natural gas or biomass

■ Reciprocating combustion engines, including backup generators, which are may be

fueled by oil
 Positive Environmental Impacts of
Decentralized Generation
■ Existing cost-effective distributed generation technologies can be used to
generate electricity at homes and businesses using renewable energy resources
such as solar and wind

■ Distributed generation can harness energy that might otherwise be wasted—for

example, through a combined heat and power system.

■ By using local energy sources, distributed generation reduces or eliminates the

“line loss” (wasted energy) that happens during transmission and distribution in
the electricity delivery system.
 Negative Environmental Impacts of
Decentralized Generation
■ Distributed generation systems require a “footprint” (they take up space), and because they
are located closer to the end-user, some distributed generation systems might be
unpleasant to the eye or cause land-use concerns.

■ Distributed generation technologies that involve combustion—particularly burning fossil

fuels—can produce many of the same types of impacts as larger fossil-fuel-fired power
plants, such as air pollution.

■ Some distributed generation technologies, such as waste incineration, biomass combustion,

and combined heat and power, may require water for steam generation or cooling

■ Distributed generation systems that use combustion may be less efficient than centralized
power plants due to efficiencies of scale.
 Main drivers behind distributed
generation
■ thanks to the reduction of barriers to entry and clearer prices signals, distributed
generators were able to move in niche markets and exploit failures of
centralized generation

■ distributed generators tend to be of smaller size and quicker to build, they have
been able to benefit from price premiums

■ combined heat and power generation: using heat for central heating and other
applications makes it possible to reduce emissions and increase energy
efficiency to high levels
■ use of alternative fuel: distributed generation technologies make it possible to
accommodate a broad range of fuel
 Technologies used for distributed
generation
■ Reciprocating Engines:
- this technology uses compressed air and fuel. The mixture is ignited by a
spark to move a piston.
- The mechanical energy is then converted into electrical energy.
■ Gas Turbines:
- gas turbines are widely used for electricity generation thanks to the
regulatory incentives induced to favor fuel diversification towards natural gas
and thanks to their low emission levels
■ Renewable sources:
- renewable technologies have been used as a way to produce distributed
energy.
- Renewable sources range from photovoltaic technologies, wind energy, thermal
energy etc