Non Destructive Testing (NDT)

3 MODULE - 5

Radiography testing
 Radiography
4

 Radiography is an imaging technique using X-rays to view

the internal structure of an object.

 To create the image, a beam of X-rays, a form of

electromagnetic radiation, is produced by an X-ray
generator and is projected toward the object.
 Contd..
5

➢ The radiation used in radiography testing is a higher energy

(shorter wavelength) version of the electromagnetic waves that
we see as visible light.

➢ The radiation can come from an X-ray generator or a

radioactive source.
 Contd..
6
 Radiographic Testing (RT)
7

 Industrial radiography is a method of non-

destructive testing where many types of manufactured
components can be examined to verify the internal structure and
integrity of the specimen.
 Industrial Radiography can be performed utilizing either X-rays
or gamma rays. Both are forms of electromagnetic radiation.
 Radiographic Testing (RT) – This method of weld testing makes
use of X-rays, produced by an X-ray tube, or gamma rays,
produced by a radioactive isotope.
 The basic principle of radiographic inspection of welds is the
same as that for medical radiography.
8

Principles of
Radiography
 Principles of Radiography
9

➢ The part is placed between the radiation source and a piece of

film.

➢ The part will stop some of the radiation.

➢ Thicker and more dense area will stop more of the radiation.
➢ The film darkness (density) will vary with the amount of
radiation reaching the film through the test object.
 Contd..
10

= less exposure
= more exposure

X-ray film
 General Principles of Radiography
11

➢The energy of the radiation affects its penetrating power. Higher

energy radiation can penetrate thicker and more dense materials.

➢The radiation energy and/or exposure time must be controlled to

properly image the region of interest.

Thin Walled Area

Low Energy Radiation High energy Radiation

 Radiographic Images
12

ME367_NICE MENACHERY_NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

13

Benefits of Radiographic
Testing
 Benefits of Radiographic Testing
14

1. Can inspect assembled components

2. Minimum surface preparation required
3. Detects both surface and subsurface defects
4. Provides a permanent record of the inspection
5. Verify internal flaws on complex structures
6. Isolate and inspect internal components
7. Automatically detect and measure internal flaws
8. Measure dimensions and angles within the sample without
sectioning
9. Sensitive to changes in thickness, corrosion, flaws and
material density changes
15

Flaw
Orientation
 IDL 2001

Flaw Orientation
16

➢ Radiography has sensitivity limitations when detecting

cracks.

➢ X-rays “see” a crack as a thickness variation and the

larger the variation, the easier the crack is to detect.

➢ When the path of the x-rays is not parallel to a crack, the

thickness variation is less and the crack may not be visible.
 IDL 2001

Flaw Orientation
17

Optimum
Angle
= easy to
detect

= not easy
to detect
 IDL 2001

Contd..
18

➢ Since the angle between the radiation beam and a crack or

other linear defect is so critical, the orientation of defect must be
well known if radiography is going to be used to perform the
inspection.

0o 20o
19

Radiation
Sources
 Radiation Sources
20

➢ Two of the most commonly used sources of radiation in

industrial radiography are x-ray generators and gamma ray
sources.

➢ Industrial radiography is often subdivided depending on the

source of radiation used.

➢ X-ray Radiography

➢ Gamma Radiography
 Contd..
21
22

X-ray
Radiography
 X-ray Radiography
23

 X-rays are produced by an X-ray generator system.

 These systems typically include an X-ray tube head, a high
voltage generator, and a control console.
 Contd..
24

➢X-rays are produced by establishing a very high voltage between

two electrodes, called the anode and cathode.
➢To prevent arcing, the anode and cathode are located inside a
vacuum tube, which is protected by a metal housing.
 Contd..
25

➢ The cathode contains a small filament much the

same as in a light bulb.

➢ Current is passed through the filament which

+
Electrons
-
heats it. The heat causes electrons to be
stripped off. X-ray Generator

➢ The high voltage causes these “free” electrons

to be pulled toward a target material (usually
made of tungsten) located in the anode.

➢ The electrons impact against the target. This

impact causes an energy exchange which
causes x-rays to be created.
 X - ray source
26

 The energy required for this process is provided from the

generator , which is connected to an electrical circuit system.
 A rectifier is also provided in the electrical system, to
convert the electrical energy from the generator into the
direct current(DC), which is being the adequate form to be
applied to the X-ray tube.
 The quality and the quantity of the X-ray generation are
usually controlled by adjusting the electrical
parameters(such as voltage applied to the tube or current
flows through the tube) and exposure time(usually a fraction
of a second)
 X - ray source
27
 Production of x-rays
28

 Normally X-rays, are produced when fast moving electrons

are suddenly brought to rest by colliding with matter.

 During collision, the accelerated electrons therefore lose

their kinetic energy very rapidly at the surface of the metal
plate and energy conversion consequently occurs.

 The kinetic energy of the accelerated electrons can be

converted in 3 ways.
 Contd..
29

1. A very small fraction i.e, less than 1% is converted into X-

radiation. The conversion factor f can be estimated by an
approximate empirical relation

f= 1.1×10-9 ZV

Where,
Z- atomic number of the target

V-energy of electron in volts

 Contd..
30

2. Approx. 99% of energy of electrons is converted into heat

by increasing the thermal vibrations of the atoms of the
target, the temperature of which may consequently rise
considerably.
 Contd..
31

3. Some of electrons have sufficient energy to eject orbital

electrons from the atoms of the target material which
are ionized. The secondary electrons produced in this
way, may escape from the surface of the target and
subsequently be recaptured by it producing further heat
or secondary radiation.
 High energy X-ray source or HEX
32

 High energy X-ray source or HEX rays are very hard X-

rays whose energy value is 1 MeV or more, which is
about one order of magnitude higher than convectional
X-rays.
 This high energy X-rays are generally used when
examining thicker sections .
 Also, by using high energy X-rays, the possibilities of
large distance to thickness ratios with correspondingly
low geometrical distortion, short production times and
high production rate can be achieved.
 Contd..
33

 High energy X-rays are produced by a number of

machines suchs as

- synchrotron, betatron, electron linear

acceleration and Van De Graff.

 Electro Linear Accelerator (Linac) is the most popular one

 Benefits of HEX-rays
34

1. High energy X-ray source has small focal spot size which
reduces the amount of high angle scattered X-rays
reaching the film, thus resulting in radiographs with good
contrast.

2. It has excellent penetrameter sensitivity and good

resolution.
35

Gamma
Radiography
 Gamma Radiography
➢Gamma rays are produced by a
radioisotope.

➢A radioisotope has an unstable

nuclei that does not have enough
binding energy to hold the nucleus
together.
➢The spontaneous breakdown of an
atomic nucleus resulting in the
release of energy and matter is
known as radioactive decay.
36
 Contd..
37

➢Most of the radioactive material

used in industrial radiography is
artificially produced.

➢This is done by subjecting stable

material to a source of neutrons in
a special nuclear reactor. This
process is called activation.
 Contd..
➢ Unlike X-rays, which are produced by a machine, gamma rays
cannot be turned off.

➢ Radioisotopes used for gamma radiography are encapsulated

to prevent leakage of the material.

➢ The radioactive “capsule” is attached to a cable to form what is

often called a “pigtail.”

➢ The pigtail has a special connector at the other end that

attaches to a drive cable.
36
Contd..

37
 Contd..
40

➢ A device called a “camera” is used to store, transport and

expose the pigtail containing the radioactive material.
➢ The camera contains shielding material which reduces the
radiographer’s exposure to radiation during use.
 Contd..
41
 Contd..
42

➢ A hose-like device called

a guide tube is connected
to a threaded hole called
an “exit port” in the
camera.
➢

The radioactive material

will leave and return to
the camera through this
opening when performing
an exposure!
 Contd..
43

➢ A “drive cable” is connected to the

other end of the camera.

➢ This cable, controlled by the

radiographer, is used to force the
radioactive material out into the
guide tube where the gamma rays
will pass through the specimen and
expose the recording device.
 Contd..
44
45

Properties of X-Ray and Gamma ray

46
Properties of X-Ray and Gamma ray
 They are invisible and travels at the speed of the light.
 They propagate in a straight line and pass through
space without transference of matter,
 They are not affected by electric and magnetic fields.
 They are capable of ionizing gases and also changes the
electrical properties of solids and liquids.
 They are capable of blackening photographic film
 They exhibit wave properties and are reflected, refracted,
diffracted & polarized.
47

Inspection Techniques in Radiography

 Inspection Techniques in
48
Radiography
 Radiographic Inspection Techniques are employed for
inspecting various engineering structures including tubular
and plate construction pressure pipelines and boilers etc..
 Various Radiographic Inspection Techniques are:-

1. Single wall single image (SWSI) technique.

2. Double wall single image (DWSI) technique.

3. Double wall Double image (DWDI) technique.

 1. Single wall single image (SWSI)
technique.
49

 This case is applicable in case when the material to be

tested is in the form of cylinders, e.g:- pipes, shells etc.
 There are two ways to do the inspection.
🞑 Tokeep the radiographic source outside and film
inside- Flat technique
🞑 Tokeep the radiographic source inside and the film
outside- panoramic technique
 SWSI Flat technique.
50

In this technique, the density of the film reduces due to

increase in thickness of the weld penetrated from centre to outside

ME367_NICE MENACHERY_NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

 SWSI panoramic technique.
51

Source can be fixed in two ways – at the centre and off the centre
 Contd..
52

 When the source is at the centre, it emits radiation in all

directions, the total circumferential weld is exposed at one
exposure.

 If the source is off the centre, it requires more energy to

penetrate the weld thickness and hence it requires two or
three exposures.
 2. Double wall single image (DWSI)
technique.
53

 Both source and the film are kept outside the film, but on
opposite sides of it, i.e the source is kept very close to the
outside surface of the pipe and the film is kept on the
other outer side of the pipe.

 In this method, only the film side is exposed and it

requires a number of exposures to cover the whole length
of the weld.
 Contd..
54
 3. Double wall Double image
(DWDI) technique.
55

 In this method, the source and film are kept on opposite sides
and outside of pipe.
 The source and film are displaced so that the radiation passes
obliquely through the pipe.
 The image of the pipe wall nearest to the source appears on
the film instead of the image of the pipe wall nearest to the
film.
 This technique is applicable only for pipe welds with outer
diameter less than or equal to 88.9mm.
 Contd..
56

DI) technique.
57

Real Time
Radiography
 Real Time Radiography
58

 It is also known as Fluoroscopy.

 It is a technique in which radiation is converted into light
by using a fluorescent screen in the place of the film.

 The process of obtaining the image of the object by

converting the X-rays into light on the fluorescent is known
as Fluoroscopy or Real Time Radiography
 Working principle
59
 Working principle
60

 In this method, the radiation after passing through the material

is recorded on the fluorescent screen. The image of the test
piece which is obtained by the fluorescent screen, is received
by CCTV an dis then amplified using the amplification circuit
associated with the camera.
 The amplified circuit is then processed by the computer. The
processed image is then displayed on the monitor. The monitor
Is operated by means of a remote from the X-ray source to
avoid the exposure to radiation.
 The image obtained using this method is usually faint and the
sensitivity is very low. Therefore, to improve the quality of
image , should employ the image intensifier equipment.
61
RTR with Intensifier
62
RTR with Intensifier
 The image intensifier is a large glass enclosed electron tube.
The function of image intensifier is to convert radiation to light,
light to electron for intensification and electron back to light for
viewing.

 The use of Fluoroscopic units in conjunction with these image

intensifying system greatly enhances the versality and
sensitivity of the real-time radiographic setup
 RTR
63

 Advantages of RTR
🞑 Can take place at high speed

🞑 Low cost

 Disadvantages of RTR
🞑 Cost of the equipment is high

🞑 Not portable to gamma ray

🞑 Special cabinet is required to keep exposure radiation

within regulations
 Applications of RTR
🞑 Laser weld in thin wall sections

🞑 Electron beam weld in thin pipes

 Films used in industrial radiography
• They are similar to photographic film in that there is a
central carrier called film base that is made of thin sheet of
polyester type material.
• This is normally transparent and serves only as the carrier
for the chemically reactive material that forms the
emulsion.
• Emulsion consisting of a silver halide recording medium
with a binder (gelatin) is applied to both sides of the base.
• The emulsion is usually coated on both sides of a flexible,
transparent, blue-tinted base in layers about 0.012 mm
thick.
• The typical total thickness of the X-ray film is approximately
0.23 mm.
• Though films are made to be sensitive for X-ray or
gamma-ray, yet they are also sensitive to visible
light.
• When X-rays, gamma-rays, or light strike the film,
some of the halogen atoms are liberated from
the silver halide crystal and thus leaving the silver
atoms alone.
• This change is of such a small nature that it
cannot be detected by ordinary physical methods
and is called a “latent (hidden) image”.
• When the film is exposed to a chemical solution
(developer) the reaction results in the formation
of black, metallic silver.
• The film speed is another important film
parameter.
• A film whose grains would begin reacting to the
exposure considerably sooner than other films –
High speed film.
• For a constant intensity, the grains of a high
speed film would produce the required density
before the grains of slow speed film.
• Grain size in a film affects quality and time of
exposure.
• Faster speed films have larger grains and slow
films have extra-fine or fine grains, and give
better quality even though the exposure time is
longer.
 Speed of film
• Speed is defined as the density recorded on
the film resulting from a given radiation input.
• It is measured in terms of inverse of exposure
required to produce a radiograph of a
particular density, under specified conditions.
• A film requiring less exposure is called faster.
 Film Selection
• Selecting the proper film and developing the optimal
radiographic technique for a particular component
depends on a number of different factors;
1. Composition, shape, and size of the part being
examined and, in some cases, its weight and location.
2. Type of radiation used, whether X-rays from an X-ray
generator or gamma rays from a radioactive source.
3. Kilovoltage available with the X-ray equipment or the
intensity of the gamma radiation.
4. Relative importance of high radiographic detail or
quick and economical results.
 Film Packaging
• Radiographic film can be purchased in a
number of different packaging options and
they are available in a variety of sizes.
• The most basic form is as individual sheets in a
box. In preparation for use, each sheet must
be loaded into a cassette or film holder in a
darkroom to protect it from exposure to light.
• Industrial X-ray films are also available in a
form in which each sheet is enclosed in a light-
tight envelope.
• The film can be exposed from either side
without removing it from the protective
packaging.
• A rip strip makes it easy to remove the film in
the darkroom for processing.
• Packaged film is also available in the form of
rolls where that allows the radiographer to cut
the film to any length.
• The ends of the packaging are sealed with
electrical tape in the darkroom.
• In applications such as the radiography of
circumferential welds and the examination of
long joints on an aircraft fuselage, long lengths
of film offer great economic advantage.
 Film Handling
• X-ray film should always be handled carefully to avoid
physical strains, such as pressure, creasing, buckling,
friction, etc.
• Whenever films are loaded in semi-flexible holders and
external clamping devices are used, care should be
taken to make sure pressure is uniform.
• Marks resulting from contact with fingers that are
moist or contaminated with processing chemicals, as
well as crimp marks, are avoided if large films are
always grasped by the edges and allowed to hang free.
• Use of envelope-packed films avoids many of these
problems until the envelope is opened for processing.
 Intensifying screens
• The radiographic image is formed by only approximately 1
% of the amount of radiation energy exposed at the film.
• The rest passes through the film and is consequently not
used.
• To utilize more of the available radiation energy, the film is
sandwiched between two intensifying screens.
• The screens help to cut down the exposure time by utilizing
more effectively the radiations reaching the film.
• The intensification effect is primarily due to the liberation
of photoelectrons from the screen.

• Different types of materials are being used for this purpose.

– Lead screens
– Steel and copper screens
– Fluorescent screens
– Salt screens
– Fluorometallic screens
• Lead screens
• Under the impact of X-rays and gamma-rays, lead
screens emit electrons to which the film is sensitive.
• In industrial radiography this effect is made use of: the
film is placed between two layers of lead to achieve the
intensifying effect and intensity improvement of
approximately factor 4 can be realized.
• This method of intensification is used within the energy
range of 80 keV to 420 keV, and applies equally to X-ray
or gamma-radiation, such as produced by Iridium192.
• Intensifying screens are made up of two homogeneous
sheets of lead foil (stuck on to a thin base such as a
sheet of paper or cardboard) between which the film is
placed: the so called front and back screens.
• The thickness of the front screen (source side) must
match the hardness of the radiation being used, so that
it will pass the primary radiation while stopping as
much as possible of the secondary radiation (which has
a longer wavelength and is consequently less
penetrating).
• The surface of lead screens is polished to allow as close
a contact as possible with the surface of the film.
• Flaws such as scratches or cracks on the surface of the
metal will be visible in the radiograph and must,
therefore, be avoided.
• Steel and copper screens
• For high-energy radiation, lead is not the best
material for intensifying screens.
• With Cobalt60 gamma-rays, copper or steel have
been shown to produce better quality
radiographs than lead screens.
• With megavoltage X-rays in the energy range 5-8
MeV (linac) thick copper screens produce better
radiographs than lead screens of any thickness.
• Fluorescent screens
• The term fluorescence (often mistaken for
phosphorescence) is used to indicate the characteristic of a
substance to instantly emit light under the influence of
electromagnetic radiation.
• The moment radiation stops, so does the lighting effect.
• This phenomenon is made good use of in film based
radiography.
• Certain substances emit so much light when subjected to
ionising radiation, that they have considerably more effect
on the light sensitive film than the direct ionising radiation
itself..
• Salt screens
• These are fluorescent screens consisting of a thin, flexible base coated
with a fluorescent layer made up from micro- crystals of a suitable
metallic salt (rare earth; usually calcium tungstate) which fluoresce when
subjected to radiation.
• The radiation makes the screen light up.
• The light intensity is in direct proportion to the radiation intensity.
• With these screens a very high intensification factor of 50 can be
achieved, which means a significant reduction in exposure time.
• The image quality, however, is poor because of increased image
unsharpness.
• Fluorescent screens are only used in industrial radiography when a
drastic reduction of exposure time, in combination with the detection
ofAlssat.rPgrofe. Vid
shneufSe
anc
katr,s
DM, Ei,sRSErTequired.
• Fluorometallic screens
• Apart from fluorescent and lead intensifying
screens, there are fluorometallic screens which to
a certain extent combine the advantages of both.
• These screens are provided with a lead foil
between the film base and the fluorescent layer.
• This type of screen is intended to be used in
combination with so-called RCF-film (Rapid Cycle
Film).
• The degree of intensification achieved largely
depends on the spectral sensitivity of the X-ray
film for the light emitted by the screens.
 Types of Films
• (a) On the basis of photosensitive emulsion layer
• i) Single coated
• ii) Double coated

• (b) On the basis of intensifying screens

• i) Screen films
• ii) Non-screen films

• (c) On the basis of type of emulsion coating

• i) Blue light sensitive films
• ii) Green light sensitive films (Orthochromatic)
• iii) Red light sensitive films (Panchromatic)
• (d) On the basis of film speed
• i) Standard speed films
• ii) Fast speed films
• iii) Ultra fast films
• i) Salt screen films
• These are used with salt screens.
• Salt screens are fluorescent screens consisting of a
thin, flexible base coated with a fluorescent layer made
up from micro-crystals of a suitable metallic salt
(usually calcium tungstate) which fluoresce when
subjected to radiation.
• The use of salt screens causes loss of definition and
hence these films should be used where their
disadvantages are clearly understood and tolerable.
• For about 90% of the medical work, salt screen films
are used.
• ii) Direct films
• Generally used with metal screens.
• This group covers industrial films and some of the
medical films.
• The contrast of industrial film increases as density
increase, whereas that of a medical film readily
react as a maximum with increasing density.
• Industrial films have coating weights, which are
usually between 2-2.5 times those of normal
screen type medical films.
• iii) Special purpose films
• These find less frequent use in radiography and are
discussed below.
• a) Fluorographic films
• These films are used for photographing a fluorescent
screen on which X-ray image has been projected.
• These films are usually sensitive to blue or blue-green
glow emitted by the screen in use.
• They differ from normal X-ray films in that they are
coated on one side only.
• b) X-ray paper
• Instant cycle X-ray papers are the latest addition
to the family of X-ray films.
• When used in instant cycle processor units, these
papers develop to completion within seconds by
the developing agents contained in the emulsion.
• Good for fast radiographic examinations.
• This paper is cheap compared to X-ray films and
processing cost is very low.
 Film Processing
• As mentioned previously, radiographic film consists of a
transparent, blue-tinted base coated on both sides
with an emulsion.
• The emulsion consists of gelatin containing
microscopic, radiation sensitive silver halide crystals,
such as silver bromide and silver chloride.
• When X-rays, gamma rays or light rays strike the
crystals or grains, some of the Br- ions are liberated
leaving the Ag+ ions.
• In this condition, the radiograph is said to contain a
latent (hidden) image because the change in the grains
is virtually undetectable, but the exposed grains are
now more sensitive to reaction with the developer.
• When the film is processed, it is exposed to
several different chemical solutions for controlled
periods of time.
• Film processing basically involves the following
five steps:
• 1.Development: The developing agent gives up
electrons to convert the silver halide grains to
metallic silver.
• Grains that have been exposed to the radiation
develop more rapidly, but given enough time the
developer will convert all the silver ions into silver
metal.
• Proper temperature control is needed to convert
exposed grains to pure silver while keeping
unexposed grains as silver halide crystals.
• 2. Stopping the development: The stop bath simply stops
the development process by diluting and washing the
developer away with water.
• 3. Fixing: Unexposed silver halide crystals are removed by
the fixing bath. The fixer dissolves only silver halide crystals,
leaving the silver metal behind.
• 4. Washing: The film is washed with water to remove all the
processing chemicals.
• 5. Drying: The film is dried for viewing.

• Film processing is a strict science governed by rigid rules of

chemical concentration, temperature, time, and physical
movement.
• Whether processing is done by hand or automatically by
machine, excellent radiographs require a high degree of
consistency and quality control.
 Viewing Radiographs
• After the film processing, radiographs are viewed
using a light-box (or they can be digitized and
viewed on a high resolution monitor) in order to
be interpreted.
• In addition to providing diffused, adjustable white
illumination of uniform intensity, specialized
industrial radiography light-boxes include
magnifying and masking aids.
• When handing the radiographs, thin cotton
gloves should be worn to prevent fingerprints on
the radiographs.
 Interpretation and Evaluation
of Test results
• The common term for film interpretation is film viewing.
• Film viewing in fact means the evaluation of the image quality of a
radiograph for compliance with the code requirements and the
interpretation of details of any possible defect visible on the film.
• For this purpose, the film is placed in front of an illuminated screen
of appropriate brightness/luminance.
• The edges of the film and areas of low density need to be masked
to avoid glare.
• The following conditions are important for good film interpretation:
– brightness of the illuminated screen (luminance)
– density of the radiograph
– diffusion and evenness of the illuminated screen
– ambient light in the viewing room
– film viewer’s eye-sight
• Poor viewing conditions may cause important defect information on
a radiograph to go unseen.
• The light of the viewing box must be diffusive
and preferably white.
• Radiographs should be viewed in a darkened
room, although total darkness is not
necessary.
• Care must be taken that as little light as
possible is reflected off the film surface
towards the film viewer.
• If the film viewer enters a viewing room from
full daylight, some time must be allowed for
the eyes to adapt to the dark.
• An yearly eye-test for general visual acuity is
required while especially sight at close range
needs to be checked.
• The film viewer must be able to read a Jaeger
number 1 letter at 300 mm distance with one
eye, with or without corrective aids.
• The trained eye is capable of discerning an
abrupt density change/step of 1 %.
• While interpreting, a magnifying glass of
power 3 to 4 can be advantageous.
• The film-interpreter
• Apart from the requirements regarding “viewing
conditions” and “viewing equipment” the film-
interpreter (film viewer) shall have thorough
knowledge of the manufacturing process of the object
being examined and of any defects it may contain.
• The type of defects that may occur in castings,
obviously, differs from those in welded constructions.
• Different welding processes have their own
characteristic defects which the film interpreter must
know to be able to interpret the radiograph.
• To become a qualified NDT operator, various training
courses, course materials and leaflets specifying the
requirements they need to comply with, exist.
• The European NDT industry conforms to the
qualification standards of the American ASNT
organization.
• So far, a training program for film-interpreter has not
been established in similar fashion.
• Textbooks for example are not uniform.
• Sometimes, the IIW-weld defect reference collection is
used, beside which the instructor usually has his own
collection of typical examples, supplemented with
process-specific radiographs.
• ASTM has a reference set of defects in castings
available.
Radiograph Interpretation - Welds
• In addition to producing high quality radiographs, the
radiographer must also be skilled in radiographic interpretation.
• Interpretation of radiographs takes place in three basic steps: (1)
detection, (2) interpretation, and (3) evaluation.
• All of these steps make use of the radiographer's visual acuity.
• Visual acuity is the ability to resolve a spatial pattern in an
image.
• The ability of an individual to detect discontinuities in
radiography is also affected by the lighting condition in the place
of viewing, and the experience level for recognizing various
features in the image.
• The following material will help to develop an understanding of
the types of defects found in weldments and how they appear in
a radiograph.
• Discontinuities
• Discontinuities are interruptions in the typical
structure of a material.
• These interruptions may occur in the base
metal, weld material or "heat affected" zones.
• Discontinuities, which do not meet the
requirements of the codes or specifications
used to invoke and control an inspection, are
referred to as defects.
General Welding Discontinuities
The following discontinuities are typical of all types of welding.
Cold lap is a condition where the weld filler metal does not
properly fuse with the base metal or the previous weld pass
material (interpass cold lap). The arc does not melt the base
metal sufficiently and causes the slightly molten puddle to flow
into the base material without bonding.
Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal.
Porosity can take many shapes on a radiograph but often appears
as dark round or irregular spots or specks appearing singularly, in
clusters, or in rows. Sometimes, porosity is elongated and may
appear to have a tail. This is the result of gas attempting to
escape while the metal is still in a liquid state and is called
wormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in the material and it will
have a higher radiographic density than the surrounding area.
Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are contaminated
with moisture. The moisture turns into a gas when heated and becomes
trapped in the weld during the welding process. Cluster porosity appear
just like regular porosity in the radiograph but the indications will be
grouped close together.
Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in
weld metal or between weld and base metal. In a radiograph,
dark, jagged asymmetrical shapes within the weld or along
the weld joint areas are indicative of slag inclusions.
Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are propagating in
a direction that produces a change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray
beam. Cracks will appear as jagged and often very faint irregular lines.
Cracks can sometimes appear as "tails" on inclusions or porosity.
 Radiograph Interpretation - Castings
• The major objective of radiographic testing of castings is the disclosure of
defects that adversely affect the strength of the product.
• Castings are a product form that often receive radiographic inspection
since many of the defects produced by the casting process are volumetric
in nature, and are thus relatively easy to detect with this method.
• These discontinuities of course, are related to casting process deficiencies,
which, if properly understood, can lead to accurate accept-reject decisions
as well as to suitable corrective measures.
• Since different types and sizes of defects have different effects of the
performance of the casting, it is important that the radiographer is able to
identify the type and size of the defects.
• ASTM E155, Standard for Radiographs of castings has been produced to
help the radiographer make a better assessment of the defects found in
components.
• The castings used to produce the standard radiographs have been
destructively analyzed to confirm the size and type of discontinuities
present.
• The following is a brief description of the most common discontinuity
types included in existing reference radiograph documents (in graded
types or as single illustrations).
Radiographic indications for castings
Gas porosity or blow holes are caused by accumulated gas or air which is trapped by the
metal. These discontinuities are usually smooth- walled rounded cavities of a spherical,
elongated or flattened shape. If the sprue is not high enough to provide the necessary
heat transfer needed to force the gas or air out of the mold, the gas or air will be
trapped as the molten metal begins to solidify. Blows can also be caused by sand that is
too fine, too wet, or by sand that has a low permeability so that gas cannot escape.
Sand inclusions and dross: are nonmetallic oxides, which appear
on the radiograph as irregular, dark blotches. These come from
disintegrated portions of mold or core walls and/or from oxides
(formed in the melt) which have not been skimmed off prior to
the introduction of the metal into the mold gates. Careful control
of the melt, proper holding time in the ladle and skimming of the
melt during pouring will minimize or obviate this source of
trouble.
Cracks are thin (straight or jagged) linearly disposed
discontinuities that occur after the melt has solidified. They
generally appear singly and originate at casting surfaces.
Cold shuts generally appear on or near a surface of cast metal as
a result of two streams of liquid meeting and failing to unite.
They may appear on a radiograph as cracks or seams with smooth
or rounded edges.
Inclusions are nonmetallic materials in an otherwise solid metallic matrix. They
may be less or more dense than the matrix alloy and will appear on the
radiograph, respectively, as darker or lighter indications. The latter type is more
common in light metal castings.
Safety aspects required in Radiography
• Radiation Health Risks
• The health risks associated with the radiation is considered to be
one of the major disadvantages of radiography.
• The amount of risk depends on the amount of radiation dose
received, the time over which the dose is received, and the body
parts exposed.
• The fact that X-ray and gamma-ray radiation are not detectable
by the human senses complicates matters further.
• However, the risks can be minimized and controlled when the
radiation is handled and managed properly in accordance to the
radiation safety rules.
• The active laws all over the world require that individuals
working in the field of radiography receive training on the safe
handling and use of radioactive materials and radiation
producing devices.
• The occurrence of particular health effects from
exposure to ionizing radiation is a complicated
function of numerous factors.
• Type of radiation involved.
• All kinds of ionizing radiation can produce health
effects.
• The main difference in the ability of alpha and beta
particles and gamma and X-rays to cause health
effects is the amount of energy they have.
• Their energy determines how far they can
penetrate into tissue and how much energy they
are able to transmit directly or indirectly to tissues.
• Size of dose received
• The higher the dose of radiation received, the
higher the likelihood of health effects.

• Rate at which the dose is received

• Tissue can receive larger dosages over a period of
time. If the dosage occurs over a number of days or
weeks, the results are often not as serious if a
similar dose was received in a matter of minutes.

• Part of the body exposed

• Extremities such as the hands or feet are able to
receive a greater amount of radiation with less
resulting damage than blood forming organs
housed in the upper body.
• The age of the individual
• As a person ages, cell division slows and the body is
less sensitive to the effects of ionizing radiation. Once
cell division has slowed, the effects of radiation are
somewhat less damaging than when cells were rapidly
dividing.

• Biological differences
• Some individuals are more sensitive to radiation than
others. Studies have not been able to conclusively
determine the cause of such differences.
 Controlling Radiation Exposure
• When working with radiation, there is a concern
for two types of exposure: acute and chronic.
• An acute exposure is a single accidental exposure
to a high dose of radiation during a short period
of time.
• Chronic exposure, which is also sometimes called
“continuous exposure”, is long-term, low level
overexposure.
• Chronic exposure may result in health effects and
is likely to be the result of improper or
inadequate protective measures.
• The three basic ways of controlling exposure
to harmful radiation are:
• 1) limiting the time spent near a source of
radiation,
• 2) increasing the distance away from the
source,
• 3) and using shielding to stop or reduce the
level of radiation.
 Applications of Radiographic Testing
• Used to inspect most types of solid materials, both ferrous and
non-ferrous alloys as well as non metallic materials and
composites.
• Used to inspect the condition and proper placement of
components, for liquid level measurement of sealed
components etc.
• Used extensively for castings, weldments and forgings when
there is a critical need to ensure that the object is free from
internal flaws.
• Well suited to the inspection of semiconductor devices for
detection of cracks, broken wires, unsoldered connections,
foreign material and misplaced components, whereas other
methods are limited in ability to inspect semiconductor devices
 Speed of the Film
67

 The film speed is an important parameter in film radiography.

Based on the grain size an d exposure time, films are classified in

two ways.

1. High speed film

2. Low speed film

 Contd..
68

1) High speed films:

A film is called high speed film when its grain would begin
reacting to the exposure considerably sooner than other films and
have larger grains may not be able to produce the minute detail.

2) Low speed films:

A film is called low speed film when its grain would begin
reacting to the exposure considerably slower than other films and
have extra fine grain, which gives better quality
 Quality of the Film
69

 Its depends on two factors

◼ Film Density

◼ Film graininess
70

Safety requirement in
Radiography
 Safety requirement in
71 Radiography
Two main aspects of safety

1. Monitoring radiation dosage

2. Protection of personal
76

Advantages, disadvantages &

application of Radiography Testing
 Advantages
77

➢ Sensitive to changes in thickness, corrosion, voids, cracks,

and material density changes.

➢ Detects both surface and subsurface defects.

➢ Technique is not limited by material type or density.

➢ Can inspect assembled components.

➢ Minimum surface preparation required.

➢ Provides a permanent record of the inspection.

 Disadvantages
78

➢ Orientation of equipment and flaw can be critical.

➢ Determining flaw depth is impossible without additional
angled exposures.

➢ Many safety precautions for the use of high intensity radiation.

➢ Many hours of technician training prior to use.

➢ Access to both sides of sample required.

➢ Expensive initial equipment cost.

 Applications
79

 It can be used to inspect the condition and proper placement

of components for liquid level measurement in sealed
component.

 Can be used in most types of solid materials both ferrous

and non-ferrous as well as non-metallic and composites.

 This is used for castings , weldments and forgings

 Used for semi conductor devices for detection of cracks,
broken wires .