Thermography

Elearning course transcript

Learning objectives

This course comprises five lessons. In the next couple of scenes you will be presented with the learning
objectives for each lesson.
1. The learning objectives for the "Background science" lesson include the learner being able to explain what
infrared radiation is, explain the differences between temperature and heat, be able to convert data
between Celsius and Fahrenheit temperature scales and be able to compare temperature differences
measured using different measurement scales.
2. Upon completion of the lesson "Heat transfer“ the learner will be able to describe four methods of heat
transfer and explain the difference between qualitative and quantitative thermography.
3. The learning objectives for the "Radiation basics" lesson aim at the learner being able to explain the
relationship between absorption, reflectance and emission of thermal radiation, explain the meaning of a
black body and explain the meaning of emissivity.
4. Upon completing of the lesson "Thermography in maintenance" the learner will be able to explain the
benefits of thermography in a maintenance context, describe some of the disadvantages, explain the
meaning of the terms focus, range, span and level as applied to thermal imaging equipment and explain
the difference between real and apparent patterns of temperature difference.
5. The learning objectives for the "Applications" lesson aim at the learner being able to describe the four main
application areas for thermography in maintenance and provide a basic explanation of thermal images
taken from examples in each of these application areas.

Background science
Infrared rays
Infrared rays were discovered by William Herschel in 1800. This came about when he was passing sunlight
through a prism. He noticed that a thermometer held just beyond the red end of the visible spectrum indicated
a rise in temperature. He thus concluded that this indicated the presence of some form of invisible energy. It
was not until 1840 that his son John Herschel produced the first thermogram on “infrared film".

Infrared for condition monitoring

Temperature has long been used as an indicator of machine condition. Nowadays infrared temperature
sensing provides a commonly used Predictive Maintenance (PdM) technique. It allows the study and
measurement of the radiant heat pattern emitted by a body. Regions of increased or decreased heat emission
are often indicative of a fault.

What is “infrared”?
An infrared ray is an electromagnetic wave. It can be thought of as a form of light. Infrared rays are sometimes
called “heat rays” and differ from other radiation such as X-rays or Gamma rays in that they pose no hazard to
the human body, or to the measured object.

Wavelengths
Infrared is a form of electromagnetic radiation. It has a wavelength longer than visible light, and shorter than
radio or TV waves. Its position in the electromagnetic is depicted on the screen.

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What is “thermography”?
Thermography is commonly called 'thermal imaging" although the term really encompasses other methods for
tracking changes in plant equipment as will be seen later in this text. In thermal imaging the radiant heat
pattern emitted by a body is displayed in the form of a temperature "map”.
Radiant energy differences are indicated by variations in grey “level”, or by use of colours. This thermal map is
sometimes called a thermogram. It is produced by means of a detector that is sensitive to energy in the
infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Typically optics are used to focus the image on to the
detector. The resulting signal is then amplified and sent to a video processor from where it is displayed, and
may be captured in a manner similar to a digital photograph.

What is “temperature”?
All matter comprises atoms which link together to form molecules. These vibrate against each other and thus
have a kinetic energy. This kinetic energy is part of the internal energy of the object. The kinetic energy of
rapidly moving molecules is referred to as thermal energy. As more thermal energy is transferred to these
molecules the vibration increases. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the vibrating
molecules of the object.

States of matter
As the kinetic energy of the molecules changes, the matter may undergo changes of state.
Matter may exist in solid state, as a liquid, or as a gas. In any given subject the liquid state occurs at a higher
level of temperature than the solid state. Similarly the gaseous state occurs at a higher temperature level than
the liquid state.

What is “heat”?
Heat and temperature are not synonymous, although in general conversation the terms are often confused.
When two bodies of differing temperatures meet, the thermal energy will transfer from the hot body to the
cooler one until a state of equilibrium is restored. The process in which the thermal energy is transferred is
called heat.

Measuring temperature
• Fahrenheit temperature scale: In the Netherlands, Daniel Fahrenheit invented the alcohol thermometer in
1709 and the mercury thermometer in 1714. Some countries still use the scale of temperature
measurement that he defined and which bears his name. The Fahrenheit scale uses the freezing point of a
salt water solution as it's "zero", and the temperature of the human body as it's "100" point. There was
some refinement of this scale in later years and it now defines 32° as the freezing point of water, and the
boiling point of water is 212°.
• Celsius temperature scale:In most countries the Fahrenheit scale of temperature measurement has been
replaced by a system devised by the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius. The scale uses the freezing
point of pure water as its Zero and the boiling point of pure water as its 100 point.

Converting temperature differences

We saw in the last slide that the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales do not compare directly in terms of
temperature difference because they use arbitrary and different zero points. When using thermography as a
practical tool we are often concerned with temperature change or difference. So when considering and
evaluating temperature change it is important to take into account the actual measurement scale that is being
used. Temperature change is commonly referred to in thermography as ∆T.

Lesson summary
Here’s a quick summary of the lesson. Please study the information before moving on to the next lesson.

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Heat transfer
In the Iesson “Background science” we learned that heat is thermal energy in transit, and that it flows from a
point of high temperature to a of lower temperature. The laws of physics tell us that energy can not be created
nor destroyed, and so all heat must be accounted for.

Heat mechanisms
There are four mechanisms by means of which thermal energy may transfer from one body to another. These
are
• conduction
• convection
• change of state
• radiation
In a given situation any or all of these mechanisms may be evident. The simple example depicted on this
scene illustrates all four.

Conduction
Conduction is the only method by means of which heat can flow through a solid body. Faster vibrating
molecules in the hot part of the body collide with the slower vibrating particles in the cooler part of the body
and in doing so kinetic energy is transferred. In consequence the faster molecules slow down, and the cooler
molecules vibrate faster until a condition of thermal equilibrium is reached. The molecules do not leave their
mean positions.

Convection
If a temperature gradient exists, then convection may occur through movement of a fluid (i.e., a liquid or a
gas), or between a fluid and a solid. In convection, thermal energy transferred in part through molecular
collisions (similar to conduction) as well as through displacement of the molecules from their mean position.
This displacement occurs naturally as the warm part of the fluid expands and rises, to be replaced by the
denser cold part of the fluid body. In some cases this effect may be accelerated by use, for example, of a fan,
in which case this is called forced convection.

Change of state
When a substance is being heated through a change of state (i.e., solid to liquid or liquid to gas), the
temperature does not change. Instead, it stays constant until the change of state is completed. Thus, all the
heat that is given to the substance during the change is known as latent heat or "hidden" heat. The same
effect occurs as a substance cools through a change of state.

Latent heat
As ice melts it changes from ice at 0°C to water at 0°C. Similarly, water boiling at 100 'C changes to steam at
100 'C. This shows that same of the thermal energy is used achieving the change of state. This apparently
"lost” thermal energy is called "latent heat”.

Lesson summary
Here’s a quick summary of the lesson. Please study the information before moving on to the next lesson.

Radiation basics
Qualitative and quantitative thermography
Within plant maintenance the term "thermography" is most commonly used to describe the use of thermal
images for subjective or qualitative identification of "hot spots" that may be indicative of problematic
conditions. If the image is corrected to take factors such as surface variances, atmospheric conditions and
instrument characteristics into account, then a more accurate "quantitative" analysis may be undertaken. The

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term 'quantitative thermography" encompasses the use of infrared devices that can be used to obtain "spot"
temperatures from a target, such as the infrared probe shown here.

Radiation
Radiation results from electromagnetic energy generated by the movement of charged atomic particle. We are
most familiar with the phenomenon in the form of light. Thermal radiation similar but occurs at a different
wavelength, invisible to the human eye. Radiation is characterized in terms wavelength and frequency and
travels at the speed of light.

Regions of infrared
The infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is broad. It is divided into regions as indicated on the
screen. The different regions represent different temperature ranges. Typically, longer wave infrared detection
is more sensitive to lower temperature emissions. Most normal thermography is undertaken in the long wave
infrared regions.

Absorption, reflection and transmission

When radiation falls upon a body some will be absorbed, some will be reflected, and some will be transmitted
through the body. The percentage of energy that is absorbed is termed absorptivity and is written λA, the
percentage of energy that is reflected is termed reflectivity and written λR and the percentage of energy that is
transmitted is termed transmissivity and is written λT. All energy must be accounted for and so λA + λR + λT
must equal 100% or 1.

Industrial thermography
For industrial thermography purposes we can say that most target objects will be opaque to infrared, that is λT
will be 0. We can therefore say that λA + λR equals 1.

Emissivity (e)
Emissivity refers to the amount of radiation emitted by an object. Kirchoff’s law tells us that the amount of
radiation absorbed by an object will equal the amount of radiation emitted. This holds good for a specific
wavelength, temperature, and direction. In a practical sense this tells us that highly reflective objects are
emitters of infrared radiation, whilst objects that absorb well are good emitters. This means that when making
quantitative comparison of temperature differences using infrared measurements you have to allow for any
differences in the emissivity of the target materials.

Black Body
The emissivity of a material is often expressed in comparison to the emissivity of a so called "black body”.
This is a theoretical object which a perfect absorber, and with therefore has an emissivity of 1. It does not
exist in the real world. The emissivity of real bodies varies between greater than zero and less than one,
according to wavelength. A perfect mirror would have an emissivity of zero.

Other considerations
For many inspections the variations in atmospheric conditions have negligible effects. However, steam, water
or vapor in the air can have an on measurement accuracy. Water will absorb thermal radiation. and will also
add its own to what the thermal camera detects. In cases where it is impossible to take without the presence
of water it may therefore necessary to make appropriate mathematical corrections to the data.

Lesson summary
Here’s a quick summary of the lesson. Please study the information before moving on to the next lesson.

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Thermography in maintenance
Thermography is but one tool in the Predictive Maintenance toolbox. The benefits of condition monitoring in
general are well documented. Specific advantages applicable to thermography include those listed on the
screen.

Practical considerations
The price of thermal cameras has dropped considerably recent years. However, for many small companies
the equipment cost may still be an issue. Therefore, a number of organizations offer equipment for hire on an
“as and when required” basis. The technique requires dedicated and trained personnel to achieve optimum
effect. For this reason, it’s common to outsource the activity.

Equipment
Basic controls
Modern infrared cameras are compact, reasonably rugged and readily portable for site use. A wide range of
equipment is available offering varying levels of sophistication to suit individual applications and budgets.
Basic controls on the camera will typically include focus, range, span and level.

Focus control
The focus control on a thermal imaging camera works just like on a regular camera. It controls the distinctness
or clarity of the mage. Thermal imaging a visual technique. It relies to a large extent on visual recognition of
suspect plant parts or components, and it is therefore important that the mage clear enough to allow this.

Range control
The range control relates to the ranges of measurements that are to be studied in the target objects. The
camera must be set to accommodate all of the temperatures on the object that may be of interest.

Level and span controls

On an infrared camera the level and span controls correspond to the brightness and contrast controls on a TV
set, providing further aids for image clarity for the thermographer

Real and apparent temperature differences

In the lesson "Radiation basics" we learned that highly reflective images require some care in interpretation.
We also learned about the need to take emissivity into account when looking at thermograms. When
considering temperature differences exhibited by thermograms there are other factors that must also be
accounted for, such as emissivity of target materials, reflections, geometric differences and transmittance
effects.

Open box effect

The shape of a target object can affect the apparent temperature. For example, viewing an open box from its
open side will expose the camera to radiation that is being emitted from a number of sides together, and may
therefore suggest a higher temperature than that of the actual box material itself.

Transmittance
In the lesson about radiation basics the assumption was made that, for industrial thermography purposes,
most materials can be regarded as being opaque to infrared. In reality some materials will transmit infrared
radiation, and this can have an effect when target objects are "hidden" behind such materials. Examples
include glass, some plastic materials and certain types of surface coatings.

Lesson summary
Here’s a quick summary of the lesson. Please study the information before moving on to the next lesson.

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Applications for industrial thermography
The main industrial applications for thermography fall under four main areas:
• mechanical
• electrical
• energy conservation
• plant safety.

Application examples: electrical equipment

Electrical equipment is probably the main application. The use of thermography for condition assessment of
electrical systems probably pre-dates the wider use of terms such as "condition based" or "predictive"
maintenance.

Transformers
This transformer is not displaying any abnormality. The heat distribution in the windings appears normal, and
the operating temperature is within acceptable limits.

Connections
This cable end terminal is visibly hotter than its neighbours. The thermographer suggested that it should be
repaired in the near future, and that the electrical load should be monitored as a precaution.

Fuses
One of the fuses in this fuse box displays a serious thermal abnormality. The fuse was immediately replaced.

Switch yard
Some line traps in this switch yard warrant inspection. Thermography shows temperatures over 60 °C. They
should be inspected for physical damage and looseness in the very near future.

Electrical motors
The heat distribution across the windings of this motor shows some abnormality. Maximum temperature on
both sides exceeds 90 °C. Close observation was recommended.

Application examples: mechanical equipment

Electrical motors
Many mechanical problems give rise to forces that may result in heat generation, the obvious example of this
is friction. Thermography is thus a useful tool enabling inspection of machine components such as couplings,
pulleys and belts without needing to stop the machine.

Belt drives
This thermogram indicates a distinct thermal abnormality that suggests a severe misalignment in this belt
drive.

Bearings
A thermal abnormality is evident on the non- drive-end bearing. Additional checks including lubrication and
vibration analysis were suggested as means of obtaining a more specific diagnosis.

Compressor
This thermogram indicates that the temperature on the right-hand-side compressor head is 10 degrees
Celsius higher than on the left-hand-side. Further temperature variation would be indicative of improper valve
operation. It was recommended that the machine be inspected again after one month to check for
deterioration.

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Application examples: energy conservation
Heat exchanger
The weakened insulation on the lower pipe of this heat exchanger is clearly visible.

Paper machine drying cylinder

The thermogram identifies thermal variation above 60 °C among the rolls. This will also affect product quality.
An additional survey after rectification would provide evidence that the problem had been solved.

Steam traps
This thermogram identifies a thermal abnormality in trap number four and in the last two traps from the left.

Turbine - inlet pipe

This thermogram for a turbine suggests that the insulation on the inlet pipe has been damaged.

Application examples: plant safety

Furnace
Thermographic study of this furnace clearly indicates an abnormality in the surface heat distribution, possibly
resulting from damage to the refractory lining.

Cement kiln
Thermography makes the breakdown of the insulation in this cement kiln clearly visible. Surface temperatures
above 500 °C were evident.

Valves
Thermography detected a weak joint on the side of this steam main stop valve.

Turbine – exhaust duct

This thermogram indicates a problem with the exhaust duct from a gas turbine.

Lesson summary
Here’s a quick summary of the lesson. Please study the information before moving on to the next lesson.

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