First Steps Second Edition

First Steps Second Edition is the result of over a decade of

reflection by practising teachers. It draws upon contemporary
research and developments in the field of literacy learning
that have occurred since the release of the original First Steps
materials. First Steps Second Edition makes practical

Speaking and Listening Map of Development

connections between assessment, teaching and learning
and caters for diverse needs within a classroom.

The texts and professional development courses provide

a strategic whole-school approach to improving students’

Speaking and Listening

literacy outcomes.

Each strand of First Steps Second Edition consists of two texts

and a CD-ROM.

Map of Development
The Maps of Development enable teachers to assess the
development of students and to link appropriate instruction
to phases of development. A comprehensive range of
practical teaching and learning experiences is provided
at each phase.

A Resource Book for each strand offers concise theory and

practical ideas for enhancing teaching practice.

CD-ROMs in each Reading Map of Development Book,

provide teachers with recording sheets, a range of
assessment teaching and learning formats and ideas to
help parents support their child’s literacy development.

The Linking Assessment, Teaching and Learning Book is a

companion to all texts within the First Steps resource and
includes information applicable to all strands of literacy,
together with practical support and ideas to help teachers
link assessment, teaching and learning.

ISBN 978-1-921321-42-9

Addressing Current Literacy Challenges

9 781921 321429
FIRST004 | Speaking and listening map of development
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 First steps. Speaking and listening map of development
© Department of Education WA 2013
ISBN: 978-0-7307-4514-3
SCIS: 1600399

Acknowledgments
The authors and publisher would like to thank the following for permission
to reproduce the copyright material in this book.

For text: Fig 1.4 p.5—Reprinted with permission from Scaffolding

Language/Scaffolding Learning by Pauline Gibbons. © 2002 by Pauline
Gibbons. Published by Heinemann, a division of Reed Elsvier Inc.,
Portsmouth, NH. All rights reserved; Fig 1.11 p.12- Reproduced from The
Literacy Labyrinth, second edition by Michele Anstey and Geoff Bull ISBN
1740098307, © Pearson Education Australia, 2004, p.24. CD-ROM p.9-
Reproduced from Tackling Talk, Oliver Haig and Rochecouste. Edith Cowan
University, Perth (2005). Speaking and Listening Assessment Checklist
based on the action research undertaken by teachers.

For photographs: Lindsay Edwards Photography, pps.98, 161, 177, 197;

Bill Thomas, p.301; David Phillips Photography pps. 239, 271 (Fig. 9.4), 280,
293; p.53 © Mary Kate Denny/Photoeditinc; p.57 © Sean Loughrey; p.271
left © Alamy Images.

Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright. The
publisher would welcome any information from people who believe they
own copyright to material in this book.

Thanks to Hillsmeade Primary School.

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 Authors’ Acknowledgements

The First Steps writing team acknowledges all contributions to the

development of this resource. We give our grateful thanks to the
following people.

All teachers and students who were involved in the preparation

of units of work, trialling the materials and offering feedback.

Those students and teachers who provided us with great work

samples and transcripts to enhance the text. Special thanks to Vicki
Brockhoff for her work in the creation and collection of many of
these work samples.

The contribution made to the development of these materials by the

research into oral language published by Professor Rhonda Oliver,
Dr Yvonne Haig and Dr Judith Rochecouste.

The authors of the original First Steps Edition, developed by the

Department of Education of Western Australia, and the efforts of
the many individuals who contributed to that resource.

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 Contents
Chapter 1 Chapter 5
About Speaking and Listening 1 Early Speaking and Listening Phase 82
Understanding the Role of Speaking and Listening 2 Global Statement 82
A Dynamic Interactive Model of Speaking Early Speaking and Listening Indicators 83
and Listening 6 Major Teaching Emphases 84
Supporting Speaking and Listening Development Teaching and Learning Experiences 85
— Developing a Repertoire 10 • Environment and Attitude 85
The Difference Between Spoken and Written • Use of Texts 90
Language 13 • Contextual Understanding 103
• Conventions 113
Chapter 2 • Processes and Strategies 129
Supporting Parents of Early Speakers and Listeners 130
Understanding the Speaking and
Listening Map of Development 15
How the Map Is Organised 15
Chapter 6
How to Use the Speaking and Listening Map Exploratory Speaking and Listening
of Development 18 Phase 132
Suggested Process for Using the Speaking Global Statement 132
and Listening Map of Development 19 Exploratory Speaking and Listening Indicators 133
Frequently Asked Questions 23 Major Teaching Emphases 134
Teaching and Learning Experiences 135
Chapter 3 • Environment and Attitude 135
• Use of Texts 140
Collecting Data to Assess Speaking
• Contextual Understanding 151
and Listening Development 26
• Conventions 162
What Are the Most Efficient and Valid Ways to • Processes and Strategies 174
Collect Speaking and Listening Information? 30 Supporting Parents of Exploratory Speakers
How Can Information About Speaking and and Listeners 175
Listening Be Recorded? 43

Chapter 4 Chapter 7
Consolidating Speaking and Listening
Beginning Speaking and Listening Phase 177
Phase 48
Global Statement 177
Global Statement 48 Consolidating Speaking and Listening Indicators 178
Beginning Speaking and Listening Indicators 49 Major Teaching Emphases 179
Major Teaching Emphases 50 Teaching and Learning Experiences 180
Teaching and Learning Experiences 51 • Environment and Attitude 180
• Environment and Attitude 51 • Use of Texts 184
• Use of Texts 56 • Contextual Understanding 195
• Contextual Understanding 65 • Conventions 206
• Conventions 73 • Processes and Strategies 217
• Processes and Strategies 79 Supporting Parents of Consolidating Speakers
Supporting Parents of Beginning Speakers and Listeners 218
and Listeners 80

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 Chapter 8 Chapter 10
Conventional Speaking and Advanced Speaking and Listening
Listening Phase 220 Phase 301
Global Statement 220 Global Statement 301
Conventional Speaking and Listening Indicators 221 Advanced Speaking and Listening Indicators 302
Major Teaching Emphases 222 Major Teaching Emphases 303
Teaching and Learning Experiences 223 Teaching and Learning Experiences 304
• Environment and Attitude 223
• Use of Texts 226 Appendix 305
• Contextual Understanding 236
Emergent Speaking and Listening
• Conventions 250
Phase 305
• Processes and Strategies 262
Supporting Parents of Conventional Speakers Global Statement 305
and Listeners 263 Emergent Speaking and Listening Indicators 306
Major Teaching Emphases 307
Chapter 9 Glossary 308
Proficient Speaking and Listening Bibliography 310
Phase 264
Global Statement 264
Proficient Speaking and Listening Indicators 265
Major Teaching Emphases 266
Teaching and Learning Experiences 267
• Environment and Attitude 267
• Use of Texts 270
• Contextual Understanding 279
• Conventions 290
• Processes and Strategies 299
Supporting Parents of Proficient Speakers
and Listeners 300

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 Statement Overview of the First Steps Speaking and Listening Map of Development
Beginning Phase Early Phase Exploratory Phase Consolidating Phase
Global

In this phase, children use the language of the home and community to communicate with familiar others. They often In this phase, students use their own variety of English language to communicate needs, express ideas and ask In this phase, students’ use Standard Australian English effectively within familiar contexts. They communicate In this phase, students use most language structures and features of Standard Australian English appropriately when
rely on non-verbal cues to convey and comprehend spoken language. Their speech may be characterised by short questions. They understand spoken language relating to personal and social interests and respond in their own way. appropriately in both structured and unstructured situations. They explore ways of using language for different speaking in a range of contexts. They show increasing awareness of the needs of their audience. They experiment with
utterances and they may require support in unfamiliar settings. They are becoming aware of appropriate ways of interacting in familiar situations. speaking and listening purposes. ways to adjust listening and speaking to suit different purposes.

USE OF TEXTS USE OF TEXTS USE OF TEXTS USE OF TEXTS

◆ Responds to spoken texts in own personal way. ◆ Makes sense of spoken texts with familiar others. ◆ Listens effectively for a range of familiar purposes. ◆ Listens effectively to obtain specific information from informational and expressive spoken texts.
◆ Communicates in own personal way. ◆ Uses a range of brief unplanned spoken texts independently. ◆ Uses a range of unplanned spoken texts with connected ideas. ◆ Composes spoken texts using most text structures and features appropriately in planned situations.
◆ Understands simple and familiar questions, e.g. Are you hungry? Where would you like to play? ◆ Participates with support in some planned talk for school purposes. ◆ Presents simple spoken texts using basic text structures in logical sequence, e.g. description, instruction, recount. ◆ Uses a range of unplanned spoken texts effectively as ideas are being developed.
◆ Recalls personally significant information from spoken texts. ◆ Obtains specific information from short informational and expressive spoken texts.
CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING
◆ Communicates to meet own needs. CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING ◆ Is aware that certain forms of spoken text are associated with particular contexts and purposes.
◆ Assumes a shared background between speaker and listener. ◆ Beginning to adjust speaking and listening for familiar situations in a school context. ◆ Tries different ways of adjusting speaking and listening, e.g. tone and pace. ◆ Is aware that speaking and listening can be adjusted for different purposes, e.g. socialising, informing.
Key Indicators

◆ Recognises meaning from familiar language, tone of voice and facial expression in familiar situations. ◆ Will often assume a shared background between speaker and listener when speaking, e.g. may not give sufficient ◆ Provides some background information and supporting ideas for listener, e.g. facts and personal reasons. ◆ Understands the need to provide background information to enhance meaning, e.g. give examples.
◆ Is understood by familiar adults in supportive or predictable situations. information to orientate the listener. ◆ Understands that people have different ideas. ◆ Understands that people may represent their own points of view through spoken texts.
◆ Is aware that people talk about their ideas. ◆ Talks about different audiences and purposes for own talk. ◆ Uses a small range of devices to enhance meaning, e.g. rephrasing, adjusting volume and speed of speech, negotiating
CONVENTIONS
◆ Uses a small range of vocabulary. CONVENTIONS ◆ Experiments with a small range of devices to enhance meaning of spoken texts, e.g. volume, simile, rhyme, common meaning.
◆ Responds to spoken language in ways appropriate to home language or culture. ◆ Structures simple spoken texts appropriately. sayings. CONVENTIONS
◆ Attends to spoken texts that are personally significant. ◆ Uses everyday terms related to their experiences and some subject-specific words. CONVENTIONS ◆ Varies vocabulary to add interest or to describe with greater accuracy.
◆ May ask many questions. ◆ Relies on simple sentences or uses simple connectives to link ideas. ◆ Experimenting with vocabulary drawn from a variety of sources, e.g. literature, media, learning area. ◆ Uses most language structures and features appropriate to purpose, e.g. indicates cause and effect, adjusts level of

PROCESSES AND STRATEGIES ◆ Interprets and uses simple statements, commands and questions. ◆ Experiments with more complex structures and features to express spoken ideas and information, e.g. provide some formality according to context.
supporting details. ◆ Responds appropriately to spoken language in informal and some formal situations for different purposes, e.g. attends
◆ Relies on personal experience as a stimulus for speaking and listening. PROCESSES AND STRATEGIES
◆ Uses a limited range of processes and strategies when speaking, e.g. uses repetition. ◆ Talks about thinking with others, e.g. I think. ◆ Responds to spoken language using common school conventions, e.g. takes turns in a conversation. and contributes to small group discussions, by building on others’ ideas, providing feedback.
◆ Experiments with different speaking and listening behaviours, e.g. proximity, eye contact, volume, listens for specific ◆ Selects listening and speaking behaviours to suit the purpose and audience in familiar situations, e.g. more formal with
◆ Uses a limited range of processes and strategies when listening. ◆ Uses a small range of processes and strategies when speaking, e.g. uses props to support speaking.
◆ Uses a small range of processes and strategies when listening, e.g. asks questions to clarify. information when given instructions. teachers than peers, adds more detail when listener is unfamiliar with context of speech, uses more comprehension checks
when providing unfamiliar information.
PROCESSES AND STRATEGIES
◆ Explores thinking strategies with others. PROCESSES AND STRATEGIES
◆ Experiments with a small range of processes and strategies when speaking e.g. uses rehearsed phrases. ◆ Reflects on speaking and listening activities and uses this knowledge in an attempt to improve communication.
◆ Experiments with a small range of processes and strategies when listening e.g. draws a picture. ◆ Uses a variety of processes and strategies when speaking, e.g. justifies and explains statements.
◆ Uses a variety of processes and strategies when listening, e.g. asks questions to seek confirmation.
◆ Selects and adjusts verbal and non-verbal behaviours for particular groups, e.g. younger children.

ENVIRONMENT AND ATTITUDE ENVIRONMENT AND ATTITUDE ENVIRONMENT AND ATTITUDE ENVIRONMENT AND ATTITUDE
■ Provide opportunities for relevant, challenging and purposeful communication. ■ Provide opportunities for relevant, challenging and purposeful communication. ■ Provide opportunities for relevant, challenging and purposeful communication. ■ Provide opportunities for relevant, challenging and purposeful communication.
■ Create a supportive environment which values the diversity of students’ speaking and listening development (in their ■ Create a supportive environment which values the diversity of students’ speaking and listening development (in their ■ Create a supportive environment which values the diversity of students’ speaking and listening development (in their ■ Create a supportive environment which values the diversity of students’ speaking and listening development (in their home
home languages). home languages). home languages). languages).
■ Encourage students to see the value of effective listening and speaking for community, school and family life. ■ Encourage students to see the value of effective listening and speaking for community, school and family life. ■ Encourage students to see the value of effective listening and speaking for community, school and family life. ■ Encourage students to see the value of effective listening and speaking for community, school and family life.

USE OF TEXTS USE OF TEXTS USE OF TEXTS USE OF TEXTS

■ Expose students to a range of functional spoken texts composed in Standard Australian English. ■ Expose students to a range of functional spoken texts composed in Standard Australian English. ■ Expose students to a range of functional spoken texts composed in Standard Australian English. ■ Discuss and explore a range of functional spoken texts composed in Standard Australian English.
■ Provide authentic opportunities for students to participate in unplanned and planned speaking and listening. ■ Provide authentic opportunities for students to participate in unplanned and planned speaking and listening. ■ Provide opportunities for students to participate in authentic unplanned and planned speaking and listening. ■ Provide opportunities for students to participate in authentic unplanned and planned speaking and listening.
■ Provide opportunities for students to participate in extended talk. ■ Provide opportunities for students to participate in extended talk. ■ Provide opportunities for students to participate in extended talk. ■ Provide opportunities for students to participate in extended talk.
■ Teach students to share personal comments after listening. ■ Teach students to compose spoken texts using basic text structures e.g. using people’s names in social situations and ■ Teach students to compose spoken texts using text features to enhance meaning, e.g. recount includes introduction ■ Teach students to extend ideas logically and coherently in spoken texts to suit a particular purpose.
■ Build knowledge of common topics to which students can relate, e.g. toys, families, community. providing background information in recounts, responding to questioning. and events in time order. ■ Teach students to locate and interpret complex information from spoken texts on new and familiar topics.
■ Teach students the metalanguage associated with speaking and listening and encourage its use, e.g. speak, listen, ■ Teach students to make connections with their existing knowledge of common topics. ■ Teach students how to identify relevant information about new and familiar topics. ■ Teach students the metalanguage associated with speaking and listening and encourage its use, e.g. orientation,
Major Teaching Emphases

hear, speaker, listener, take turns, word, think. ■ Teach students the metalanguage associated with speaking and listening and encourage its use, e.g. meaning, ■ Teach students the metalanguage associated with speaking and listening and encourage its use, conclusion, dialect, terms for forms of Australian English, e.g. slang, colloquial, negotiate, attend, facial expression, gesture,
CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING question, topic, message, Standard Australian English, point of view, sharing, volume, expression, turn, e.g. communicate, spoken text, audience, Standard Australian English, verbal, non-verbal, mental picture. strategy, comparison, monitor.
■ Discuss speaking and listening, referring to the audience and purpose. plan, memory. CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING
■ Provide effective feedback to students about their speaking and listening. CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING ■ Discuss ways in which speaking and listening can be adjusted for different purposes, e.g. socialising, providing ■ Discuss ways in which spoken texts can be constructed and adjusted for different purposes, e.g. through register,
■ Model and discuss how to include relevant information when speaking. ■ Discuss ways in which particular spoken texts are suitable for different audiences, e.g. conversations with adults or information in a classroom context, talking in the playground. dialect, vocabulary choices.
■ Draw students’ attention to the way ideas and feelings are communicated through speaking and listening. peers during outdoor play. ■ Continue to provide effective feedback to students who are adjusting their speaking and listening, e.g. changing ■ Provide opportunities for students to reflect upon the way in which they interact with particular audiences, e.g. degree
■ Encourage students to use verbal and non-verbal devices to create meaning. ■ Provide explicit feedback to students who are adjusting their speaking and listening, e.g. when they are talking in volume, amount of detail, code-switching/code-mixing. of formality, type of vocabulary, topics discussed, code-switching/code-mixing.
CONVENTIONS small groups/to teachers. ■ Teach students to include relevant information to develop content and ideas when speaking. ■ Teach students to include relevant details and information of interest to their listeners when speaking.
■ Help students recognise where background and supporting information are needed when speaking. ■ Provide support for students to contribute to discussions about matters that interest or affect them. ■ Teach students how to contribute to discussions of matters that interest or affect them.
■ Develop and extend children’s vocabulary for different purposes.
■ Provide support for students to recognise how they can contribute to discussions. ■ Teach students to recognise different points of view when analysing different spoken texts. ■ Provide opportunities for students to analyse the way people’s beliefs and opinions influence the construction of
■ Model speaking for different purposes, e.g. making requests, seeking information.
■ Provide opportunities for students to analyse the meaning of spoken texts. ■ Provide opportunities for students to express their opinions on a range of familiar topics. spoken texts.
■ Model speaking and listening behaviours, maintain a conversation.
■ Support students to recognise how simple devices improve speaking and listening in different contexts, e.g. volume, ■ Model and support students to use devices to enhance meaning, e.g. using appropriate expression, providing the ■ Teach students to reflect upon the way in which they express their opinions.
■ Model listening behaviours, e.g. responding to requests, questions, looking at the person.
simile, rhyme, common sayings. appropriate level of detail. ■ Teach the use of devices and discuss how they influence meaning, e.g. volume, tone, pace, emphasis, vocabulary choices,
PROCESSES AND STRATEGIES amount of detail, type of examples provided.
■ Model language to describe thinking. CONVENTIONS CONVENTIONS
■ Involve children in conversations with family members and others.
■ Provide opportunities for students to develop and use new vocabulary. ■ Provide opportunities for students to develop, refine and use new vocabulary. CONVENTIONS
■ Model language structures and features to suit the purpose, e.g. recount an experience using time order, checking ■ Teach structures and features that help students extend and sustain communication, e.g. using text connectives and ■ Provide opportunities for students to develop, refine and use new vocabulary.
■ Model the language and behaviours of listening, e.g. Let’s listen to the music. Would you like to hear this story?
■ Model ways to improve communication, e.g. adjusting volume, respond to comprehension checks.
on listener’s understanding, adding supporting detail, give explanations using conjunctions, e.g. if, then, and, because. conjunctions to indicate cause and effect, maintaining the topic, taking turns. ■ Teach structures and features that extend and elaborate communication in informal and formal contexts, e.g. how to
■ Model the skills of conversation. ■ Teach speaking and listening behaviours that support meaning making, e.g. body language, facial expressions, building state and justify an opinion.
■ Teach speaking and listening behaviours that support meaning making, e.g. asking clarifying questions, seeking on others’ ideas. ■ Continue to teach conversational skills, e.g. turn taking, negotiating meaning, managing topic changes.
confirmation, providing sufficient detail. ■ Teach conversational skills, e.g. turn taking, confirmation, clarification. ■ Teach students to recognise the different speaking and listening behaviours that are needed for different contexts.
■ Model and discuss agreed ways to respond to spoken texts in school, e.g. when and how to take turns. ■ Teach skills of listening and responding in whole-class, partner and small-group discussions, e.g. how to disagree ■ Teach students listening skills needed to respond appropriately in a variety of situations, e.g. how to offer alternate

PROCESSES AND STRATEGIES agreeably. viewpoints sensitively, how to identify different points of view.
■ Model thinking aloud about the selection of appropriate speaking and listening strategies. PROCESSES AND STRATEGIES PROCESSES AND STRATEGIES
■ Encourage students to verbalise own thinking. ■ Discuss and reflect on the use of thinking to make meaning in speaking and listening. ■ Provide opportunities for students to reflect on thinking strategies used for speaking and listening, e.g. encourage
■ Provide opportunities for students to engage in conversations for specific purposes, e.g. to socialise, to get things done. ■ Provide opportunities for students to engage in sustained conversations, e.g. with peers, teachers and known adults. students to set goals to improve speaking and listening, consider evidence to support an opinion, think through an issue before
■ Teach simple planning tools for speaking, e.g. plan recounts that orientate the listener, plan how … ■ Teach a range of planning tools for speaking, e.g. how to share ideas. raising it with others.
■ Teach simple planning tools to help students gain a listening focus, e.g. use drawings to respond to listening, listen ■ Teach planning tools that focus listening before, during and after activities, e.g. identify key ideas, record ideas in a ■ Provide opportunities for students to engage in sustained conversations and discussions, e.g. how to build on the ideas
for specific information. graphic organiser. of others, paraphrasing, giving and seeking opinions.
■ Model strategies to adjust communication, e.g. self-correct to clarify meaning, rephrase if not understood. ■ Model responses to miscommunication, e.g. how to stop, rephrase and repeat, check comprehension. ■ Teach students to select planning tools to help them speak effectively in a range of contexts, e.g. debates, in group
contexts related to school contexts, with peers and unknown adults in social contexts.
■ Teach students to use scaffolds to plan for listening, e.g. how to set goals for listening, how to make accurate notes, how
to summarise key ideas from a spoken text.
■ Teach strategies to repair miscommunication, e.g. by seeking feedback (confirmation check), clarifying message, rephrasing.

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 Statement Overview of the First Steps Speaking and Listening Map of Development
Conventional Phase Proficient Phase Advanced Phase
Global

In this phase, students recognise and control most language structures and features of Standard Australian English In this phase, students’ control of Standard Australian English reflects their understanding of the way language In this phase, students show a sophisticated control of Standard Australian English in a range of contexts. They
when speaking for a range of purposes. They select and sustain language and style appropriate to audience and structures and features are manipulated to achieve different purposes and effects. They evaluate the appropriateness and understand the power and effect of spoken language, critically analysing factors that influence the interpretation of
purpose. They are aware of the value of planning and reflecting to improve the effectiveness of communication. effectiveness of spoken texts in relation to audience, purpose and context. They experiment with complex devices to spoken texts. They use complex devices to modify and manipulate their communication for a range of purposes.
improve their communication.

USE OF TEXTS USE OF TEXTS USE OF TEXTS

◆ Identifies main ideas and supporting details of a range of spoken informational and expressive texts. ◆ Processes ideas and information from a range of classroom texts dealing with challenging ideas and issues. ◆ Makes sense of a range of spoken texts, including specialised topics.
◆ Develops and presents familiar ideas and information, and supports opinion with some detail, in a variety of classroom ◆ Interacts with peers in structured situations to discuss familiar or accessible subjects. ◆ Offers advice, extends views and presents ideas effectively in discussions with a wide range of audiences.
situations. ◆ Listens to a range of sustained spoken texts on challenging ideas and issues, noting key ideas and information in a ◆ Uses a wide range of unplanned and planned texts that achieve a variety of purposes.
◆ Controls text features and structures effectively in planned and unplanned texts. systematic way. ◆ Analyses sophisticated and challenging information in a wide range of spoken texts.
◆ Uses Standard Australian English effectively in a range of contexts. ◆ Uses text features and structures for effect in unplanned and planned texts. ◆ Uses Standard Australian English in sophisticated ways.
◆ Use of Standard Australian English in different contexts shows critical awareness of audience and purpose.
CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING
◆ Considers the appropriateness of text form and register in relation to audience when speaking and listening in familiar CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING ◆ Makes deliberate adjustments in speaking and listening to suit a wide range of purposes and audiences.
◆ Judges appropriateness and effect of text form and register in relation to audience, purpose and context.
Key Indicators

situations. ◆ Interacts inclusively with a wide audience.

◆ Adjusts speaking and listening appropriately for different familiar contexts. ◆ Makes adjustments in speaking and listening to suit specific purposes and audiences. ◆ Can critically evaluate spoken texts that represent differing perspectives on complex themes and issues.
◆ Includes information and text features to maintain audience interest, e.g. choice of vocabulary, appropriate level of ◆ Includes relevant and appropriate information to orientate their listeners, e.g. acknowledge differing opinions. ◆ Selects and manipulates devices designed to establish a rapport, engage, persuade or influence an audience, e.g.
detail. ◆ Discusses ways in which spoken texts can include or exclude the values and beliefs of particular audiences. anecdote, analogy, nominating others to hold the floor.
◆ Understands that people’s points of view and beliefs influence the construction of spoken texts. ◆ Selects devices designed to impact or influence a particular audience, e.g. irony, humour.
CONVENTIONS
◆ Uses a range of devices when attempting to influence a listener, e.g. tone, volume, expression, choice of style. CONVENTIONS ◆ Draws upon a wide vocabulary to achieve planned effect.
◆ Understands and manipulates language structures and features in formal and informal situations, e.g. structures a
CONVENTIONS ◆ Controls and analyses language structures in formal and informal contexts.
◆ Selects vocabulary to enhance meaning and effect.
formal speech, sustains conversation with an unfamiliar adult. ◆ Uses speaking and listening behaviours to facilitate and maintain effective communication, e.g. intervenes sensitively,
◆ Experiments with some language structures and features that enable speakers to influence audiences
◆ Recognises and controls most language structures and features appropriate to the purpose in informal and some redirects.
◆ Selects vocabulary to impact on target audience.
formal situations, e.g. can express and justify own opinion succinctly, can rephrase others’ contributions to group ◆ Selects listening conventions to suit a range of purposes.
◆ Adjusts speaking and listening behaviours appropriate to the purpose and situation when interacting, e.g. builds on
discussions. PROCESSES AND STRATEGIES
the ideas of others to achieve group goals, invites others to have a speaking turn.
◆ Uses appropriate speaking and listening behaviours in informal and some formal situations, e.g. can style-shift when
◆ When listening, identifies and analyses structures and features that signal bias and points of view. ◆ Draws upon an extensive repertoire of strategies to interpret and compose complex speech.
conversing with unfamiliar people, listens for general or specific information according to purpose. ◆ Adapts processes and strategies to interact responsively and critically, e.g. monitors group to facilitate discussion.
◆ Is aware of the audience needs when responding, e.g. offers alternate viewpoints sensitively. PROCESSES AND STRATEGIES
◆ Adapts a range of processes and strategies to compose and improve complex and challenging texts.
◆ Selects and applies appropriate strategies for monitoring and adjusting communication.
PROCESSES AND STRATEGIES
◆ Monitors and reflects on spoken texts drawing on knowledge of differences in nonverbal behaviours, e.g. facial
◆ Draws on a range of strategies and deliberately adjusts speaking and listening to meet the needs of the task.
expression, eye contact, proximity.
◆ Adjusts information or adjusts tone of voice in response to a listener’s reaction.
◆ Plans and selects appropriate processes and strategies when speaking, e.g. uses anecdotes and data to influence an
◆ Selects appropriate strategies when listening, e.g. asks questions to elicit additional information.
audience.
◆ Identifies a range of strategies used to enhance a talk.
◆ Plans and selects appropriate processes and strategies when listening, e.g. records important data.
◆ Develops strategies to improve listening in challenging contexts, e.g. seeks clarification, confirms information.

ENVIRONMENT AND ATTITUDE ENVIRONMENT AND ATTITUDE ENVIRONMENT AND ATTITUDE

■ Provide opportunities for relevant, challenging and purposeful communication. ■ Provide opportunities for relevant, challenging and purposeful communication. ■ Provide opportunities for relevant, challenging and purposeful communication.
■ Create a supportive environment which values the diversity of students’ speaking and listening development (in their ■ Create a supportive environment which values the diversity of students’ speaking and listening development. ■ Create a supportive environment which values the diversity of students’ speaking and listening.
home languages). ■ Encourage students to see the value of effective listening and speaking for community, school and family life. ■ Encourage students to see the value of effective listening and speaking for community, school and family life.
■ Encourage students to see the value of effective listening and speaking for community, school and family life.
USE OF TEXTS USE OF TEXTS
USE OF TEXTS ■ Discuss and compare a range of functional spoken texts. ■ Discuss and analyse a range of functional spoken texts.
■ Discuss and compare a range of functional spoken texts. ■ Provide opportunities for students to participate in authentic unplanned and planned speaking and listening. ■ Provide opportunities for students to participate in authentic unplanned and planned speaking and listening.
■ Provide opportunities for students to participate in authentic unplanned and planned speaking and listening. ■ Provide opportunities for students to participate in extended talk for a range of purposes. ■ Support students to reflect upon and analyse their own use of text features and structures to suit a range of purposes.
■ Provide opportunities for students to participate in extended talk. ■ Teach students to use effective text structures and features to suit a range of purposes. ■ Support students to take responsibility for their own development in speaking and listening.
■ Teach students to incorporate text features and structures effectively in a range of spoken texts ■ Teach students to extract and analyse complex and challenging information from spoken texts. ■ Encourage students to use the metalanguage associated with speaking and listening independently, analyse,
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Teach students to recognise and evaluate complex and challenging information on familiar and unfamiliar topics. ■ Encourage students to use the metalanguage associated with speaking and listening independently, e.g. interaction, socio-cultural, ideology, world view, reiterating, deconstruct, regulate, critique, values, intertextual.
■ Teach students the metalanguage associated with speaking and listening and encourage its use, e.g. functional, intertextuality, alternative, style shifts, adjust, position, pace, convention, evaluate, reflection, rephrasing. CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING
literary, informational, multi-modal, recasting, contexts, style, pitch, active listening. ■ Provide opportunities that challenge students to carefully consider their choices when speaking and listening.
CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING
CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING ■ Provide opportunities that challenge students to carefully consider their choices when speaking and listening.
■ Provide opportunities for students to reflect upon the way in which they interact with particular audiences.
■ Teach students to make appropriate choices when speaking and listening to suit the context, e.g. style, content, ■ Teach students to reflect upon the way in which they interact with particular audiences.
■ Support students to design their own speaking and listening opportunities.
dialect, text form. ■ Teach students to consider the needs and background knowledge of their audience when selecting suitable content
■ Provide support for students to contribute to discussions about matters of social interest or concern.
■ Teach students to reflect upon the way in which they interact with particular audiences. ■ Support students to take responsibility for developing critical awareness of spoken language.
for spoken texts.
■ Teach students to consider the needs and background knowledge of their audience when selecting suitable content ■ Provide opportunities for students to analyse a range of spoken texts.
■ Provide support for students to contribute to matters of social interest or concern.
for spoken texts. ■ Provide opportunities for students to reflect upon and refine their use of speaking and listening devices.
■ Teach students to extend their critical analysis to include complex themes and issues.
■ Provide support for students to contribute to discussions about matters of personal and social interest.
■ Teach students to reflect upon the way in which they interact with their audience. CONVENTIONS
■ Teach students to analyse the different ways in which values and beliefs can be represented in spoken texts.
■ Teach students to select and manipulate devices to suit a particular context. ■ Support students in taking responsibility for extending and developing their vocabulary.
■ Provide opportunities for students to justify their selection of spoken texts for different audiences.
■ Support students to compose spoken texts to meet the needs of a variety of audiences, e.g. formal presentations.
■ Teach students to select devices to influence a particular audience, e.g. irony, humour, counter-argue, rebuke and respond CONVENTIONS
■ Encourage students to select speaking and listening behaviours that convey meaning and intentions with clarity.
to others’ comments. ■ Support students to take responsibility for expanding, refining and using new vocabulary.
■ Involve students in a variety of situations that require sophisticated manipulation of conventions, e.g. job interviews,
■ Provide opportunities for students to compose complex spoken texts for known and unknown audiences.
CONVENTIONS giving impromptu speeches.
■ Teach skills needed to sustain and facilitate communication in unplanned and planned situations, e.g. to interrupt,
■ Provide opportunities for students to develop, use and refine vocabulary. PROCESSES AND STRATEGIES
intervene, recap or redirect.
■ Teach structures and features to compose spoken texts for informal and formal contexts, e.g. how to greet unfamiliar
■ Teach skills needed to respond appropriately to the intellectual and emotional demands of different situations. ■ Provide opportunities for students to compose spoken texts to meet the needs of a variety of audiences, e.g. formal
adults, how to open and close a conversation, how to plan and present a formal speech. presentations.
■ Teach speaking and listening behaviours that facilitate communication (in unplanned and planned situations), PROCESSES AND STRATEGIES ■ Encourage students to take responsibility for choosing processes and strategies to compose a variety of spoken texts.
e.g. how to build on the ideas of others, effective use of body language. ■ Teach students to select appropriate thinking strategies to explore complex concepts and ideas. ■ Support students in taking responsibility for interacting responsively in a variety of situations.
■ Continue to teach students the skills needed to communicate with others with critical awareness. ■ Provide opportunities for students to engage in sustained conversations and discussions. ■ Support students in taking responsibility for adjusting communication in a range of contexts.
■ Provide opportunities for students to adapt a range of processes and strategies to compose complex and challenging
PROCESSES AND STRATEGIES
■ Teach students to plan and monitor their use of thinking strategies when speaking and listening, e.g. determine texts.
importance, compare information. ■ Provide opportunities for students to interact responsively in contexts where they are required to facilitate discussion.

■ Provide opportunities for students to engage in sustained conversations and discussions. ■ Provide opportunities for students to identify and use prompts that anticipate and manage likely disagreements. In this document:
■ Provide opportunities for students to choose appropriate processes and strategies, e.g. analyse the requirements of Spoken texts include face-to-face, face-to-electronic/machine (film, radio, DVD, TV, CD-ROM, PA system, telephone, etc.)
Spoken language refers to verbal and non-verbal communication.
the task. Functional texts include everyday, literary and informational.
■ Teach students to select tools for listening, e.g. use graphic organisers to synthesise information from several texts. Context refers to a combination of factors including purpose, audience and situation.
■ Teach students to anticipate and address possible points of miscommunication.

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 CHAPTER 1

About Speaking and

Listening
This chapter focuses on what is important about the teaching and
learning of speaking and listening. It outlines the basis of the First
Steps Speaking and Listening Map of Development and the First Steps
Speaking and Listening Resource Book (2nd Edition). The Speaking
and Listening Map of Development (formerly known as the Oral
Language Developmental Continuum) is designed to help teachers
map their students’ progress; it offers suggestions for teaching and
learning experiences that will assist with further development in
speaking and listening.

In the First Steps resource, each strand of Reading, Writing, Viewing

and Speaking and Listening is broken down into smaller categories
that are referred to throughout as aspects. The following table
summarises how these aspects combine to capture the nature of
speaking and listening.

Aspect Speaking and Listening is …

Use of Texts: what students do • composing and interpreting meaning from a
with texts to convey and interpret wide range of everyday, literary, technical or
meaning. mass media texts.

Contextual Understanding: • a social practice used to accomplish a wide range

• How the context affects the of purposes across a wide range of cultural and
choice of language and the mode, situational contexts.
medium and format used. • the awareness of a person’s purposes, interests
• How the context affects the and biases when interpreting, responding to or
interpretation of text. composing spoken texts.

Conventions: structures and features • the language patterns, vocabulary and

of texts. behaviours that are chosen with understanding
and critical awareness to compose and interpret
spoken language.

Processes and Strategies: how students • the thinking, planning and reflecting used to
read, write, speak and listen and view. compose and interpret spoken texts.

Figure 1.1 The four aspects of speaking and listening

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 About Speaking and Listening

Understanding the Role of Speaking

and Listening
Speaking and listening is central to the lives of all people. It is
the means through which we communicate feelings, thoughts and
experiences. It is also an integral part of thinking and learning.

Children learn the skills of speaking and listening as they participate

as active members of a society through interactions with family
members and members of the wider community. When children
enter educational settings, their experiences of language will be
diverse. Effective instruction recognises, accepts and values the
existing language competence of students, including their use
of non-standard forms of English. In all phases of development,
students are encouraged to value and respect their home language
while developing a critical understanding and effective use of the
conventions of Standard Australian English. The development of
this knowledge enables students to choose appropriate language to
function successfully in society in a variety of contexts.

About Speaking — Unplanned and Planned Speaking

Students speak to interact socially, to develop self-awareness and
to explore ideas. Speaking underpins learning in all areas of the
curriculum. Teachers can assist students to understand the way
language works by developing the processes and strategies they
need to successfully participate in a wide range of social interactions,
classroom discussions and learning experiences.

Speaking is usually immediate and spontaneous yet speakers also

think and reflect as they speak. The dynamic, interactive nature of
unplanned spontaneous speaking is not only vital for the building
of interpersonal relationships but also promotes inquiry and the
exchange of ideas. Speaking that is more formal may be planned
and deliberately constructed for different communicative situations.
This type of speaking may be more reflective in nature, drawing
together the ideas that have been previously developed. Teachers
provide opportunities for both unplanned and planned speaking to
support learning in a variety of situations.

Figure 1.2 outlines some of the differences between planned and

unplanned speaking. Figure 1.3a and 1.3b are examples of planned
and unplanned speaking. The transcripts are recorded conversations
between an older child and a younger child who regularly visit each
other’s class as part of a buddy class arrangement.

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 Understanding the Role of Speaking and Listening

Unplanned Speaking … Planned Speaking …

– may be spontaneous and rapid as the – is measured. Deliberate planning is done
speaker is thinking on the spot. prior to speaking.

– can involve spontaneously using – uses previously chosen and rehearsed devices.
voice, pitch, rhythm, stress and body
to assist communication as needed.

– can be hesitant, often punctuated – is concerned with precision. Words can be

with fillers such as umm and er. chosen for economy or can be elaborated on
depending on the needs of the audience.

– may be repetitive. – uses repetition deliberately to illustrate a point.

– is often disjointed and may contain – aims for fluent speech using full sentences.
false starts and incomplete sentences.

– contains the use of short, simple – is delivered using longer sentences with
clauses often connected by the more complex and descriptive language.
conjunctions and and but.

– can be to an immediate audience – can be presented with some distance between

who may interrupt, question, speaker and audience. Turn-taking is clear
comment and overlap. and questions are called for.

– is often interactive. The speaker – is researched or negotiated to determine what

judges an audience’s reaction the audience needs to know prior to planning.
spontaneously and makes The onus is on the speaker to clearly
adjustments or decides whether to construct meaning.
continue. Meaning is often jointly
constructed.

Figure 1.2 Some of the differences between planned and unplanned speaking

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 About Speaking and Listening

Planned Speaking
(Elizabeth tells Joshua what she learnt about a guest visitor to her class
from the post office. She has already rehearsed this recount earlier in the day
with a classmate.)

Elizabeth: Today, someone from the post office came in. Her name was Glenda. She was Miss Lyons’ mum,
and she, and she thought her job was good, she gets about ten thousand money in a day, in a
day, and, and she had lots of things to show … her. We got two stamps, one is a phone stamp
and the other stamp was a lick-on stamp, and when I licked it, when it went down, the lick
taste went down my throat, it was very yucky. They had bags bigger than me and that’s what I
learned at, learned today. Miss Lyons even got a phone stamp and I was the only person who
thought it was a phone. Thank you for listening.
Joshua: What were some of the interesting things you saw?
Elizabeth: We saw a Sir Donald, Sir Donald Bradman coin.
Joshua: Yeah?
Elizabeth: There’s two types of Sir Donald’s Bradman’s ones. She didn’t tell us about this one but we
already know that, it’s one we’ve got, you know that it’s a twenty cent Sir Donald Bradman
one, and so it is this one and this is what I’ll describe. The Sir Donald Bradman one looks like
the one in the thing … It had gold in the middle with Sir Donald Bradman on it, and silver
round the outside that said twenty cents on it. And we saw nice shiny tiny two cents and one
cents. There’s two packets of those.

Figure 1.3a A transcript of planned speaking

Unplanned Speaking
(Overlapping is occurring.)

Elizabeth: I wanna talk about frogs.

Joshua: Why do you wanna talk about frogs?
Elizabeth: You wanna talk about them, then?
Joshua: I don’t care.
Elizabeth: Yeah, we’ll talk about frogs. What do you know about frogs?
Joshua: What?
Elizabeth: What do you know about frogs?
Joshua: That they’re amphibians.
Elizabeth: I know that they are frogs. I know they can breathe through their skin and lungs.
Joshua: Can they? I didn’t know that!
Elizabeth: Yeah, that they are amphibians, that’s all I know. Oh yeah, and that they jump for bugs and
flies and stuff.
Joshua: I know that they can be lots of colours and they can poison us.
Elizabeth: And they can fly.
Joshua: They can fly?
Elizabeth: Some of them can fly.
Joshua: Frogs can’t fly.
Elizabeth: They jump pretty high, but sometimes they jump, too, a bit too high so they fly.
Joshua: Is the … That’s because they’re webbed, like their feet are webbed so they like kind of glide.

Figure 1.3b A transcript of unplanned speaking

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 Understanding the Role of Speaking and Listening

About Listening
Listening is more than hearing; it is an interactive process obtaining
information, for pleasure and for building relationships. Sensitive
teachers will be aware of the differences that may exist across
and within cultures. For example, in English-speaking societies,
we depend on particular listening behaviours such as eye contact,
nodding and saying ‘Mmm’ to indicate that speech is understood.
However, these behaviours may not be appropriate in other cultures
and some students may feel uncomfortable or excluded when these
behaviours are expected of them. Teachers can assist by explicitly
teaching the processes and strategies needed to communicate
effectively in a range of contexts.

Listening situations also vary as do the types of listening skills

required as represented in Figure 1.4. (Nunan 1990, as quoted in
Gibbons 2002). Listening occurs in four types of contexts.

Types of Listening
Two-way

Quadrant A Quadrant C
Taking part in: Taking part in:
– a conversation at a party – a job interview
– a conversation at a bus stop – a conversation involving
about the weather the giving of directions or
– a chatty phone call to a friend instructions
interpersonal – a phone inquiry about information-
buying a computer
topics based topics
Quadrant B Quadrant D
Listening to: Listening to:
– someone recounting a – the radio or TV news
personal anecdote – a lecture
– someone telling a story – phone information
– someone telling a joke (e.g. a recorded timetable,
or instructions for paying
a bill)

One-way
Figure 1.4 Types of Listening (Nunan 1990, cited in Gibbons 2002)

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 About Speaking and Listening

These include situations where the listener is not required to

respond verbally (such as listening to a performance or a radio
program). Other situations may involve two or more people
who take on roles as the speaker and listener in turn or in an
overlapping style (such as in a conversation). Listening also varies
in intensity. Some listening can be of a relatively superficial nature,
as the listener attends only to the content (such as listening for
entertainment). Other listening requires total attention (such as
listening for key information, to critically analyse an argument or
listening to identify emotions behind the words). These behaviours
can be explicitly taught so that students are able to confidently
recognise situations where their listening may need to be adjusted.

I don’t wriggle about and I stay still at school, but I still wriggle
about at home — I can still listen — ’cos my teacher says to stay
still but you could still wriggle and listen. I can still hear when
I wriggle but some people can’t. They just find little bits of
squiggly wire and play with it; it’s strange!
(from a seven-year-old student)

Figure 1.5 A young student’s interpretation of the differences between

listening at home and listening at school

A Dynamic Interactive Model of Speaking

and Listening
The First Steps Speaking and Listening model reflects the dynamic,
interactive and complex nature of spoken language. At the centre
of the model is speaking and listening. As speaking and listening is
dependent on the context in which it is embedded, students need to
be taught about situational and socio-cultural contexts. That is the
purpose of the speaking and listening, the audience involved and
the situation in which the speaking and listening is taking place.

The model should be seen as a dynamic process whereby speakers

and listeners interact to make meaning. During this process, speakers
and listeners make choices about how they will speak and listen to
suit particular contexts. These choices are made from a developing
repertoire of understandings and skills across the four aspects of
Use of Texts, Contextual Understanding, Conventions and Processes
and Strategies. While the elements of the model are described
individually in this book, it is important that the four aspects are
viewed as interactive and interconnected.

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 A Dynamic Interactive Model of Speaking and Listening

Context influences speaking

and listening:
• Behaviours

Co der
U
s
Fami

xt

n
nt ta
• Content l
Dialo iar/U

Te

ex nd
gic/ n

of

s
tu in
• Text type Mo fam

al g
se
no i

U
• Style lo

lia ue
Au
die

r
g
nc
e

Functions
(Halliday)

Purpose
Speaking
Students need to develop
and
a repertoire of: Listening
• Texts &
al
• Understandings about i on ural

d
t lt
ua

an lic
ne
Sit io-cu

np ub
context So
c /

P
te

l
a

gi &
• Conventions v
Pri ed/U

te es
Co

es
ra ss
nn
nv

• Processes and strategies to

St ce
Pla
en

o
Pr
t

communicate effectively for

io
ns

a full range of functions in a

range of contexts.

Figure 1.6 The Dynamic Interactive Model of Speaking and Listening

Context
In the Speaking and Listening model (see Figure 1.6), the context
refers to the combination of factors that include audience, situation
and purpose. These factors influence the level of formality, the text
types used, the amount of detail included, the topic and the speaking
and listening behaviours. As Green and Campbell point out:
We need to think of language not as a set of cognitive skills
that we either have or do not have, but as forms of behaviour
that always take place in social and cultural contexts.
(Green and Campbell 2003)

As so many factors influence context, students must learn to select

and adjust their speaking and listening in response to the demands
of different contexts. Each speaking and listening context is dynamic
in the sense that it can alter as soon as one of the factors (audience,
situation and purpose) changes. For example, a conversation about
a family event between two friends is likely to change if another
person joins the group. The relationships between the people will
determine what happens to the original conversation after the
initial greetings and the establishment of the new context.

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 About Speaking and Listening

Audience Situation Purpose

Who is in the interaction? Where and how does the Why does the interaction
• Familiar (known) to the interaction take place? take place?
unfamiliar (unknown) • Physical (e.g. indoors, outdoors, • Social
• Gender, age classroom, community) • Learning
• Cultural groupings • Proximity, e.g. close to distant • Functional
• Social groupings • Cultural setting • Cultural
• Proximity of relationships, • Social setting
e.g. close to distant

Figure 1.7 Audience, Situation, Purpose

Audience
The type of audience also has an impact on the context of a
speaking and listening situation. Factors to consider might be:
• Background knowledge of the audience: Is there a shared
understanding of culture, topic and experience?
• The relationship between participants: Do the participants
know each other? Is the relationship private or professional?
• Expectations of the audience: Is the audience a peer or a person in
authority? Is the audience expected to respond and interact (dialogue)
or are they expected to listen without interruption (monologue)?
• The emotional status of the participants: Do the participants share
common interests? Are participants nervous, anxious or reluctant
to contribute?

Audiences range from familiar (known) people to unfamiliar

(unknown) people. Interactions also range from dialogic to monologic.

A dialogue is very interactive with participants having more or less

equal input into the dialogue. Meaning in a dialogue is co-constructed
as participants pass verbal and non-verbal messages to each other.
Most of the spoken language in our lives is dialogic, where the
audience plays a significant role in the construction of meaning.

Verbal Verbal

Interacting
Speaker • Asking questions Speaker
and • Summarising and
Listener • Negotiating meaning Listener
• Building on ideas

Non-verbal Non-verbal

Figure 1.8 Dialogic spoken language

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 A Dynamic Interactive Model of Speaking and Listening

A monologue is less interactive as only one participant speaks while

the other participant listens and constructs their own meaning.
Monologues are rarely used in everyday lives and so require
different planning and presentation.

Verbal Verbal
Expressing
Speaker Speaker
and and
Listener Listener
Receiving
Non-verbal Non-verbal

Fig 1.9 Monologic spoken language

Situational Context
Where and how a speaking and listening interaction takes place
will influence what is communicated and its delivery. The formality
of a situation will also depend on the purpose and the audience.
Situations may be planned or unplanned. For example, small group
work will involve unplanned speaking as students initially explore
an idea or a problem. Later they may plan to present this information
to another group. This sharing could be informal within the classroom,
or formal if presented at an assembly. Speaking and listening could
also change if a student was sharing the same information with a
peer privately as opposed to sharing the information publicly.

Socio-cultural Context
Students need to understand how their speaking and listening is
shaped by their socio-cultural background. Teachers will provide
opportunities for students to analyse spoken texts to understand
how particular word choices can position people in both positive
and negative ways.

Purpose
The purpose of an interaction will influence what and how
information is exchanged. The purpose relates to the intention of
both the speaker and the listener. It can alter during an interaction
so different language functions may be involved in one interaction.
For example, during a social conversation, clarification about some
content could be sought. The speaker could then provide the
information required thus switching purposes from catching up
with a friend to informing a friend.

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 About Speaking and Listening

The functions of language, as described in Figure 1.11 (Halliday),

provide an effective framework for considering purpose in the
classroom. Figure 1.11 provides some examples of what speakers
and listeners learn to do for different purposes or functions.

The Four Aspects

The four aspects are represented in the outer circle of the model
(see Figure 1.6). They all work together in an integrated way.
Learning and teaching programs support students in developing a
repertoire of skills and understandings across all four aspects so that
they are able to make choices to communicate effectively in a range
of contexts.

Supporting Speaking and Listening

Development — Developing a Repertoire
The First Steps Speaking and Listening Map of Development supports
teachers in ensuring that students develop the knowledge, skills
and attitudes to communicate for a range of purposes in varied
situations and with different audiences. It focuses on supporting
students’ development in Speaking and Listening through the four
aspects of Use of Texts, Contextual Understanding, Conventions and
Processes and Strategies.

This resource also draws on Halliday’s model of the functions

of language (1975). This model supports the development of a
repertoire of speaking and listening skills to make meaning within
a range of social and cultural contexts. Teachers may use the model
in order to ascertain what students already know and which aspects
need further development.

Teachable Moments
There are many teachable moments that occur within authentic
spoken language situations within the school environment. Routine
activities that occur on a daily basis require particular ways of
speaking and listening that can be taught to students for example,
when students in the classroom are packing away, they learn how to
ask someone to help, or to inquire about the location of an object.

Collaborative situations also provide many teachable moments. For

example, students learn how to negotiate when solving a problem
by clarifying the problem, articulating alternative plans, telling others
what they think and how they feel, asking questions and prioritising.
These kinds of skills become part of the students’ repertoire to be
used to suit particular contexts. Students also need to participate in
monologic, planned, formal speaking and listening opportunities.
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 Supporting Speaking and Listening Development — Developing a Repertoire

The First Steps Speaking and Listening Map of Development suggests

that teachers create conditions to observe and interact with students.
These conditions will result in teachers being able to seize ‘teachable
moments’ where new skills or understandings can be explained.
The process for teaching new skills is influenced by the Gradual
Release of Responsibility Model (Pearson and Gallagher 1983). This
model guides teachers in modelling a new skill, involving students in
sharing and guiding activities in preparation for the new skill to be
applied independently.

In the following table, a teachable moment is demonstrated to show

the way in which each Teaching and Learning Practice can be used
for speaking and listening. In the example, students are expected to
find their own groups for an informal discussion.

Modelling Sharing Guiding Applying

The teacher The teacher provides The teacher scaffolds The teacher offers
Role of the teacher

demonstrates the the direction and help and provides support and
processes used by invites the students support and encouragement as
thinking aloud. to contribute. corrective feedback. necessary.
I’m having a bit of If I’m having a bit Has this happened to Are you happy with
trouble joining in … of trouble joining you before? the way you joined the
I wonder what would in…what should I say Remember when we group today? Why do
happen if I just went and do? Do you think I talked about ways to you think it worked for
and sat there. What should ask or should I join a group. Which you?
would I do if someone just go and sit there? strategy are you going
Students interact
just came and sat in my How would I ask? to try? Did that work
independently.
group without saying Would I ask before I sat last time for you?
They are in control
anything? I would feel down in the group?
Students do the of the conventions
a little uncomfortable I
Students speaking and (e.g. turn-taking)
think. Perhaps I should
contribute ideas listening with help and content.
Role of the students

say something I think I

and information. from the teacher
might say “Can I join
Decision-making is or other sources
your discussion group?”
negotiated between at predetermined
and see what happens.
teacher and student. points.
Students participate by
actively attending to
the demonstrations.

Figure 1.10 An example of the teaching and learning process using the
Gradual Release of Responsibility Model

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 About Speaking and Listening

A Functional Approach
The First Steps Speaking and Listening Map of Development is based on
Halliday’s functions of language to identify the different purposes of
language use. It is important for students to have the opportunity to
develop and use these functions at school. This will support further
development of the repertoire of practices which students can draw
upon in new contexts. Each function relates to the different ways
language is used in different contexts in the community, school
and home.

People communicate for … Speakers learn to … Listeners learn to …

Getting things done Ask Request Help Find things

(Instrumental) Refer Facilitate Provide Justify
Persuade Explain Do things asked

Influencing the behaviour, Set tasks Manage Follow instructions Extend interaction
feelings or attitudes of Help Organise Follow rules Ask questions
others Instruct Negotiate Use facial expression Compliment
(Regulatory) Direct Persuade Follow agreements

Getting along with others Initiate Arbitrate Analyse points of Restate suggestions
(Interactional) Sympathise Reconcile view Empathise
Argue Direct Ask Encourage
Repair Repair/recast Accept

Expressing individuality State opinions Express thoughts Hear points of view Evaluate
and personal feelings Recount Confront Redirect Reflect
(Personal) experiences Explain Judge Recognise
State feelings Predict Assess

Seeking and learning Interrogate Discuss Answer questions Apply knowledge

about the social and Ask questions Clarify Summarise Connect/relate
physical environment Prioritise Investigate Remember/recognise
(Heuristic)

Creating stories, games, Tell stories Anticipate Respond Anticipate

new worlds and new texts Think of new ideas Predict Imagine Predict
(Imaginative) Imagine Play Join in
Experiment

Communicating Tell Impart knowledge Receive knowledge Relate

information State facts Lecture Ask Recognise
(Representational) Comment Share skills Clarify Analyse
Inform Share history Sort Extract
Refer

Entertaining others Divert/initiate Play with words/ Give attention Evaluate

Perform actions Take turns Consider feelings
(Diversionary)
Recite Make people laugh Anticipate Use body language
Seek attention

Figure 1.11 Based on Halliday’s ‘Functions of Language’, adapted from Anstey

& Bull 2004

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 Supporting Speaking and Listening Development — Developing a Repertoire

Teachers may use the list of functions in Figure 1.11 to assess the
speaking and listening skills of students and ask questions such as:
• What can students already do? What functions can they use already?
• What speaking and listening skills do they have for? (e.g. getting
along with others)
• What speaking and listening skills do they need for?
(e.g. persuading others)

When planning to address identified needs, teachers will find support

for suitable learning experiences in each phase chapter of this book.

Teachers may also find it useful to involve their students in

investigating the different ways in which language is used in their
local communities. Students could then identify areas of interest for
further inquiry.

Considering Diversity
It is important that students’ home language is recognised and valued.
The spoken language that students use in their home environment
is an essential part of their self-identity and it is important that
students understand that the spoken language they learn at school
is in addition to the speaking and listening behaviours and skills
they already know. Students also need to develop their knowledge
and competence in Standard Australian English so they can speak
and listen effectively in a range of contexts.

For further information on diversity, refer to Chapter 4 in First Steps

Linking Assessment, Teaching and Learning book.

The Difference Between Spoken and

Written Language
This First Steps Speaking and Listening Map of Development aims to
support the development of students’ communicative competence
for academic and social purposes. It is important to acknowledge the
complex nature of speaking and listening and the associated skills
required. Students are often judged on their ability to prepare and
perform planned speaking but this type of speech is not typically
used in everyday social, academic and community life. When
planning to provide support for students, it may be useful for
teachers to consider the differences between written and spoken
language.

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 About Speaking and Listening

Speakers … Writers …
• point or refer to things in their environment. • cannot assume a shared environment with their readers.
• expect encouragement and cooperation from • have to create and sustain their own belief in what they
listeners to produce conversation. Meaning is often are doing.
co-constructed by the participants.
• use gestures, body language and facial expressions to • are removed from the time and place they are describing.
assist meaning (kinaesthetic qualities).
• use intonation, stress, volume and pace to help • use graphic cues such as punctuation, paragraphing, bold
make their meaning clear (paralinguistic features). print and diagrams to help make their meaning clear.
• rephrase or repeat when they think their message • take time to think and rethink as they write, often revising
is not clear. and editing their work.
• know their hesitations will be heard by, and are • know that the reader will not see any rephrasing and
accepted by the listener. alteration they make to the text in the process of writing.
• do not use sentence or word boundaries. • organise language into words, sentences and paragraphs.
These are not natural but are imposed by the written
language system being used.
• know that the context of speech influences its flow, • organise language so it flows smoothly.
e.g. conversations with turn taking, interruption and
feedback versus lecturing.
• use more imperatives, questions, exclamations, active • construct texts that are more dense by using more content
rather than passive verbs. words (nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs).

Figure 1.12 The differences between spoken and written language

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 CHAPTER 2

Understanding the
Speaking and Listening
Map of Development
The Speaking and Listening Map of Development contains behaviours,
suggested teaching emphases, and a range of teaching and learning
experiences for each phase of development. It validates what
teachers know about their students. The organisation of the map
assists teachers to link teaching and learning with assessment.

Although in practice, literacy integrates the four strands of Speaking

and Listening, Writing, Reading, and Viewing, individual maps are
necessary to represent the complexity of each strand. Breaking each
strand into aspects provides further opportunity for more specialised
analysis.

The organisation of the Speaking and Listening Map of Development

into the four aspects of Use of Texts, Contextual Understanding,
Conventions and Processes and Strategies provides a practical
framework for looking at assessment, teaching and learning, and
reflects current beliefs about how Speaking and Listening is defined.
The features of the map help teachers to make informed, strategic
decisions about how to support students’ literacy development.

How the Map Is Organised

There are seven phases in the
Speaking and Listening Map
of Development:
• Beginning
• Early
• Exploratory
• Consolidating
• Conventional
• Proficient
• Advanced
Figure 2.1

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 Understanding the Speaking and Listening Map of Development

The same organisational framework is used for each phase.

CHAPTER 6
PHASE NAME
The Phase Name is a
description of a speaker Exploratory Speaking
and listener in that phase.
and Listening Phase
Unplanned Planned

Jainika: I wonder what is inside. Can you find out without

opening it up?
(overlapping)
Emma: We … ll, I think in this one … there’s … (rattling)
... Smarties. ‘My Get Up And Talk is about how to make a musical
Jainika: I think in this one … there’s nothink [sic]. instrument …
Emma: and I think in this one … (rattling) Today I’m going to show you how to make a musical instrument
Jainika: Oh, might be ... and how to make its sound. And then … you will learn how
Emma: A marble.
GLOBAL STATEMENT Jainika: Yeah, a marble.
Emma: Do you agree?
different sounds are made. First you will need scissors, a ruler ...
a pen and six straws.
With the straws you need to get 9 cm. Get a ruler and measure
Jainika: Yep, I agree. it 9 cms long, and then 8 then 8 … 8 cm … then 7 then 6 then 5
The Global Statement: Emma: Do you think we should open them?
Jainika: Um, I don’t think we … are we allowed to?
with the straws up to 4. Then you need to … um … get some card
... get card … and cut it with them … um … 11 cms long and 2 cms
Emma: Well, let’s just see if we were right. wide. Then you turn it like this … the card … then you get some
• describes the typical Jainika: Um, well … what do you think is in here? We have
to wonder.
tape and put it and get the straws and put the straws on the tape
1cm apart each time … four. And then after that you stick it on
Emma: Maybe it’s some cotton wool. the card and, you use modelling clay or Plasticine … I’ve got some
structure of the Jainika: Nah, I think … it is a little ... Oh, it’s … a …
Oh, I know, it’s a dice and a popstick.
Plasticine. And you put the Plasticine on the bottom of the straw so
… um … if it doesn’t, if it’s not put all on and … um … if there’s
Emma: Well, I wonder if we’re right. air coming out it will go like this (blows through straw to demonstrate)
language used by Jainika: I wonder if we’re right.
Teacher: So do you think you have worked it out?
and won’t make any sound and this is how and the sound goes …
your air goes into the straw and it vibrates. And if you have longer
What do you think is in them? and wider straws … um … you will make louder noises and this is
students in that phase. Jainika: We think there’s in ...
Emma: Smarties!
how you play it. (demonstrates by blowing straws) Hang on … I’m not
very good at it but.’
Jainika: Smarties, … in here, there’s nothing. (sound of children clapping)
• reflects students’ Emma: And in here, there’s marbles.

Figure 6.1 Figure 6.2

awareness of audience.
• describes ways in Global Statement
which students In this phase, students use Standard Australian English effectively within
familiar contexts. They communicate appropriately in both structured and
improve, plan or refine unstructured situations. They explore ways of using language for different

their speaking and speaking and listening purposes.

listening. 132

Figure 2.2 The Exploratory Phase Name

and Global Statement

INDICATORS Exploratory Speaking and Listening Indicators

Indicators:
• are organised under Exploratory Speaking and Listening
the aspect headings: Indicators
– Use of Texts Use of Texts Conventions
– Contextual U Listens effectively for a range of familiar
purposes.
U Experiments with vocabulary drawn from
a variety of sources e.g. literature, media,
Understanding U Uses a range of unplanned spoken texts
with connected ideas.
learning area.
U Experiments with more complex
U Presents simple spoken texts using basic
– Conventions text structures in logical sequence, e.g.
structures and features to express spoken
ideas and information, e.g. provide some
description, instruction, recount. supporting details.
– Processes and U Obtains specific information from short
informational and expressive spoken texts.
U Responds to spoken language using
common school conventions, e.g. takes turns
Strategies • Presents relevant information on a known topic
to group or class.
in a conversation.
U Experiments with different speaking
• describe speaking and • Explains familiar procedures or gives simple
instructions to peers showing awareness of the
and listening behaviours, e.g. proximity, eye
contact, volume, listens for specific information
steps required, e.g. tell a new classmate where when given instructions.
listening behaviours. things are. • Attempts to adopt appropriate tone of voice and
intonation to convey meaning.
Key Indicators: Contextual Understanding • Sometimes uses similes to make speech more
effective when explaining or describing, e.g. ‘It
U Tries different ways of adjusting speaking
• signify a conceptual and listening, e.g. tone and pace.
U Provides some background information
was just like …’

leap in critical and supporting ideas for listener, e.g. facts Processes and Strategies
and personal reasons. U Explores thinking strategies with others.
understandings. U Understands that people have different
ideas.
U Experiments with a small range of
processes and strategies when speaking,
U Talks about different audiences and e.g. uses rehearsed phrases.
• describe behaviours purposes for own talk.
U Experiments with a small range of devices
U Experiments with a small range of
processes and strategies when listening,
that are typical of a to enhance meaning of spoken texts, e.g.
volume, simile, rhyme, common sayings.
e.g. draws a picture.
• Attends to the responses of others and reviews
phase. • Recognises the differences between home
language and school language.
or elaborates on what has been said, e.g.
answers questions from listeners, repeats ideas.
• Is aware that speakers can switch codes/dialects. • Follows conventions and procedures for class
Other Indicators: • Varies speaking and listening for familiar activities, e.g. taking turns, asking questions.
situations. • Experiments with planning for spoken
• describe behaviours • Provides reasons for why people talk. descriptions, recounts and reports, e.g. identifies
the main ideas or information to be presented.
that provide further • Experiments with strategies to monitor
communication and responds accordingly, e.g.
self-corrects to clarify meaning.
details of the phase.

133

Figure 2.3 The Exploratory Speaking and

Listening Indicators

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 How the Map Is Organised

MAJOR TEACHING Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase

EMPHASES (MTEs)
Major Teaching
Major Teaching Emphases
Environment and Attitude N Provide support for students to contribute
Emphases: (see p. 135)
N Provide opportunities for relevant,
to discussions about matters that interest
or affect them.
challenging and purposeful
• are organised under communication.
N Create a supportive environment which
N Teach students to recognise different
points of view when analysing different
spoken texts.
the aspect headings: values the diversity of students’ speaking
and listening development (in their home
N Provide opportunities for students to
express their opinions on a range of
languages).
– Environment and N Encourage students to see the value
of effective listening and speaking for
familiar topics.
N Model and support students to use devices
to enhance meaning, e.g. using appropriate
Attitude community, school and family life. expression, providing the appropriate level of detail.

Use of Texts (see p. 140) Conventions

– Use of Texts N Expose students to a range of functional
(see p. 162)
N Provide opportunities for students to
spoken texts composed in Standard
– Contextual Australian English.
N Provide opportunities for students to
develop, refine and use new vocabulary.
N Teach structures and features that
help students extend and sustain
Understanding participate in authentic unplanned and
planned speaking and listening.
communication, e.g. using text connectives
and conjunctions to indicate cause and effect,
N Provide opportunities for students to maintaining the topic, taking turns.
– Conventions participate in extended talk.
N Teach students how to plan and compose
N Teach speaking and listening behaviours
that support meaning making, e.g. body
spoken texts using text features to
– Processes and enhance meaning, e.g. recount includes
introduction and events in time order.
language, facial expressions, building on other’s
ideas.
N Teach conversational skills, e.g. turn taking
Strategies N Teach students how to identify relevant
information about new and familiar topics.
confirmation, clarification.
N Teach skills of listening and responding
N Teach students the metalanguage
• are suggestions of associated with speaking and listening and
encourage its use, e.g. communicate, spoken
in whole-class, partner and small-group
discussions, e.g. how to disagree agreeably.

appropriate priorities text, audience, Standard Australian English, verbal,

non-verbal, mental picture. Processes and Strategies (see p. 174)
N Discuss and reflect on the use of thinking
for teaching at each Contextual Understanding (see p. 151) to make meaning in speaking and listening.
N Provide opportunities for students to
N Discuss ways in which speaking and
phase. listening can be adjusted for different
purposes, e.g. socialising, providing information
engage in sustained conversations, e.g. with
peers, teachers and known adults.
N Teach a range of planning tools for
• are designed to help in a classroom context, talking in the playground.
N Continue to provide effective feedback to
speaking, e.g. how to share ideas.
N Teach planning tools that focus listening
students who are adjusting their speaking
teachers support and and listening, e.g. changing volume, amount of
detail, code-switching/code-mixing.
on before, during and after activities,
e.g. identify key ideas, record ideas in a graphic
organiser.
challenge students’ N Teach students to include relevant
information to develop content and ideas
N Model responses to miscommunication,
e.g. how to stop, rephrase and repeat, check
when speaking.
current understandings. comprehension.

134

Figure 2.4 The Exploratory Speaking

and Listening Major Teaching Emphasis

Teaching and Learning Experiences: Environment and Attitude

TEACHING AND LEARNING
EXPERIENCES Teaching and Learning
• Teaching and Learning Experiences
Experiences are
ENVIRONMENT AND ATTITUDE
organised under Major Teaching Emphases
the following aspect N Provide opportunities for relevant, challenging and
headings: purposeful communication.

N Create a supportive environment which values the diversity

– Environment and of students’ speaking and listening development (in their Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts
home language).
Attitude )NVOLVING3TUDENTS
N Encourage students to see the value of effective speaking
– Use of Texts and listening for community, school and family life. 1 Listen to Learn

– Contextual Teaching Notes

Listen to Learn is a cross-curriculum activity that helps students to
use listening as a tool for learning as they recall and record what

Understanding A classroom community that nurtures students in the Exploratory

they heard in their own way. It helps them to reshape, refine and
construct their own understandings in a range of ways including
phase is one that promotes experimentation with different kinds of
– Conventions speaking and listening. Emphasis is placed on providing students
talking, painting, making a model, making a PowerPoint presentation
or video, acting out or writing. Students can participate in planned
– Processes and with a range of purposes for speaking and listening across all learning
areas, and in experiencing different organisational arrangements
listening and connect with their existing knowledge of common
topics. The focus for listening and amount of detail will vary
Strategies such as partner work or small-group work. Teachers can support
students by helping them to develop strategies to use when speaking
depending on the audience. If the student decides to represent his
or her learning by talking, then the activity also allows students
• Each aspect is divided and listening in different contexts. to participate in extended talk and to choose appropriate text
structures and features to suit a particular audience.
The focus for developing positive attitudes towards speaking and
into two sections: listening are organised under the following headings:
• Model this task first.
• Select from a range of spoken texts including read-aloud books,
• Creating a Supportive Classroom Environment
Teaching Notes and • Opportunities for Relevant, Challenging and Purposeful
TV programs, videos, DVDs or audio tapes. The text could be
literary such as a poem or story or informational such as a simple
Involving Students. Communication
• Speaking and Listening for Community, School and Family Life
report or a procedure.
• Prepare the spoken text for the class. It can be presented in small
– Teaching Notes Creating a Supportive Classroom Environment groups, one-on-one or to the whole class.
• Ask students to think of questions about the spoken texts,
unpack the intent of Teachers can provide a supportive classroom environment by
considering both physical and cultural elements. Students will feel focusing on the main messages in the text, e.g. What was the
main problem in the story? What were the important steps in the
the Major Teaching comfortable in exploring spoken language in an environment that
values their existing strengths and interests. It is important that instructions to make a glider? What words were used to try to
persuade us?
Emphases. students in the Exploratory phase have opportunities to engage in
a variety of meaningful situations that will develop positive attitudes
• Introduce some brief guidelines to students and suggest ways to
organise and record their responses, e.g. draw pictures or write key
– Involving Students towards trying new ways of speaking and listening.
words as you listen.
• Present135
contains a selection the spoken text to students. Repeat if necessary.
• Ask students to represent what they learnt from their listening,
of developmentally e.g. create a flow chart, make a story map.
• Arrange for students to share their representations either to each
appropriate activities Figure 2.5 The Exploratory other or in a small group with teacher or peers.

that support the Speaking and Listening See the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM, Exploratory Phase: Use of
Texts (Listen to Learn) for recording observations formats.

Major Teaching Teaching and Learning How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?
Emphases. • Choose a particular text type as a class focus, e.g. reports. Ask

Experiences students to listen to identify particular features, e.g. how the topic
is introduced, what technical terms have been used.

145

Figure 2.6 Exploratory Speaking and Listening

— Involving Students
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 Understanding the Speaking and Listening Map of Development

SUPPORTING PARENTS Supporting Parents of Exploratory Speakers and Listeners

PAGES
Supporting Parents pages:
Supporting Parents of
• provide support for Exploratory Speakers and
teachers in helping Listeners
parents or caregivers
assist their child’s
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Exploratory Speakers and Listeners have been learning to use
speaking and listening Standard Australian English appropriately in different settings. They
are developing knowledge needed to choose appropriate ways of
development at home. speaking to suit different people and circumstances.
• contain: They communicate successfully in both structured and unstructured
– a general description situations. They explore ways of using words, tone and body
language for different speaking and listening purposes.
of speakers and
Teachers will find that parents are able to support their children
listeners in the phase. effectively when they have an understanding of how children learn
and if they are aware of what happens in the classroom. Teachers
– the type of support can help build parent awareness of the learning program in which
that is important for their child is involved in these kinds of ways:
• Invite parents to join in class activities and talk to them before
speakers and listeners and after the activity, e.g. The children are … The adult’s role in
this task is to … How did the children enjoy this task? What did you
at this phase. find was effective in helping them to understand?
– a list of activities • Conduct parent/caregiver workshops on learning e.g. Learning
Through Play, Learning with Technology, Helping Children to Learn.
appropriate for the • Make a video/DVD/CD-ROM with the children to demonstrate
home setting. certain features of the learning program. Each family can take it
home to view with their children. A viewing guide can be created
Each activity is available with the student’s input.
• When creating displays of student work, add information about
on the Speaking and the context of the activity and list the important learning that
Listening CD-ROM, took place during the task.
• Provide students with home-learning tasks that involve them
and may be copied for sharing their learning with family members.

distribution to parents.

175

Figure 2.7 Providing parent support —

Supporting Parent Pages

How to Use the Speaking and Listening

Map of Development
The purpose in using the Speaking and Listening Map of
Development is to link assessment, teaching and learning in a way
that best addresses the strengths and needs of all students. The
process used to achieve this may vary from teacher to teacher; it may
be dependent on a teacher’s familiarity with First Steps, the data
already collected about students’ speaking and listening development,
the time of the school year, or the school’s implementation plan.

This section outlines a possible process (see Figure 2.8). As teachers

become more familiar with linking assessment to teaching and
learning, strategic decisions about using the map can be made.
Some may focus on using the map to profile students; for example,
how many students and which ones, using which indicators, which
recording sheets and over what period of time? Others may focus
on the selection of Major Teaching Emphases (MTEs) and Teaching
and Learning Experiences for individual, small-group and whole-
class teaching.

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 How to Use the Speaking and Listening Map of Development

PREDICTING
• Read Global Statements

ASSESSING TEACHING/LEARNING
• Collect data • Select Major Teaching Emphases
• Place students on the LINK • Select Teaching and Learning
Map of Development Experiences
• Monitor student progress

Figure 2.8 A possible process for using the Speaking and

Listening Map of Development

Suggested Process for Using the Speaking and

Listening Map of Development
Predict
Many teachers begin to use the Speaking and Listening Map of
Development by making predictions about each student’s phase of
development. Predictions are made by reading through the Global
Statements. Teachers are then able to use this information, together
with their professional judgement, to make an educated guess in
each case. The initial predictions, recorded on a class profile sheet,
allow teachers to immediately begin linking assessment, teaching
and learning.

These predictions can be used to begin selecting Major Teaching

Emphases from appropriate phases for whole-class, small-group
or individual teaching. The MTEs will then guide the selection
of teaching and learning experiences to support students’
development.

It is critical that teachers begin to collect data to confirm or amend

their initial predictions.

Collect Data
The Indicators on the Speaking and Listening Map of Development
provide a focus for data collection, which can be carried out on
a continual basis using a range of tools in a variety of contexts.
A balance of conversation, observation and analysis of products
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 Understanding the Speaking and Listening Map of Development

will ensure that information is gathered across all four aspects.

Encouraging the involvement of students and parents or caregivers
in the data collection will provide further information about students’
speaking and listening development and interests (see Chapter 3).

First Steps Speaking and Listening Map of Development:

Class Profile Sheet
Year Level: ______________________ Teacher: _______________________________________________________
Beginning Early Exploratory Consolidating Conventional Proficient Advanced
1 Dixie Ivy William
2 Gerard Heather Donna
3 Thomas Monique Kerry
4 Grant Josh Simone
5 Stephen Tim Louise
6 Annabelle Michael Jack
7 Sui-Lee Nikki
8 Sian Thi Chan
9 Jayne
10 Bradley
11 Philip
12 Jonathan
13 Kris
14 Ivan
15 Tania
16 Jacqui
17
18
19
20
21
22
23 Major Teaching Emphases can be selected
24 from a range of phases.
25 • Whole-class focus, e.g. Exploratory Phase
26 • Small-group focus, e.g. Early or Consolidating
27 • Individual student focus
28
29
30

Figure 2.9 Sample of a class profile

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 Suggested Process for Using the Speaking and Listening Map of Development

Profile Students on the Speaking and Listening Map

of Development
The Speaking and Listening Map of Development can be used as
a framework for recording a wide range of information gathered
about students’ speaking and listening behaviours. A number of
recording formats have been designed, and have been successfully
used by teachers. Samples of these are provided on the Speaking
and Listening CD-ROM.

Information about the behaviours displayed can be recorded in a

range of ways. The development of a system, such as highlighting or
dating, is an individual or school preference. Marking the selected
recording sheets in some way is referred to as ‘profiling the student/s
on the Map of Development’. There are a number of points that should
be considered when placing students on the Map of Development.
• Indicators for each phase should be interpreted in conjunction
with the Global Statement of the phase and with the indicators
from the surrounding phases.
• With the exception of Beginning Speakers and Listeners, students
are considered to be in the phase where they exhibit all Key
Indicators.
• When students display any of the indicators of the Beginning
Speaking and Listening phase, they are considered to be in that
phase.
• For most students in the class, it will only be necessary to record
information about the Key Indicators.
• It is important that any student behaviours (indicators) recorded
have been displayed more than once, and in a variety of contexts.

Figure 2.10 Sample of a student profile

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 Understanding the Speaking and Listening Map of Development

Link Assessment, Teaching and Learning

Profiling students on the Speaking and Listening Map of
Development is just the beginning of the assessment, teaching and
learning cycle. It is crucial that teachers continue to analyse student
profiles so they will be better able to plan appropriate teaching and
learning experiences.

Once a student’s phase of development has been determined, the

Major Teaching Emphases provide the first step in linking assessment,
teaching and learning. These are provided at each phase of
development, and suggest appropriate priorities for students ‘in
that phase’.

Once Major Teaching Emphases (MTEs) have been selected for

an individual, a small-group or a whole-class focus, appropriate
Teaching and Learning Experiences can be chosen from the
corresponding phase in the Speaking and Listening Map. The
Speaking and Listening Resource Book and other teacher resource
material can provide further support for the chosen MTEs.

Exploratory Phase Phase 4 Phase

First Step Second Global Statement Global Statement
Edition: Speaking
and Listening Map of
Development
Student displaying
all Key Indicators in Indicators Indicators
Exploratory Phase ◆ ◆
◆ ◆
◆ ◆
◆ ◆
Choose Major
Teaching Emphases
from Exploratory
Phase to support and Major Teaching Major Teaching
challenge this student. Emphases Emphases
■ ■
■ ■
■ ■
Select Teaching and
Learning Experiences to ■ ■
support the MTEs from: ■ ■
• Speaking and
Listening Map — Teaching and Teaching and
Exploratory Phase Learning Experiences Learning Experiences
• Speaking and Listening
Resource Book
• Other resources

Figure 2.11 Choosing appropriate Major Teaching Emphases and Teaching

and Learning Experiences

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 Frequently Asked Questions

Monitor Student Progress

The Speaking and Listening Map of Development can be used to
monitor students’ progress over time. It is crucial that teachers
update the profiles of each student often enough to direct teaching
and learning in the classroom so that student needs are constantly
being met. Decisions about the monitoring and updating process are
a personal choice. Some teachers choose to focus on four or five
students at a time; while others choose to focus on the indicators from
a particular aspect, or on students from a particular phase. These
options help to make the monitoring and updating process manageable.

Frequently Asked Questions

Can I start using the Major Teaching Emphases and the
Teaching and Learning Experiences before I have profiled
students on the Speaking and Listening Map of Development?
Yes. The best way to start is to predict the phase of development
of each student based on the Global Statement. Once this has been
completed, you are able to choose the Major Teaching Emphases
from the predicted phase. You can then select appropriate Teaching
and Learning Experiences and use these as a springboard for
collecting data in an ongoing manner.

Does a student have to display all Key Indicators of a phase

to be ‘in that phase’?
Yes. The phase in which the student is displaying all the Key
Indicators is considered to be the student’s phase of development.
There is, however, an exception to this when looking at students in
the Beginning Speaking and Listening phase. When students display
any of the indicators in the Beginning phase, they are considered to
be in that phase.

Do I need to profile all students on the Map of Development?

It is important to be clear about your purpose for placing students
on the Map of Development, and this will guide your decision about
which students to choose. You may decide that for some students it
is sufficient to predict using the Global Statement, and then use this
information to select MTEs and Teaching and Learning Experiences.
For others in the class you may gather information only about Key
Indicators to create individual profiles. For a selected few, you may
gather information about both Key Indicators and Other Indicators
to create more detailed records of development.

How much evidence do I need to collect before an indicator

can be marked or highlighted?
It is important to have sufficient evidence to determine whether
a student consistently displays a particular behaviour. The most
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 Understanding the Speaking and Listening Map of Development

effective way to do this is to see the behaviour displayed several

times in a range of contexts. Your professional judgement will help
you decide whether the evidence you have is strong enough to
mark the indicator. When in doubt, leave it out and wait until you
have confirmation that an indicator is being displayed.

When would I use other indicators?

The Other Indicators list additional behaviours you may notice some
students displaying. You may choose to use them when you are
looking for more detailed information about a student.

How long should a student be in a phase?

There is no definitive time span. Some students may progress
quickly through a phase, while others remain in the same one for a
length of time. Each student is unique, and no two developmental
pathways will be the same. Providing developmentally appropriate
teaching and learning experiences will assist students to move along
the Speaking and Listening Map of Development.

How often do I need to update each student’s progress on the

Map of Development?
Data collection and analysis is an ongoing process, and the frequency
of the collation of this information onto the map is your decision.
However, it is crucial that you consider updating the profiles often
enough to drive teaching and learning in the classroom so that
student needs are constantly being met.

From which phase do I choose the Major Teaching Emphases?

Major Teaching Emphases are chosen from the phase where a
student is displaying all Key Indicators; for example, if a student
displays all of the key indicators in the Exploratory Phase, the MTEs
will come from the Exploratory Phase. Major Teaching Emphases
are designed to support students’ current understandings and
challenge them to begin displaying behaviours from the next phase.

Within a phase, which Major Teaching Emphases do I choose?

Any of the MTEs in the phase where students display all the Key
Indicators will be appropriate. To select the most appropriate, you
may take into consideration:
• the students’ interests, strengths and needs
• any ‘gaps’ in previous teaching
• the grouping arrangements
• links to other literacy strands and what is being taught in other
learning areas.

The Major Teaching Emphases are designed to be revisited many

times in different contexts, using different texts. This selection and
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 Frequently Asked Questions

revisiting process continues until students consistently display all

key indicators in the next phase.

How do I use the Student Self-Assessment pages?

The Student Self-Assessment pages are designed to be completed
by the students. These pages can be completed over time either
independently or with teacher support. This could happen during
student conferences, reflection sessions or as part of an interview.
These pages provide a springboard for individual goal setting. They
can be found on the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM in Chapter 3
— Collecting Data to Assess Speaking and Listening Development.

Why are there no activities for students in the Processes

and Strategies aspect in the Map of Development?
The activities for the Processes and Strategies aspect are in the
Speaking and Listening Resource Book. The rationale for this is that
all speakers and listeners make use of a range of processes and
strategies that are not hierarchical, and are therefore not phase-
specific. The activities in the Speaking and Listening Resource Book can
be applied across a range of phases to develop efficient use of the
processes and strategies being introduced or consolidated.

Can I use the Map of Development with students who have

English as an Additional Language (EAL) or Students who
have English as a Second Dialect (ESD)?
There are different considerations for EAL/ ESD students when
using the map. Initially teachers should use ESL Bandscales (WA)
until EAL students are demonstrating sufficient competence in
English (about Level 7 or 8 Bandscales). The map can then be used
to identify students’ language strengths and needs. The behaviours
exhibited could be across a number of phases; therefore, it may
not be appropriate to identify an EAL/ESD student as being in one
particular phase. In order to tailor instruction appropriately, you
may need to select Major Teaching Emphases from more than one
phase of the map (see Linking Assessment Teaching and Learning,
Chapter 4, for further information about First Steps and Diversity).

Students who speak, read and write languages other than English
may already be aware that each language is different. Some of these
understandings can be transferred from one language to another;
others cannot. This means that such students may have a well-
developed understanding of language as a system, but not in those
aspects of language that are peculiar to English.

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 CHAPTER 3

Collecting Data to Assess

Speaking and Listening
Development
Chapter 6 of Linking Assessment, Teaching and Learning provides
detailed information about beliefs of assessment and evaluation that
underpin the First Steps resource. The data-collection tools listed in
that chapter are generic, and can be applied to all areas of literacy.
The focus of this chapter is on how data-collection tools can be
used specifically to make judgements about students’ speaking and
listening development. The ideas and suggestions provide support
for teachers when constructing profiles of students, using the First
Steps Speaking and Listening Map of Development.

Planning for success in speaking and listening requires teachers to

find out what individual students know and can do. It is useful to
ask the following questions.
• What abilities do I want to assess?
• What information is needed at an aspect level?
• What kinds of classroom contexts will provide this information?
• What are the most efficient and valid ways to collect the
information, and who should collect it?
• How can the information be collected?
• How can the information be recorded?
• What can be done with the information?
• How can the information be shared with others?

To obtain a full picture of students’ abilities in speaking and listening,

it is essential that a student be observed over time, across learning
areas and in different contexts. Traditionally, classroom assessment
for speaking and listening has relied on evidence obtained from
presentations and performances. However, presentation and
performance tasks represent only a small component of the speaking
and listening that students participate in. Consequently this type of
evidence does not give a complete picture of students’ abilities. It is
necessary to provide students with the opportunities to participate
in a variety of planned and unplanned talk, in both formal and
informal contexts, and for a range of different purposes and

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 Collecting Data to Assess Speaking and Listening Development

audiences. Teachers need to build an understanding of the demands

of different speaking and listening contexts that students will engage
in as they interact in the classroom, school and the community.
These contexts will be determined by the purpose of the speaking
and listening, the situation in which it takes place and the audience
that is involved. For example, a student needs to use different skills
when giving a formal planned speech to the class compared to
those skills a student will use when interacting with a peer in a
cooperative learning context.

Teachers can then assess their students as they become involved in

relevant learning interactions across different learning areas.

The challenge for teachers is to be able to build a realistic picture of

how speaking and listening occurs in their classrooms. Building an
overview of how students are experiencing speaking and listening
in a class enables focused teaching, learning, and evaluation to
take place. Figure 3.1 provides a framework for teachers to analyse
their classroom programs in relation to speaking and listening. The
framework in Figure 3.1 is adapted from the 1995 work of Comber
and Cormack and the later 1999 work of Cormack.

This ‘8T’s’ framework invites reflection in the eight different

aspects of the literacy curriculum relating to speaking and listening.
Teachers can map the speaking and listening competencies in their
program.

The audit sheet (see Figure 3.2) provides more details on how to
provide a comprehensive speaking and listening focus. It lists a
number of classroom interactions that provide the opportunity to
observe the students’ use of speaking and listening for a range of
purposes. The list can be modified and extended according to the
various phases of students’ development.

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 Collecting Data to Assess Speaking and Listening Development

Component Question Considerations

Topics What issues or aspects of content Broad themes, units of work, texts issues as well as
are emphasised in your program? detail issues such as conversation about assignments,
tasks, management and administration. Does the class
program provide opportunities for the development of
speaking and listening across the curriculum?

Techniques What approaches to teaching, How do you organise your class to teach? Do students
demonstrating, scaffolding, experience speaking and listening in a range of
grouping and organising students different groupings: whole class, small group and
do you employ? individual? How do you instruct and what frameworks
for learning do you establish?

Tasks What do students have to do Assignments, how students demonstrate that they
in your program that involves know, products, performances or conversations, e.g.
speaking and listening? the contexts for speaking and listening that you establish.

Talk What sorts of speaking Purposes for speaking and listening, e.g. to demonstrate
and listening occur in your knowledge, thinking aloud, socialising, procedural talk,
classroom? talk about texts, informal/formal and planned/unplanned
speaking and listening.

Texts What sorts of texts are available, What texts are being discussed? What types of text are
in what quantities and when? students experiencing? Do students have access to a
range of different text types?

Tools What do students use when Basic technology such as pens, paper to computer
doing tasks related to speaking technology.
and listening?

Tests What techniques do you use to What kind of assessment are you using? Is there a mix
make judgements about progress of evidence from products, processes, performance
or ability or outcomes? and conversation? Is the data collected over time and
across learning areas, in different contexts?

Territories Where can students talk and What kind of speaking and listening can students do?
listen? Do factors such as volume levels, restriction on topics,
available space, etc. influence the kind of speaking
and listening that occurs? What arrangements have
been made for students with special needs? What
opportunities do non-English-speaking students have
to talk in their home language? e.g. hearing impaired
students.

Figure 3.1 The ‘8T’s’ in a Speaking and Listening program (adapted from
Comber and Cormack 1995 and Cormack 1999)

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 Collecting Data to Assess Speaking and Listening Development

Focus What Are My Students What Students Learn

Examples of Functional Spoken Texts Currently Doing? to Do Next
Students Are Using What text types are being What text type do I need to
experienced by students in be explicitly teaching?
Everyday Literary Informational
my class?
greeting joke recount
conversation narrative description
question dramatisation procedure What are they competent What sorts of experiences do
message report in using? I need to provide for students
poem
instruction argument to become competent users
chant
direction explanation of this text type?
invitation song debate
apology rap anecdote What other text types do
request interview my students need to be
play experiencing?

Range of Contexts Students Are Experiencing In what contexts are What do I need to be
students competent explicitly teaching?
Possible Social Contexts in their speaking and
formal/informal listening?
familiar/unfamiliar

Possible Class/School Situations

guided reading/writing waiting time
readers’ theatre class meetings What sorts of experiences do
literature circles writers circle What sort of audiences I need to provide for students
mat/sharing time phys-ed time do my students currently to become competent
library/Art/Music time play time interact with? speakers and listeners in
drama/media class assemblies differing contexts with a
whole class/small group interviews range of audiences?
class administration/management
student-teacher conferences
homework class How confident/competent
are my students as they
Possible Audiences speak and listen with
whole class whole school these audiences?
partners small group
peer group parents
community teachers
administrators assistants
visitors/guests family
employers
Types of Behaviours Students Use to Communicate What behaviours can I see What skills do I need to
extending conversation volume my students using in their explicitly teach?
turn-taking tone speaking and listening?
topic changes pace What sort of opportunities
proximity gesture Are the behaviours they can I provide for my students
repair using tact are using sufficient for to develop the appropriate
sustaining conversations the speaking and listening speaking and listening
repairing conversation contexts and audiences behaviours?
breakdown they are engaging with?
Figure 3.2 Speaking and listening audit sheet

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 Collecting Data to Assess Speaking and Listening Development

Data Collection
Different data-collection tools will provide different perspectives
on speaking and listening performance, so it is important to use a
range. The type of data-collection tool selected will depend upon
the aspect for which information is to be collected — Contextual
Understanding, Use of Texts, Conventions, or Processes and Strategies.
Decisions teachers make about which assessment tools to use, and
how and when to use them, have an impact on the quality of the
evidence gathered. These decisions can also have an impact on the
messages given to students about ‘what is valued’ in speaking and
listening. It is important to develop efficient and valid ways of assessing
speaking and listening, and to involve students, parents or caregivers,
and other teachers in the process of collecting and recording data.

What Are the Most Efficient and Valid Ways to

Collect Speaking and Listening Information?
Data can be collected in several ways and can be grouped under the
following broad headings.
• Focused Observation
• Product
• Conversations
Aspects of Speaking and Listening
Use of Contextual Conventions Processes
Texts Understanding and Strategies
Assessment Tools
Focused Observation
Informal ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Formal ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Speaking and Listening Products
Self-assessment formats ✓
Personal goal-setting ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Logs ✓
Journals ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Think-alouds ✓ ✓
Work samples ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Surveys and questionnaires ✓
Tests ✓
Spoken presentations ✓ ✓ ✓
Conversations
Conferences ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Interviews ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Figure 3.3 Data–collection tools selected to make judgements about different
aspects of speaking and listening
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 What Are the Most Efficient and Valid Ways to Collect Speaking and Listening Information?

In any successful assessment regime, each tool is generally used

in combination with another. For example, a teacher who has
observed and made anecdotal notes about a learner’s work (as part
of focused observation) will then discuss these observations with the
learner (as part of a conversation).

Focused Observation
Assessment takes place as an integral part of the teaching and
learning cycle. It occurs as part of everyday teaching and learning
when teachers are observing students at work in regular classroom
activities. Teacher observation involves much more than simply
watching or listening to students in the classroom; it involves
systematic collection of observable data and analysis of that
information. It allows teachers to assess specific strategies students
use, or understandings they demonstrate, either during speaking
and listening experiences, or in other learning areas.

Because of the dialogic nature of speaking and listening, much

of the observation that occurs in the classroom will involve pairs
or groups of children, e.g. class groups, peer groups, family groups,
sporting groups, etc. The First Steps Speaking and Listening Resource
Book provides detailed information on groups and group work for
developing speaking and listening.

1 Informal Observations
Informal observations are unplanned. The teacher simply notes
speaking and listening behaviours as they naturally happen.
Because of the spontaneous nature of speaking and listening, rich
data may be obtained from observing children in situations that
are unplanned and occur naturally as a result of social interactions
within particular contexts. For example, observing children as they
interact during library time, while they are waiting before school
starts, during play and peer group interaction.

Informal observations require teachers to watch and listen to

students so they can form ideas about their development. As
Goodman noted in her book Kid Watching, it is not simply enough to
merely observe; the results of observation are not useful unless they
are recorded and considered.

2 Formal Observations
Formal observations, sometimes called structured or systematic
observations, are planned with a predetermined focus; this could be
the speaking and listening behaviours to be targeted, or the students

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 Collecting Data to Assess Speaking and Listening Development

that will be observed. The teacher also decides when and how often
formal observations will occur, and how they will be recorded.

Students may also be involved in observing their peers speaking and

listening, using collaboratively developed checklists. An essential
part of this process is the development of students’ understanding of
what each of the criteria in the checklist looks and sounds like.

What Information Can Be Collected?

Focused observations can provide teachers with information
about student attitudes and student performance in all four of the
aspects — Contextual Understanding, Use of Text, Conventions
and Processes and Strategies. The following checklist may provide
a focus for observation.

1 Know what outcome is being assessed.

2 Plan what will be seen as evidence.
3 Tell students what is expected of them.
4 Make sure any record keeping reflects the purpose.
5 Provide the students with feedback

Figure 3.4 Checklist to guide — a focus for observation

Speaking and Listening Products

The assessment of both process and product is important when
gathering information about supporting students’ speaking and
listening development. Teachers will assess not only the final
products that are a result of learning, but also products that have
been created during the process of learning.

Observation and analysis of students’ products such as self-

assessment forms, think-alouds, work samples (including multi-
media creations), surveys or questionnaires, all provide insight into
speaking and listening development. The following products will
support teachers in gathering information about students’ speaking
and listening development.

1 Student self-assessment 6 Work samples

products 7 Surveys and questionnaires
2 Personal goal-setting 8 Tests
3 Logs 9 Spoken presentations
4 Journals 10 Conversations
5 Think-alouds

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 What Are the Most Efficient and Valid Ways to Collect Speaking and Listening Information?

1 Student Self-Assessment Products

Self-assessment is a critical part of developing a student’s responsibility
for his or her own learning. Self-assessment can provide teachers
with insights into speaking and listening development that otherwise
might not be apparent. It is critical that formats are modelled and
provided for students as a framework for recording information and
their reflections. With teacher support and guidance, students can
develop the skills necessary for them to assess their own and others’
speaking and listening. A range of self-assessment formats, specifically
designed for each phase, is provided on the Speaking and Listening
CD-ROM. These formats are designed to:
• support teachers as they involve students in data collection
• support students to reflect on their own speaking and listening
and to set goals for improvement
• reflect the indicators of each phase, but are written in student-
friendly language
• be completed by the students.

Figure 3.5 Student self-assessment.

Students are filmed during a small-group task, then they review and reflect
on how they took turns.

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 Collecting Data to Assess Speaking and Listening Development

LISTENING SELF-ASSESSMENT
Name: Date:
Thinking About My Listening Often Sometimes Not Yet
• I pay attention to the speaker.
• I keep quiet when others speak.
• I don’t distract other listeners.
• I show I am listening by using
appropriate body language.

I was good at: _________________________________________________________________________________________

I have difficulty with: __________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
I want to improve: ____________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 3.6a Self-assessment sample

SPEAKING SELF-ASSESSMENT
Name: Date:
Thinking About My Speaking Consistently Sometimes Not Yet
• I look at the audience.
• I use a clear voice.
• I have good volume control.
• I speak at an appropriate pace:
not too fast or slow.
• I use expression in my voice.
• I stay on the topic.
• I can rephrase ideas when they
are not understood.
• I can answer questions.

I was really good at: ___________________________________________________________________________________

I have difficulty with __________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
I want to improve _____________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 3.6b Self-assessment sample

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 What Are the Most Efficient and Valid Ways to Collect Speaking and Listening Information?

A student’s ability to assess the learning of others Speaking & Listening Map of Development

— peer assessment — is just as powerful as self-

assessment. Students are able to compare their
knowledge, skills and understanding of other
students and this helps to clarify their own
understanding of the concept or task.

Two Stars and a Wish

Two Stars and a Wish provide students with a
simple framework for reflecting on positive aspects
of their work (the stars) as well as focusing on an
area for improvement (the wish). It also provides
a simple framework for peer assessment

What information can be collected?

Information for any of the four aspects of speaking
and listening can be gathered using self-assessment
formats. 2006

Figure 3.7 Two Stars and a Wish

2 Personal Goal-setting
Setting speaking and listening goals and assessing the achievement
of these goals is another form of self-assessment suitable for all
students. It can provide the teacher with valuable information about
speaking and listening strategies, and can assist students to develop
independence in speaking and listening.

Goals can be recorded in many ways. They may be written in

students’ speaking and listening journals or recorded on goal-setting
sheets. Once a goal is recorded, the teacher and the student can
work together to monitor its achievement. The cumulative record
of goals can provide evidence of successful learning, showing
both teacher and student the specific speaking and listening
strategies and understandings that have been learnt. It also clearly
demonstrates the progress that is being made towards improving
speaking and listening. For students who are just beginning to set
speaking and listening goals, goal-setting frameworks can provide
support. A variety of goal-setting frameworks are provided on the
Speaking and Listening CD-ROM.

What Information Can Be Collected

Reviewing students’ speaking and listening goals will provide
information about processes and strategies they are using to
comprehend and compose spoken texts.

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 Collecting Data to Assess Speaking and Listening Development

3 Logs
LEARNING LOGS
A speaking and listening log, in its simplest form, is a place to
record the types of texts that have been spoken or listened to. Logs
contain concise, objective information and are impersonal in tone.
The purpose of the speaking and listening log — together with the
age and experience of the student — will determine the way it is
used and structured. Logs may be used to record the range of texts
and contexts experienced by students (see Figure 3.8).
First Steps: Second Edition Speaking and Listening Map of Development

Name: _____________________________________________________________________________ Date: _________________________________________

Speaking and Listening Log

Date Text Type Purpose Audience Situation Comments

© West Australian Minister of Education and Training: 2006 MAY BE COPIED FOR CLASSROOM USE ONLY

Figure 3.8 Sample speaking log

What Information Can Be Collected?

Speaking and listening logs provide teachers with information about
a student’s use of texts and give a valuable insight into a student’s
interests, preferences, attitudes or understandings.

4 Journals
Speaking and listening journals allow students to record their
personal expectations, reactions and reflections, before during and
after any speaking and listening event. Journals can be organised
and used in many different ways depending on the purpose. The
different kinds of speaking and listening journals include:
• Response journals
• Reflective journals
• Metacognitive journals
• Summative journals.

(Refer to First Steps Learning Assessment, Teaching and Learning,

p. 99 for a more detailed explanation of the journals above.)
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 What Are the Most Efficient and Valid Ways to Collect Speaking and Listening Information?

Speaking and listening journals provide a framework for students to:

• record responses to spoken text
• record topics for speaking
• reflect on their selection of text
• reflect on speaking and listening development
• record thought process when constructing texts
• reflect on the effectiveness of speaking and listening with a range
of audiences and contexts
• reflect on past learning and consider it for future application to
new learning
• clarify the thoughts about speakers’ messages and purposes, and
share their thoughts with other students.

What Information Can Be Collected?

Any type of journal entry provides a source of information about
any of the four aspects of speaking and listening.

5 Think-alouds
Think-alouds are articulations of thoughts before, during and after
communicative events. They may be spontaneous reactions to the
text by students or may be responses encouraged or requested by the
teacher. The analysis of think-alouds can provide a rich source of
information about the processes and strategies being used by a student
when both speaking and listening. Although think-alouds are not
exact replications of a student’s complete thinking, they do alert
teachers to the hidden processes taking place in the student’s mind.

What Information Can Be Collected?

When analysing a think-aloud, the teacher will be looking for
patterns in the student’s responses. These patterns will reveal the
processes and strategies the student is using to comprehend and
compose a range of texts.

6 Work Samples
A collection of samples gathered over time provides a clear picture
of how a student has improved. Samples can be collected at any
stage of the speaking and listening process, and should include both
planned and spontaneous interactions in both formal and informal
contexts. Samples may show work done independently or in a
group. Work samples should be collected across all learning areas
and may include transcripts of students’ talks, recordings, videos,
CDs, MP3, etc.

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 Collecting Data to Assess Speaking and Listening Development

What information Can Be Collected?

Information for any of the four aspects can be gathered from
students’ speaking and listening. A range of samples across a period
of time can clearly demonstrate the progress that a student has made.

7 Surveys and Questionnaires

Surveys and questionnaires about speaking and listening can take
many forms and address a range of topics. They typically consist
of a series of statements or questions about which the students or
parents are asked to express agreement or disagreement (sometimes
using a scale). The items to be included in the survey or questionnaire
will be determined by the type of information required. The
Speaking and Listening CD-ROM contains some sample surveys and
questionnaires that can be used with either students or parents.
First Steps: Second Edition Speaking and Listening Map of Development

Name: ___________________________________________________ Date: _____________________

Parent/Caregiver Survey (Early)

Dear Parent/Caregiver,
You know your child better than anyone and I am interested in how your child learns at
home. Your feedback will help me to plan to meet your child’s needs. You can complete the
following information and return it or you may like to make an appointment to discuss the
points below.

What activities does your child enjoy?

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

What do you think about your child’s problem-solving abilities?

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

What kinds of things does your child do for his or herself? How independent is your child?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

What do you think about your child’s speaking skills?

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

What do you think about your child’s listening skills?

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

What are your child’s interests?

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

© West Australian Minister of Education and Training: 2006 MAY BE COPIED FOR CLASSROOM USE ONLY

Figure 3.9 Parent survey

What Information Can Be Collected?

Surveys and questionnaires can be used to ascertain students’
confidence and attitudes towards the various aspects of speaking
and listening.

8 Tests
Testing is another way of gathering data about a student’s speaking
and listening development, and should be used in conjunction with
other data collection tools. Using tests for speaking and listening
needs careful consideration as speaking and listening is dynamic
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 What Are the Most Efficient and Valid Ways to Collect Speaking and Listening Information?

and varies much more than, for example, writing. Several types of
tests are available, but generally they can be categorised under the
following headings.

CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTS
Criterion-referenced tests are designed to measure how well students
have learnt a specific body of knowledge or certain skills. Therefore
they can provide information related to strengths and weaknesses.

NORM-REFERENCED TESTS
Norm-referenced tests are often referred to as Standardised
Tests. They are the formalised tests in which scoring, norms and
administration have been established as a result of each having
been given to a large number of students. They are administered
under specific conditions adhering to the directions set out in
the examiner’s manual. The performances of other students are
presented as norms for the purpose of comparing achievement.

Standardised testing is useful in that it provides a generalised large-

scale picture of the levels of achievement across a broad school,
district, state or national context. However, often standardised testing
does not provide teachers with the detailed specific information that
they need to develop a cohesive classroom speaking and listening
program that is responsive to students’ needs.

TEACHER-MADE TESTS
Many teachers devise their own tests to measure student progress
in speaking and listening. These are generally criterion-referenced,
and measure the students’ mastery of what has been taught. The
advantage they have over other types is that they can be tailored to
a specific group of students or to specific information the teacher
is seeking.

What Information Can Be Collected?

Tests are context specific; they should not be the sole evidence of
students’ abilities in speaking and listening. Testing usually occurs
in one day and relates to a specific context and set of skills. If a
teacher wished to gain a comprehensive insight into the speaking
and listening abilities of students (for example, to test their ability to
listen for detail in a text; to deliver a formal speech to an unfamiliar
audience), a more realistic picture of the students’ abilities would
emerge in evidence that had been collected over time and across
different learning and subject areas in both formal and informal
settings.

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 Collecting Data to Assess Speaking and Listening Development

9 Spoken Presentations (Rehearsed and Unrehearsed)

Spoken presentations draw on the student’s ability to convey
meaning to an audience. By analysing students’ spoken
presentations, teachers can obtain a clear idea of the strategies that
students are using successfully. It will also indicate those strategies
that need more development. The types of spoken presentation will
depend on the context of the lesson and the phase of development
of the student, and may range from a simple recount to a
structured debate. Spoken presentations can be either rehearsed
or unrehearsed. Rehearsed presentations enable students to plan,
refine, practise, and adjust their performance before presenting it ‘in
public’; the aim of a rehearsed presentation is to engage an audience
through expression and fluency. Unrehearsed oral presentation
usually involves spontaneous spoken presentation on a familiar or
unfamiliar topic.

What Information Can Be Collected?

Spoken presentations are an opportunity to observe how students
apply what they know about this type of speaking and listening —
the formal monologue. It enables the teacher to collect information
about the processes and strategies aspect, such as the ability to use
planning. As the student speaks and responds to the audience, the
teacher is able to determine and assess the processes and strategies
the student is using and if any further development is required.

10 Conversations
As well as using focused observation and work samples, teachers
can also consider what further information can be gathered through
conversations. Both spontaneous and planned dialogue can provide
valuable information and can be assessed to show the development
of students’ speaking and listening skills. Spontaneous dialogues
are the speaking and listening interactions that happen during the
course of any day — socialising, thinking aloud, demonstrating
understanding and thinking. They may occur either with familiar
audiences (for example, parents, adults that they know, peers) or
with unfamiliar audiences (for example, other teachers, visitors to
the classroom/school, students from lower/higher classes). Planned
dialogues are those that are organised for a specific purpose and
audience, for example interviews, debates, reporting to groups, etc.

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 What Are the Most Efficient and Valid Ways to Collect Speaking and Listening Information?

Teachers who have conversations with individual students on a

regular basis can gain a deeper understanding of their speaking and
listening development. Conversations can be structured through
conferences or interviews.

Conferences
There are a variety of ways to involve students in conferences.
These include:
• one-on-one conferences — teacher and student
• peer conferences — student and student
• small-group conferences — students
• three-way conferences — student, teacher and parent/s.

Each of these types of conferences can provide a teacher with the

opportunity to collect data. One-on-one conferences can also allow
for individual instruction.

Effective one-on-one conferencing focuses on building relationships

with individual students. For conferences to be successful,
students need to know what is expected of them; for example, the
conference structure, what their role will be, and the records that
will be kept. Each student–teacher conference will be unique, but
it can be helpful to have a planning framework, such as one shown
below (see Figure 3.10).

The following charts indicate the role of the teacher and the student
in a speaking and listening conference.

The role of the student in conferences

• Be prepared.
• Have current speaking and listening material and topics ready
for discussion.
• Discuss any speaking and listening problems you have with
the teacher.
• Review the speaking and listening goals you have set.
Discuss problems or successes in achieving these goals.
• Be prepared to set a new speaking and listening goal or refocus
the previous goal.

Figure 3.10

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 Collecting Data to Assess Speaking and Listening Development

The role of the teacher

• Select a particular focus.
• Encourage the student to talk.
• Introduce new strategies and processes.
• Provide feedback to students.
• Review students’ speaking and listening goals and assist them
to set new ones.
• Record information after each conference.
• Use the information from conferences to plan future learning.

Figure 3.11

It is useful for teachers to use recording sheets before, during or

after conferencing with students as these can provide a focus for
conversations and for keeping records of shared information.

What Information Can Be Collected?

Conferences can be used to gain information in any of the four
aspects, depending on the focus of the conference.

Interviews
Interviews are one-on-one, prepared question-and-answer
conversations between a teacher and a student or between a teacher
and a parent. Teacher–student interviews provide an opportunity
for teachers to actively listen to students and encourage them to
verbalise their thought processes. Teachers can design questions to
focus on different aspects of speaking and listening, depending on
the purpose and the desired outcomes of the interview. However,
planning questions that elicit useful information and encourage
students to do most of the talking is a challenge; effective questions
should be focused, open and probing, and encourage answers of
more than one word.

Further examples of speaking and listening interview questions can

be found on the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM.

Interviews with parents or caregivers can also provide useful

information about students’ speaking and listening outside school.
In all interviews, it is important to consider the following points.
• Explain the reasons for the interview and limit questions to those
that will yield the most useful information.
• Let the parents know that you will be taking notes and the
reasons for this.
• Be sensitive to parents’ home and personal language usage as well
as their levels of literacy.
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 How Can Information About Speaking and Listening Be Recorded?

First Steps: Second Edition Speaking and Listening Map of Development First Steps: Second Edition Speaking and Listening Map of Development

Name: ___________________________________________________ Date: _____________________ Name: ___________________________________________________ Date: _____________________

Student Interview — Speaking Student Interview — Listening

What is speaking? ________________________________________________ What is listening? ________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________
What is speaking for? _____________________________________________ What is listening for? _____________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________
How do you feel about speaking? ___________________________________ How do you feel about listening? ___________________________________
_______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________
Who do you know who is a good speaker? ____________________________ Who do you know who is a good listener? ____________________________
_______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________
What makes a good speaker? _______________________________________ What makes a good listener? _______________________________________
_______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________
What do you do well when you speak? _______________________________ What do you do well when you listen? _______________________________
_______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________
What could you do to make yourself a better speaker? __________________ What could you do to make yourself a better listener? __________________
_______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________

© West Australian Minister of Education and Training: 2006 MAY BE COPIED FOR CLASSROOM USE ONLY © West Australian Minister of Education and Training: 2006 MAY BE COPIED FOR CLASSROOM USE ONLY

Figure 3.12 Interview: Speaking Figure 3.13 Interview: Listening

What Information Can Be Collected?

Interviews can provide information about any of the four aspects,
depending on the questions being asked. The previous questions
are suggested as a guide only, and can be modified to suit different
students or teaching contexts.

How Can Information About Speaking and

Listening Be Recorded?
Teachers use a range of ways to record the information they gather
about students’ speaking and listening development. The use of
computers or Palm PilotsTM often helps streamline the time it takes
to record information.

The following ways of recording information, on paper or

electronically, are detailed.

1 Anecdotal notes
2 Checklists
3 Rubrics
4 Annotations
5 Audio and/or video recordings
6 First Steps Speaking and Listening Map of Development

1 Anecdotal Notes
Anecdotal notes are short, objective, factual descriptions of
observations recorded at the time an event or activity occurs, or
soon thereafter. Behaviours listed on the First Steps Speaking and
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 Collecting Data to Assess Speaking and Listening Development

Listening Map of Development will provide a focus for observations.

• Making useful anecdotal notes takes time and practice. They should
record an accurate description of the situation and information
about students’ strengths and weaknesses, and include comments
and questions that may guide further observations.
• Notes should be written daily, and as soon as possible after an
observation has been made. They can be written during a variety
of speaking and listening contexts using a range of functional
spoken texts, e.g. unplanned spontaneous conversations and guided
speaking and listening sessions.
• The recording format should suit the teaching situation, the students
and the teacher’s personal style, e.g. grids, adhesive stick-on notes,
First Steps Speaking and Listening Map of Development.

Speaking and Listening Teacher Observations

Rachel listens Rachel listens Rachel locates and Rachel observes
actively to actively to others obtains simple conventions
others and asks and makes discreet information relating to turn-
appropriate appropriate from informational taking and
questions. comments about and expressive interrupting.
their contribution. texts.

Figure 3.14 Anecdotal notes

Teacher: _________________________________ Class: ________________

Date: _______________________
Focus: _________________________________________________________

Name Name Name

Name Name Name

Figure 3.15 Observation grid

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 How Can Information About Speaking and Listening Be Recorded?

• The notes should be examined and analysed regularly to be sure

that comments are being made for every student on a variety of
speaking and listening behaviours in different contexts. They also
need to be analysed to guide future teaching.

2 Checklists
A checklist is a list of skills or behaviours to be checked off as they
are observed. However, it is critical to acknowledge that checklists,
whether teacher-made or commercially produced, are static. Most
may not be applicable to every student in one classroom at the
same time.

3 Rubrics
Rubrics are recording frameworks that feature short, descriptive
statements along a continuum of excellence. Teachers or students
determine the quality of a performance against a set of predetermined
criteria. For example, a retelling rubric may be helpful in assessing a
student’s performance using criteria such as selection and sequencing
of ideas and events, introduction of the characters, and setting the
scene. Rubrics can be marked using either a numerical system or
descriptive words or phrases, such as ‘well-developed’, ‘partially
developed’, or ‘not developed’. Rubrics can be reused, adding levels
of achievement as the skill level of students increases or by adding
additional criteria for new concepts, skills or attitudes they display.
There are many publications and websites that offer ready-made
rubrics; however, many teachers may wish to create their own.
Students also can be involved in the creation of rubrics, as ultimately
it is their work that is being judged.

Creating a Rubric
• Deciding on the criteria.
Students can be involved in brainstorming the criteria. If they
have not had experience in generating criteria for evaluation,
teachers may wish to show them some models of completed work.
Characteristics of effective and not-so-effective samples can be
listed and discussed for inclusion as criteria on the completed rubric.
• Articulating the qualities.
It is often easier to decide on the two extremes first; that is, what
makes ‘best’ performance and what makes ‘worst’ performance.
• Deciding on the number of gradations.
It is a good idea to have an even number of gradations as this
eliminates the tendency to rank in the middle.

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 Collecting Data to Assess Speaking and Listening Development

• Deciding on the labelling.

Labels to be used for the gradations need to be considered. Either
a numerical value or a descriptive word can be used. Some teachers
prefer to use ‘neutral’ words for the gradation labels; others prefer
words that signal excellence, e.g. Lead, Bronze, Silver and Gold
rather than Unsatisfactory, Satisfactory, Competent and Excellent.

Students may be involved in self- or peer-assessment, using the

completed rubric, before work is formally submitted for teacher
evaluation. Rubrics can be ‘holistic’ or ‘analytic’ in nature; holistic
rubrics evaluate the task as a whole, while analytical rubrics
evaluate each separate criterion.

Level of Achievement Description

4 Discusses familiar ideas and information and supports opinions with some detail
in a variety of classroom situations.
3 Interacts to express opinions and perceptions, participates in problem-solving
discussions with peers.
2 Describes or recounts events in a logical sequence and sustains conversations on a
familiar topic.
1 Discusses personal experiences; and conveys key information or ideas on a
familiar topic.

Figure 3.16 Holistic rubric for discussion

Criteria Quality
Behaviours 4 3 2 1
Questioning and Probing questions Students ask for Responses given Students have
responding are asked of others. information and occasionally indicate difficulty giving
give responses that attention to topic. appropriate
indicate attention to responses.
topic.

Attending behaviours Non-verbal cues are Non-verbal cues or Occasional gestures Eye contact is
used to respond to, body language are and body language made with person
and sometimes shape, used for effect, e.g. are used for speaking.
communication with smile encouragingly, emphasis, to show
others. gesture for emphasis. support or to get
attention e.g. move
into close proximity
as group works.

Active interest Students paraphrase Students Acknowledgement Students

and involvement what others have acknowledge and is given to what has occasionally
said for clarification. build on what has been said. acknowledge
been said or done. what has been
said.

Figure 3.17 Analytical rubric for small-group discussion

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 How Can Information About Speaking and Listening Be Recorded?

4 Annotations
Annotations are short descriptions of judgements made about a
student’s work, recorded directly onto the work sample. Annotations
may be completed at the time of the event, but this can be done at
a later time if the work sample, such as written work, is portable.
Annotations need to be objective, factual comments, and should lead
to the recognition and interpretation of individual patterns of learning
over time.

5 Audio and/or Video Recordings

Audio and video recordings of students actively engaged in speaking
and listening provide an excellent medium for capturing a student’s
progress over time and across contexts. Recordings can be completed
at the time of the event, and then reviewed at a later time by
the teacher, student, peers and others. When used as a source of
assessment evidence, annotations, checklists or evaluations can be
used throughout the recordings.

6 The First Steps Speaking and Listening

Map of Development
The First Steps Speaking and Listening Map is an excellent framework
for recording information about students’ speaking and listening
development. Some teachers choose to record their observations,
the outcomes of conversations, or their analysis of products directly
onto the Speaking and Listening Map; this can be done by writing
comments on adhesive notes, highlighting the indicators the students
are displaying or recording the date when behaviours were displayed.
Other teachers prefer to use another recording method first — such as
checklists, observations, audio recordings, analysis or rubrics — and
then transfer the information onto the Speaking and Listening Map of
Development.

The following recording formats can be found on the Speaking and

Listening CD-ROM and may be photocopied for classroom use.

1 Class Profile Sheet

2 Individual Student Profile Sheet — Key Indicators only
3 Individual Student Profile Sheet — All indicators
4 Class Profile Sheets — Key Indicators only
5 Class Profile Sheets — All indicators
6 Speaking and Listening Map of Development—Parent version

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 CHAPTER 4

Beginning Speaking
and Listening Phase
Unplanned Planned

Teacher: Tell me about what you made, Ben. Teacher: OK, Ben, could you show some other children
Ben: A man. how to play this matching game?
Teacher: You’re making a man? (Ben is silent.)
Ben: I was angry. Teacher: Here are some pictures on wooden cards. Can you
Teacher: So what did you do when you were remember what we do with them?
angry? Ben: Put it here? (Ben picks one up and looks towards the teacher.)
Ben: Told my mum … I was angry. Teacher: Have a try.
Teacher: You told your mum you were angry? Ben: Put that one there …
(Ben pulls a scary face and makes growling sounds.) Teacher: That’s right, you do know what to do with them!
Teacher: You sound angry! Ben: Find one of these … this one goes… there.
Ben: Yeah … man’s not angry now. Teacher: Why do we put that strawberry card in there?
Teacher: What is your man doing now? Ben: It’s the same one in there.
Ben: I’m making it like that … see? Teacher: It is, too. It matches! Now there are two strawberries!
(points to model) Ben: So we put it there … find this one … put it there.
Teacher: That’s right, you have to match the pictures.

Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2

Global Statement
In this phase, children use the language of the home and
community to communicate with familiar others. They often rely on
non-verbal cues to convey and comprehend spoken language. Their
speech may be characterised by short utterances and they may
require support in unfamiliar settings.

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 Beginning Speaking and Listening Indicators

Beginning Speaking and

Listening Indicators
Use of Texts Conventions
◆ Responds to spoken texts in own ◆ Uses a small range of vocabulary.
personal way. ◆ Responds to spoken language in ways
◆ Communicates in own personal way. appropriate to home language or culture.
◆ Understands simple and familiar questions, ◆ Attends to spoken texts that are personally
e.g. Are you hungry? Where would you like to play? significant.
• Responds to messages conveyed through ◆ May ask many questions.
familiar technology, e.g. nods head when using • Overgeneralises some words, e.g. says ‘bird’ for
the telephone, dances to familiar music from a seagull, magpie, finch.
television show. • Uses some directional language, e.g. in, up, down,
on, out.
Contextual Understanding • Begins to use words to describe characteristics,
e.g. big truck.
◆ Communicates to meet own needs.
◆ Assumes a shared background between
speaker and listener. Processes and Strategies
◆ Recognises meaning from familiar ◆ Relies on personal experience as a stimulus
language, tone of voice and facial for speaking and listening.
expression in familiar situations. ◆ Uses a limited range of processes and
◆ Is understood by familiar adults in strategies when speaking, e.g. uses repetition.
supportive or predictable situations. ◆ Uses a limited range of processes and
strategies when listening.
• Relies on copying and approximating to
compose spoken language.
• Requires some adult support to interpret spoken
language.

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 Beginning Speaking and Listening Phase

Major Teaching Emphases

Environment and Attitude (see p. 51) Contextual Understanding (see p. 65)
■ Provide opportunities for relevant, ■ Discuss speaking and listening, referring
challenging and purposeful to the audience and purpose.
communication. ■ Provide effective feedback to students
■ Create a supportive environment which about their speaking and listening.
values the diversity of students’ speaking ■ Model and discuss how to include relevant
and listening development (in their home information when speaking.
languages). ■ Draw students’ attention to the way ideas
■ Encourage students to see the value and feelings are communicated through
of effective listening and speaking for speaking and listening.
community, school and family life. ■ Encourage students to use verbal and
non-verbal devices to create meaning.
Use of Texts (see p. 56)
■ Expose students to a range of functional Conventions (see p. 73)
spoken texts composed in Standard ■ Develop and extend children’s vocabulary
Australian English. for different purposes.
■ Provide authentic opportunities for ■ Model speaking for different purposes,
students to participate in unplanned and e.g. making requests, seeking information.
planned speaking and listening. ■ Model speaking and listening behaviours,
■ Provide opportunities for students e.g. maintain a conversation.
to participate in extended talk. ■ Model listening behaviours, e.g. responding
■ Teach students to share personal to requests, questions, looking at the person.
comments after listening.
■ Build knowledge of common topics to Processes and Strategies (see p. 79)
which students can relate, e.g. toys, families,
■ Model language to describe thinking.
community.
■ Involve children in conversations with
■ Teach students the metalanguage
family members and others.
associated with speaking and listening
■ Model the language and behaviours of
and encourage its use, e.g. speak, listen, hear,
listening, e.g. Let’s listen to the music. Would
speaker, listener, take turns, word, think.
you like to hear this story?
■ Model ways to improve communication,
e.g. adjusting volume, respond to comprehension
checks.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Environment and Attitude

Teaching and Learning

Experiences
ENVIRONMENT AND ATTITUDE
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Provide opportunities for relevant, challenging and

purposeful communication.

■ Create a supportive classroom environment which

values the diversity of students’ speaking and listening
development (in their home languages).

■ Encourage students to see the value of effective listening

and speaking for community, school and family life.

Teaching Notes
A supportive and nurturing environment for students in the
Beginning phase is one that accepts, values and accommodates
a variety of communication styles. Students in this phase are
involved in trying new ways of speaking and listening and will feel
comfortable in ‘having a go’ when there is a relationship of trust
and acceptance.

Students who are just starting school will have many experiences
that can contribute to more formal learning environments. Teachers
can gain insights into their students’ worlds through different learning
opportunities that reveal the students’ background knowledge,
vocabulary, concept development and thinking processes.

The focus for developing positive attitudes towards speaking and

listening as well as creating a supportive environment is organised
under the following headings:
• Creating a Supportive Classroom Environment
• Opportunities for Relevant, Challenging and Purposeful
Communication
• Speaking and Listening for Community, School and Family Life

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 Beginning Speaking and Listening Phase

Creating a Supportive Classroom Environment

A supportive classroom environment is one in which both the
physical aspects and the culture of the classroom are considered.
Stimulating and innovative learning opportunities will draw on
students’ interests, knowledge and skills so that Beginning students
will develop the confidence and enthusiasm to engage in these
activities.

Physical Environment
The physical environment of the classroom will change according
to the teaching and learning demands at any particular time. It is
important to establish routines for forming groups, moving furniture
and collecting and storing equipment. These routines also provide
opportunities to identify speaking and listening needs and to negotiate
and adopt classroom behaviours. The following list contains
suggestions for creating an effective classroom environment.
• Space for small-group, whole-class interactions, e.g. class meetings,
class games, partner work and small-group work.
• A table to display objects of personal interest, work samples
or topic-related resources.
• Dress-up boxes as this allows students to engage in spontaneous
role play, to re-live experiences and experiment with new ideas
and vocabulary.
• A collection of puppets, both commercial and class-made, will
encourage students to retell their favourite stories or engage in
imaginative conversations.
• Telephones and message pads promote students to practise their
conversational and inquiry skills.
• A listening post provides another opportunity for students to listen
to a variety of audio recordings.
• A reading area that includes a variety of text types allows students
to discuss stories and pictures.

Learning centres provide scope to explore a unit of work. Students

can be involved with decisions on setting up areas to explore a
particular question, topic or issue. Teachers may develop the ideas of
an individual, a small group or the whole class. The following table
shows an example of topics that could be explored. A planning guide
is provided on the First Steps Speaking and Listening CD-ROM
Beginning Phase (Creating a Learning Centre).

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Environment and Attitude

Unit of Work/Topic Areas that Teachers/Students Might Create

Healthy food grocery store, vegetable patch, kitchen
or restaurant
Pets veterinary surgery, pet shop
Australian animals zoo, wildlife rescue, park ranger’s office
Toys toy shop, repair shop, toy factory
Transport car yard, bus depot, garage, harbour, train
station, airport
Leisure fun park, bowling alley, cinema, park
Entertainment theatre, circus, park, beach, river
Communities hospital, library, doctor, dentist, hairdresser,
fire station, agricultural show

Figure 4.3 Ideas for learning centres

Classroom Culture
A supportive classroom culture will help develop students’
confidence to ‘have a go’ as they move from familiar
to unfamiliar ways of speaking and listening. Learning
opportunities can draw on students’ interests, knowledge
and skills. Students can also be encouraged to contribute to
the decisions made in the classroom so that they develop a
sense of belonging.
• Be sensitive to cultural differences (see Chapter 4 of the
Linking Learning, Teaching and Assessment book for more
information).
• Maintain an emphasis on enjoyment.
• Communicate your high expectations to the students.
• Value social talk and the use of home language.
• Provide opportunities for planned and unplanned
Figure 4.4
speaking and listening.
• Build on students’ prior learning and knowledge.
• Encourage all attempts at speaking and listening for new purposes.
• Ensure that students have a clear sense of what is expected of them.
• Provide opportunities so students can review their learning.
• Involve students in negotiating their learning.
• Take advantage of the interests that students display, e.g. if a student
brings tadpoles to school, utilise the opportunity to involve students in
discussions to develop topic knowledge, explanations of life cycles, etc.

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 Beginning Speaking and Listening Phase

Opportunities for Relevant, Challenging

and Purposeful Communication
Students in the Beginning phase will benefit from a dynamic,
interactive classroom where time is provided for them to speak and
listen for a variety of purposes. Everyday occurrences that students
experience will provide opportunities to observe their existing skills
and determine which skills need to be taught. A planning guide can
be found on the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM, Beginning Phase
(Audit of Existing Classroom Contexts for Speaking and Listening).

Other ideas are listed below.

• Model the use of Standard Australian English.
• Model attentive listening and paraphrasing to clarify meaning.
• Model the language to recall events or narrate stories.
• Involve students in inquiries and investigations with real problems
to solve, e.g. deciding what to play and what equipment will be needed.
• Role play with students to model language used in different
contexts, e.g. post office, restaurant, supermarket or hairdresser.
• Teach nursery rhymes, counting rhymes, songs and chants so that
students hear and practise the sounds and structures of literary
language.
• Read stories every day and invite older students, parents or
community members to read to individuals or a class group.
• Read predictable stories that demonstrate the patterns and rhythms
of the English language. Encourage students to join in and predict
the next line or event.
• Provide puppets, felt boards, toys or magnetic pieces to retell
favourite stories
• Invite guest storytellers to tell stories to the class.
• Model language to promote cooperative play and social skills, e.g.
how to join a conversation or a game, how to ask for assistance, how to
use verbal and non-verbal behaviours to share or to resolve a conflict.

Speaking and Listening for Community, School

and Family Life
Students come to school speaking the language of their family
and community. As the way we speak is very much a part of our
identity, it is important to value and build on students’ home
language. However, the demands of interacting in school and in the
broader community mean that students need to be taught different
ways of speaking and listening for a variety of purposes. Students
are supported in developing competence in all aspects of Standard
Australian English so that they can communicate effectively in a
variety of situations and contexts.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Environment and Attitude

Following are some suggestions to assist Beginning Speakers and

Learners to adjust their speaking and listening behaviours both
in and out of the school environments.
• Talk about personal experiences and offer opinions.
• Model group discussion behaviours, e.g. turn taking, look at your
partner when you are speaking.
• Model and explicitly teach the body language associated with
active listening in classrooms.
• Teach the skills of negotiation, e.g. help students to find the specific
vocabulary to explain feelings and to clarify problems such as ‘I would
like a turn on the swing. Could I have a turn after you, please?’
• Teach ways of acknowledging a different point of view, e.g. James
thinks it was OK for Goldilocks to go into the Bears’ house but Sally
says it wasn’t.
• Model giving and following directions, e.g. Sometimes visitors come
to our class because they don’t know how to get to the office. How can
we give them directions?
• Encourage students to ask different types of questions.
• Encourage students to suggest answers to questions.
• Teach appropriate ways to speak and listen in both informal and
more formal situations, e.g. assembly, visiting performers.
• Model how to greet and farewell familiar and unfamiliar visitors,
e.g. The school nurse is coming today to check everyone’s eyes. You
will need to say, ‘Hello, Mrs …’
• Teach how to join a conversation or a game, e.g. When you want to
join in, you need to say the person’s name and then say, ‘Can I play, too?’
• Invite community members into the classroom so that students
interact with visitors.
• Provide opportunities for speaking and listening outside the
classroom, e.g. excursions such as to the post office provide
opportunities to ask questions about sorting mail and parcels.

For further information about Environment and Attitude, see

Linking Teaching Assessment and Learning, Chapter 5: Establishing
a Positive Teaching and Learning Environment.

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 Beginning Speaking and Listening Phase

USE OF TEXTS
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Expose students to a range of functional spoken texts

composed in Standard Australian English.

■ Provide authentic opportunities for students to participate

in unplanned and planned speaking and listening.

■ Provide opportunities for students to participate in

extended talk.

■ Teach students to share personal comments after listening.

■ Build knowledge of common topics to which students can

relate e.g. toys, families, community.

■ Teach students the metalanguage associated with speaking

and listening and encourage its use, e.g. speak, listen, hear,
speaker, listener, take turns, word, think.

Teaching Notes
The focus for supporting Beginning Speakers and Listeners in this
aspect is organised under the following headings.
• Exposure to a Range of Spoken Texts
• Participation in Unplanned and Planned Spoken Texts
• Focusing on Text Structure
• Developing Topic Knowledge
• Developing Metalanguage

Exposure to a Range of Spoken Texts

Beginning Speakers and Listeners will benefit from ongoing
opportunities to discuss and connect with a variety of functional
spoken texts, which include everyday, literary and informational.
Everyday spoken texts may include greetings, conversations,
procedures and the exploratory talk associated with new learning.
Literary and informational spoken texts may include poems, stories,
recounts, songs, descriptions, procedures and reports. See Linking
Teaching Assessment and Learning, Chapter 5: Establishing a Positive
Teaching and Learning Environment.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

Figure 4.5

Participation in Unplanned and Planned

Spoken Texts
Students’ spoken language develops as they interact with others
in a range of different situations and receive explicit supportive
feedback. Beginning Speakers and Listeners need frequent
opportunities to interact with each other in all learning activities
throughout the day.

There are many authentic opportunities for Beginning Speakers and

Listeners to participate in unplanned speaking and listening, such as
the following, which occur naturally every day.
• Playing
• Lunch times
• Snack times
• Packing away
• Activity time, e.g. construction, modelling, painting, water
exploration, free writing
• After reading together
• Collaborative tasks
• Planning activities with teacher or peers.

It is important to allow students to participate in extended talk

in the above situations because this provides them with the
opportunity to put their thoughts into words. Play and free choice
time is vital to the development of speaking and listening as
students also have the opportunity to practise some of the skills
from structured Speaking and Listening sessions (see Figure 4.7).

Modelled, Shared and Guided Speaking and Listening sessions

(see Linking Teaching Assessment and Learning, pages 126–129)

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 Beginning Speaking and Listening Phase

provide ideal opportunities for Beginning Speakers and Listeners to

participate in a range of unplanned and planned spoken texts. These
sessions can be one-to-one, small group or whole class. They can be
mini-lessons within another activity, part of the planned learning
for the day, or occur incidentally as an opportunity arises. Some of
the understandings about spoken texts that students will develop
through Modelled, Shared and Guided Speaking and Listening
sessions include:
• The connection between thinking, speaking and listening.
• Speakers and listeners use body language and different ways of
producing sounds (tone, volume, pace) as well as words to make
meaning.
• Speaking and listening achieves different purposes.
• Spoken texts are organised in particular ways to suit the context.
• Speakers and listeners take turns to speak (in dialogues).
• The relationship between spoken and written language is indirect.

Focusing on Text Structure

Discussions about spoken texts show students how to use a range
of text forms for different purposes. Beginning Speakers and Listeners
can also be supported using the Gradual Release of Responsibility
Model (see Chapter One, Figure 1.10) to construct simple planned
spoken texts in school contexts, using a basic text structure (see
Figure 4.6).

Example of Typical Spoken Text in School

Example of Basic Text Structure
Context
Meeting and greeting someone. Say “hello” and the person’s name.
Responding when someone gives you something. Say “thank you” and take the item.
Asking a question to get something. “Can you give/ May I have … please?”
Sharing own personal comments after listening. I liked … My favourite …

Figure 4.6 Focusing on text structure

It is important that students realise that the spoken language

is influenced by the context, with the audience and purpose
determining the structure of a spoken text. The examples in Figure
4.6 provide a starting point to consider how to direct students’
attention to text structures that suit particular purposes.

In the Beginning phase there is a focus on developing abilities to

learn to use the full range of functions when speaking and listening
(see Chapter 1, Figure 1.11). Teachers can provide valuable learning
experiences so students can use functional spoken texts.
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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

Beginning Students in the Beginning Teachers can encourage students to share personal comments and
students phase speak and listen to … do these things to draw students’ attention to the different purposes
communicate of spoken texts:
for …
Provide Direction Give a Comment Ask a Question
Getting things • role play with peers in the I can see you have You all look busy How did you work
done dress-up area. opened up the shop. working in the shop out which shopping
• find out if they can have/do Perhaps you could find together. I think I will jobs you needed to
things. some customers. go shopping too! do?
Influencing • convince a peer to let them If you need that piece You need to let How will you let
the behaviour, use some equipment. of LegoTM, try telling Ben know why it is Ben know why it
feelings or Ben what you need important for him to is important for you
attitudes of it for. give you the LegoTM to have that piece
others piece. of LegoTM?
Getting along • greet/depart. You can say hello to Your buddy from What do you need
with others • join in a conversation. your buddy from Room 7 will be happy to say to your buddy
Room 7. if you say hello to him. when he comes over
to see you?
Expressing • converse about a favourite Tell me about your It sounds like you play Why is that your
individuality toy. favourite toy. with your favourite toy favourite toy?
and personal • share own experiences. a lot!
feelings
Seeking and • find out what is going to Ask Mrs Oliver about When you need to find Did you find out
learning about happen next. the blue box on the out something, you about the blue box
the social • inquire about new items/ Curiosity Table. can ask someone. when you asked
and physical new people/new ideas. Mrs Oliver?
environment
Creating • create a story using the toy You can tell me your I enjoyed hearing the What have you been
stories, games, cars/puppets/painting. story using the toy car story, especially doing with your car?
new worlds cars. the ending. I was
and new texts surprised!
Communicating • show someone how to do Tell me what you did You sounded busy; you What did you do
information play with their electronic when you went to the did lots of things when yesterday?
toy. shop. you went to the shop
• converse about own yesterday.
experiences.
Entertaining • share things enjoyed, sing Tell me what you like That sounds like fun! What do you enjoy
others a song, play. to talk about. telling others? Why?

Figure 4.7 Examples for focusing on the functions of spoken texts

Developing Topic Knowledge

Students in the Beginning phase will have knowledge of topics
relating to their immediate family and community experiences.
Teachers can design learning experiences that begin with what
students already know, moving on to developing new topic
knowledge and understanding of new concepts. It is important
that time is spent in discovering what students already know when
introducing a new topic. This can be done through:
• Talking and listening to students in informal situations, e.g. snack
time, in between activities, while waiting for parents or caregivers.

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 Beginning Speaking and Listening Phase

• Observing students as they engage in exploratory talk during free

choice learning time, e.g. What do they already know? What do they
do with their information?
• Observing students’ representations and asking them to tell you
about what they have represented, e.g. paintings, models, drawings,
role plays.
• Interacting with students after their free time, e.g. Why did you play
in the blocks area today? What do you think you will do tomorrow? Why?
• Conducting focused interviews with students individually or in
small groups, e.g. What do you think you could do with this equipment?
Why would you do that? What did you learn when you looked in that
book? Why did you choose that picture to talk to me about?
• Negotiating familiar topics to study with the students, e.g. What do
you like to learn about? What do you know about …?
• Talking with students’ families and members of the community
when determining a topic to study.

Developing Metalanguage
The language used to talk about language is known as metalanguage.
Students need to be supported to build vocabulary they can use to
discuss and describe their speaking and listening. When students are
able to use metalanguage to talk competently about their own speaking
and listening, it helps them understand how language functions. This
knowledge also helps them understand the directions and feedback
provided by teachers who use specific metalanguage in daily interactions.

It is important for teachers to use metalanguage as part of everyday

teaching. This can be done across learning areas, as part of targeted
discussions, during explicit demonstrations, during one-on-one
conversations with students or as part of planned Modelled, Shared
or Guided Speaking and Listening sessions.

Certain terms tend to be more prominent when focusing on

different aspects of speaking and listening. For example, when
working with Beginning Speakers and Listeners, consider the use
of the following terms:
• Use of Texts: speak, listen, hear
• Contextual Understanding: speaker, listener
• Conventions: take turns, word, eye contact
• Processes and Strategies: think, plan, reflect

For further information about the Use of Texts aspect, see

Speaking and Listening Resource Book, 2nd edition.
• Chapter 1: Use of Texts
• Chapter 4: Processes and Strategies.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

Involving Students
1 What Shall I Do Today?
What Shall I Do Today? allows students to use extended talk and
connect with their existing knowledge of common topics. A range
of cross-curricula activities is set up so students use speaking and
listening to make decisions such as who they will learn with and
what activities they will do.
– Set out a range of collaborative and independent activities in areas
around the room, e.g. construction, art/craft, dress-ups, story-making
props, card games, reading area, writing area, listening area, computer
area, blocks, etc. See the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM, Beginning
Phase: Use of Texts, for sample planning formats (What Shall I do
Today? Planning for Indoors, Planning for Outdoors, Records for
Indoors and Records for Outdoors).
– Set up problem-solving situations as part of the activities, e.g. some
activities may not have all of the materials, equipment will need to be
shared, there is a task to design: What shall we make with these blocks?
– Explain the activities to students either in a large group or
individually. Students can look around the classroom and
encourage them to ask ‘What shall I do today?’
– Students decide which activities they would like to do.
– Interact with students as they participate in the activities,
supporting their selections and making suggestions where
appropriate, e.g. What are you doing with the blocks? Have you had
any problems today? How did you solve your problems?
– As students complete one activity, they can move on to the next
activity.
– Students can help to pack away and ask relevant questions and
give directions, e.g. Where shall we put these scraps of paper? Jamie
knows where the glue goes; can you ask him to help you?
– Monitor students and redirect as appropriate, e.g. those students
who tend to work on their own may need support to participate in an
activity with others.
What Shall I Do Today? is also suitable for the Early and
Exploratory phases.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• The activities might all relate to the class topic.
• Students can decide what kind of activities they would like at
a class meeting.
• Explanations for the activities can be given to the whole class,
to small groups or provided visually.
• Activities could be set up in the outside learning area.
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 Beginning Speaking and Listening Phase

2 Props with a Purpose

Props with a Purpose teaches students the structure of particular
spoken texts for different contexts. Basic text features are modelled
in a range of texts with props used as visual reminders. Students
can learn to construct everyday, literary and informational spoken
texts using this approach. This activity can be used with individuals,
small groups or the whole class.
• Select a spoken text that will be relevant to students.
• With the students, select props to help construct the spoken text.
Discuss with students the reasons for selecting particular props,
e.g. peg puppets could be used for characters in a story; several
pictures could be used for information about an animal; a picture of
a face with a light bulb could be used to give an idea when trying to
work out a social problem in a small group.
• Model the spoken text using the props, stopping at critical sections
of the text to discuss the text with students, e.g. I’m going to
tell you the problem in the story with this little shoe and these two
characters. I have two pictures here to show what the butterfly can do.
The light bulb means that I need to think of some ideas to solve the
problem about who is going first and I need to say, “I think …”
• Direct students to find or make their own props for their own
spoken text. Have a range of materials available, e.g. What will you
need to find or make to remember what you want to say? What else
do you need to include? What could you use for that?
• Invite students to compose their own spoken text with a partner
or in small groups using their props.
• Ask questions and refer to the props and text structure as they
construct their own spoken text, e.g. What happened after that?
What is that prop for? What is the problem in your story? Where did it
happen?
• Conclude the lesson by asking students to reflect and share their
comments, e.g. What prop did you like using? Why? How did your
props help you? What was the most interesting feature of the tiger?

Props for a Purpose is also suitable for the Early, Exploratory and
Consolidating phases.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Props can be available beforehand, rather than students creating
them.
• A box of small toys would be an excellent support for storytelling.
• Collect props after a lesson and store them for students to use
independently at another time.
• A letter could be sent out, inviting parents or caregivers to help in
making the props.
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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

3 Talk to Teach
Talk to Teach is an activity that provides an opportunity for students
to explore the structures and features of informational texts. By using
Talk to Teach, students are able to explore concepts and explain ideas.
In this way, they refine their understanding of topics and text forms.
• Identify topics or skills that individual students show an interest in
or perform well, e.g. a student may have an interest in a particular
animal. Another student may have particular computer skills.
• Decide on an audience that would be interested in learning about
a particular topic or skill, e.g. another student, a small group of
students or an adult.
• Help students to plan what they would say by teaching appropriate
vocabulary and organisation of key ideas.
• Provide time for students to rehearse what they will say.
• Provide time for students to teach another person.
• Involve students in reflecting on the way they used language to
explain.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• When a new student arrives in your class you might have
different students teaching the new student how to do things
during the day.
• You might involve parents/caregivers and have the children
‘teach’ the class something with the support of their parent/
caregiver. This works well when students can teach adult visitors
something they can do at school.

4 Reflect and Respond

Reflect and Respond is an activity designed to provide an
opportunity for students to discuss learning experiences. It enables
students to use speaking and listening to review key understandings
about topics and aspects of language used in learning and social
interactions. In the Beginning phase this session will be facilitated
by the teacher. The ultimate aim is for students to develop the
necessary skills to engage in Reflect and Respond independently
with a small group or a partner.
• Introduce Reflect and Respond by modelling the process with
another adult, e.g the teacher may say, ‘I enjoyed looking at tadpoles
with the magnifying glass today. I learned something new when James
told me about the noise the frogs were making in his backyard. His
description helped me to find that type of frog in our books. What did
you learn about today, Oliver?’
• When the students have had some experience with this pattern of
reflecting and responding, invite one student at a time to respond.
Support them by giving reminders of topics discussed during the
day. Repeat and extend tentative answers.
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 Beginning Speaking and Listening Phase

• Aim to develop this pattern of speaking and listening until

students are able to reflect and respond with a partner.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• You might focus on taking turns with a partner and use an object
such as a cardboard microphone or magic talking stick for the
person who is talking to hold.
• Try implementing this activity with different groupings, e.g. a
small group after a structured activity in which they worked with
a teacher or assistant.
• You might ask the students what they would like to discuss in
Reflect and Respond time.
• Students might have a piece of work or an object to discuss in
Reflect and Respond time.

5 Retell
Retell is an activity that provides an opportunity for students to
practise the structures and features of different text forms. Students
may retell stories that the teacher has read aloud or told. They may
retell instructions, such as how to play a game, or procedures, such
as how to make pancakes, after hearing them from a teacher or
another student. Teachers could introduce the process of retell in
some of the following ways:
• Take a favourite story and introduce puppets, magnetic shapes,
felt pieces or toys. Model how to retell the story using the puppets
(or other resources) to help sequence the events in the story.
Students could try this activity in pairs. The teacher would need to
support their attempts with reminders of the events and help with
any difficult vocabulary.
• Take photographs of an activity that the students have been
involved in such as making pancakes. Display the photographs
in the correct sequence. Set up a table with containers, cooking
equipment and playdough. Students could take turns to retell the
procedure for making pancakes to another student or adult, using
the photographs and the equipment to remind them of what to say.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Use a set of sequence cards (these can be bought commercially).
Ask a small group of students to take turns in a circle with the
cards in the middle. Each person takes a card, in turn, and adds to
the spoken text being reconstructed.
• After students have reconstructed the text orally, they may
represent it visually by drawing, painting or making a model. This
could be done independently, in a small group or whole class with
teacher guidance.
• The reconstruction might be in the form of a whole-class dramatisation.
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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Discuss speaking and listening, referring to the audience

and purpose.

■ Provide effective feedback to students about their speaking

and listening.

■ Model and discuss how to include relevant information

when speaking.

■ Draw students’ attention to the way ideas and feelings

are communicated through speaking and listening

■ Encourage students to use verbal and non-verbal devices

to create meaning.

Teaching Notes
The focus for supporting Beginning Speakers and Listeners in this
aspect is organised under the following headings.
• Understandings About Context
• Providing Feedback
• Considering the Needs of the Audience
• Exploring the Way Ideas and Feelings Are Communicated
• Use of Devices

Understandings About Context

Students in the Beginning phase are mostly encountering formal
schooling for the first time. When students enter a school setting,
they will learn about new ways of using language. For example,
they will learn how to take turns with a larger number of people;
they will speak and listen to unfamiliar people (other students at
school, other parents, teachers, the principal, etc.). They will learn
about new topics and new ways to use language, for example,
explaining new concepts or giving a reason for a particular point
of view.

It is important that teachers create opportunities for students in

the Beginning phase to speak for different purposes, with different
audiences and in different situations. For example, students may
have set up a science table to display a collection of different rocks.
The teacher may provide books about rocks, pictures or videos

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 Beginning Speaking and Listening Phase

that provide more information. Students may be asked to speak to

different people, to describe locations, be involved in testing rocks
for hardness or giving descriptions about different types of rocks.

Providing Feedback
Beginning Speakers and Listeners need to learn the language,
vocabulary and text structures associated with different situations at
school. It is important not to make assumptions about what a student
knows, believes or understands about speaking and listening. The
meaning students make from a spoken text is influenced by their
life experiences, their knowledge of spoken language (the words
and the behaviours) and the relationship with the speaker. Teachers
may find it helpful to learn about the way a student’s culture
influences their speaking and listening. (See the Speaking and
Listening CD-ROM, Exploratory phase: Contextual Understanding
for parent/caregiver survey sheets.)

The feedback provided to students not only acknowledges and

values the students’ own language use but it also builds their
confidence to communicate in different situations. Here are some
suggestions for providing effective feedback.
• Focus on the message, not the way it has been conveyed.
• Acknowledge feelings, e.g. I can see that you are annoyed . You
sound really happy about that.
• Wait before offering support. Students may be able to work out
the meaning together and then positive comments can be given.
• Use positive statements when students adjust their speaking and
listening, e.g. I noticed that you used a quiet voice in the library.
I can see that you are facing me when I speak.
• Use reflective guidance when students are having difficulty
making sense, e.g. I knew what you meant as soon as you pointed to
the picture. You can point to the things you are talking about.

Considering the Needs of the Audience

Beginning Speakers and Listeners interact in ways that make sense
to them. Modelled, Shared and Guided Speaking and Listening are
ideal practices for teaching students to include relevant information
for their audience. Encourage students by providing direction,
responses and questions, and teaching them the appropriate verbal
and non-verbal language, as shown:
• What do you think your mum would like to hear when she comes
to collect you today?
• What will your dad need to know when you tell him how you
made the boat?

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

• You told me your grandma came to see you. What did you talk
about?
• What do you think the principal would like to hear about?
• I was interested when you told me about your hat. It reminded
me of my hat.
• What story do you think your friend liked listening to?
• I can see what you’re talking about because you are pointing
to them.
• What do we need to do when someone is talking at group time?
• What are some things we can say when we meet people each day?
• How will make sure that our friends know that we want to listen
to them?

By using the type of language exemplified above, students will

learn that spoken language is adjusted according to the context, and
language is influenced by the audience, purpose and situation.

Exploring the Way Ideas and Feelings Are

Communicated
Beginning Speakers and Listeners will need support in developing
understandings that ideas and feelings are communicated in different
ways. Electronic spoken texts are valuable resources to use when
discussing how ideas and feelings can be expressed in different ways.
Teachers can support students by discussing some of the following
questions.
• How did you feel as you listened to your friend?
• What did you say to make your friends laugh when you were
playing in the sandpit?
• Did you like the way Mrs Oliver told the story? Why? Do you
think everyone would like it?
• How do you let other people know that what they said makes you
happy?
• What interesting words did you hear? Have you used those words?
• How did you know your friend was happy or annoyed?

Use of Devices
In the Beginning phase, teachers model and familiarise students
with the way in which verbal and non-verbal devices are used to
convey meaning. Devices are often used when trying to persuade
others to accept a particular point of view or to convey emotion
through descriptive terms and expressions. The teaching focus for
Beginning Speaker and Listeners includes:
• Body position, e.g. facing the speaker.
• Affective displays, e.g. nodding to show they are listening.

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 Beginning Speaking and Listening Phase

• Eye contact, e.g. stopping an activity to look at the speaker.

• Greetings such as a handshake or waving.
• Adjusting volume, e.g. when to increase volume for emphasis, when
telling an exciting part in a story.
• Questioning — When is it appropriate to ask questions and what
to ask?
• Understanding that a rising intonation in the voice denotes that a
question is being asked.

For further information about the Contextual Understanding aspect,

see Speaking and Listening Resource Book, 2nd Edition, Chapter 2:
Contextual Understanding. For further information on the teaching
and learning practices referred to in this section see Linking Assessment,
Teaching and Learning, Chapter 7: Effective Teaching and Learning
Practices.

Involving Students
1 Talking About Speaking and Listening
Talking About Speaking and Listening is an activity designed to
support younger students to analyse spoken texts. When students
participate in this activity, they talk about how other people speak
and listen in different contexts. They also learn about the way in
which ideas and feelings are communicated through verbal and
non-verbal devices used by the speakers and listeners.
• Select a spoken text such as a segment on a children’s television
show, audio tape of a conversation, audio tape of a story in which
some characters are interacting.
• Listen to the spoken text.
• Ask students to listen for a specific focus, e.g. How did we know
how she felt? What is the person talking about? What happened to her
face? Or if it is a tape — What do you think her face looked like when
she said how she felt? Why do you think that?
• Ask students to listen and discuss their own focus, e.g. What would
you like to hear again? Why?
• Ask students to relate the main ideas to their own experiences
or future speaking and listening, e.g. When might you need to let
people know how you are feeling? Think of a time when you needed to
let your family/teacher/friends know how you felt. What did you say?
Did you have to change the way you said it for the different people?

It is useful to refer to points discovered in the session when

appropriate in other contexts.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• You could include a session each week as part of your timetable.
• You might use this activity before and after the class visits another
class in the school, using a relevant spoken text.

2 Personality Phones
This activity allows students to practise adjusting their speaking
for different imaginary audiences. It also allows students to
independently explore what they will say about matters of personal
interest and to experiment with simple devices. One or several
phones are set up with imaginary characters or personalities
listed on a phone list. See the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM,
Beginning and Early Phases: Contextual Understanding (Personality
Phones) for sample phone lists.

Students can ‘ring’ and talk to the characters about topics, fears
and celebrations, depending on the situation and personality of the
character. The characters are to be designed to suit the students,
e.g. if being positive is a class focus, one of the characters might be
called Happy Henry who owns a smile factory. The phones become
part of the classroom environment to be used by the students when
they need or when they are asked to use them as part of the daily
activities. Personality Phones can also be included in What Shall I
Do Today? (see page 61).
• Show students a Personality Phone and the phone list.
• Tell students the phones are for everyone in the class to use when
they need to talk to someone on their own. They might want to
talk about feelings, ideas, problems, plans, celebrations, etc.
• Model using the phones for several different purposes. This may
be done over several days, e.g. I’m finding it hard to work out what
the problem is with one of my friends, so let’s look down the list …
Here’s Penny Problem-Solver's number. Dial the number and have an
imaginary conversation.
• Talk about how you feel after having a talk on the phone, e.g.
I think I need to say sorry to my friend. I’ll go and talk to him now.
• Show students where they can find the Personality Phones in the
classroom.
• Negotiate and record some guidelines for using the phones with
the students, e.g. When should we use them? How many people need
to be near the phone? What are the phones for?

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 Beginning Speaking and Listening Phase

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• The students might be involved in selecting the characters and
their situation for using the phones.
• Assess the opportunities for linking this activity to writing.
• The personalities could be fluffy toys or puppets.

3 Class Meetings
Class meetings are held regularly for students to discuss and make
decisions about matters that are important to the whole class. They
provide opportunities for students to contribute personal ideas
and feelings about a range of issues and topics. Students in the
Beginning phase will need a simple introduction to class meetings.
It may be useful to introduce the concept of a meeting when a
decision that affects the students needs to be made. For example,
students may need help with deciding how to share or store
equipment, or how to modify behaviour in the classroom.
• Have students sit in a circle so that everyone can see each other.
• Introduce and explain the vocabulary that students will need,
e.g. meeting, taking turns, decisions, etc.
• The teacher should ‘chair’ meetings in the Beginning phase.
• Discuss one item at a time. For the first meeting, one item will be
adequate.
• Invite students to contribute their feelings and knowledge about
the items or problem, e.g. What do you think about this? How does
it feel when this happens to you? Use other adults in the classroom
to model this process.
• Invite students to contribute ideas for a decision about the items,
e.g. What should we do?
• Assist students to come to a class decision and record it.
• After the meeting, display the decisions and refer to them as
appropriate, e.g. We decided at our meeting that we would walk
over to talk to a person instead of shouting across the room.
It is a good idea to read the decisions the next day and show
students where you have displayed the decision. Visual as well
as written recordings are useful.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Keep a book to record the ‘minutes’.
• Speakers may hold a ‘microphone’.
• At certain times of the meeting, a round may be held so that each
person has an opportunity to speak about in item. Students may
say ‘pass’ in a round.
• Meetings should be held regularly in order to develop familiarity
with the language needed in this context.
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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

4 Act It Out
Act It Out is a small-group activity designed to give students time
to imagine and practise what they will say and do in different
situations. It provides them with the opportunity to discuss
information that they may need to include and to try ways to
improve the effectiveness of their speaking and listening. To prepare
for this activity, teachers will need a set of cards with different
scenarios to use as the starting points for the group to act it out. See
the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM, Beginning Phase: Contextual
Understanding for the sample set of scenario cards.
• Model the following process with another adult to introduce
the activity.
• Pick a card and discuss these questions, e.g. What is happening
here? How do we know? What will we say and do so everyone
understands what we mean? How could we say this so that it sounds
like the talk we use at school? What will we do to show that we
understand what has been said?
• Decide who will act out the parts.
• Decide where the action will start — before, during or after the
event on the card.
• Try acting it out.
• Students can reflect and discuss these questions, e.g. What made
sense? Why? Where else could we listen like this? Where else could
we speak like this? What would we say differently next time? Why?

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Base this activity around an identified need, e.g. how to join a game.
• Use some photographs of students in your class as a starting point,
e.g. students standing near the pile of blocks at packing away time.
• Video-tape the students as they take part in the activity. They can
then watch the tape for the reflection section of the activity.
• Students can tape the talk and then listen to it for the reflection
section of the activity.
• Think of any possible props that the students could use.

5 People I Talk to, People I Listen to

This activity provides students with an opportunity to discuss
different audiences and different purposes for speaking and
listening. Teachers can draw on contexts both inside and outside
the classroom. Introduce this activity by preparing photographs
of people that students are likely to interact with at school, e.g.
administration staff, school nurse, school dentist, gardener, canteen
workers, other teachers and assistants, etc.

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 Beginning Speaking and Listening Phase

• Choose a photograph and discuss, e.g. When do we talk to ...?

What do we talk about with ...? How do we speak when we talk
to …?
• Repeat with other photographs emphasising choices that are made
according to topics that may be discussed or the purpose of the
speaking.
• Students could draw pictures of the people they talk to at home or
in the community, e.g. family members, people in the post office, the
doctor, etc.

This activity is also suitable for the Early and Exploratory phases.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Consider using photographs to create a display.
• Try giving the students a specific criterion first, e.g. draw some
people you like talking to.
• Your class might draw the pictures and students can then sort
them into their own criteria, e.g. people I like listening to and
people I talk to every day.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

CONVENTIONS
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Develop and extend children’s vocabulary for different

purposes.

■ Model speaking for different purposes, e.g. making requests,

seeking information.

■ Model speaking and listening behaviours, e.g. maintain

a conversation.

■ Model listening, behaviours, e.g. responding to requests,

questions, looking at the person.

Teaching Notes
Teaching and learning experiences for children in the Beginning
phase are organised under the following headings:
• Building Vocabulary
• Understanding the Conventions of Spoken Texts
• Understanding the Behaviours Associated with Speaking
and Listening
• Understanding the Conventions of Listening

Building Vocabulary
Children’s development in acquiring language skills is the result
of cumulative experiences from birth onwards. Academic writers
(Dickinson & Tabors 2003) describe three dimensions of children’s
experiences that are related to later literacy success as: exposure to
varied vocabulary, opportunities to be part of conversations that use
extended discourse, and home and classroom environments that are
cognitively and linguistically stimulating.

Students can be supported to develop their vocabulary in the

following ways:
• Encourage play and social interactions.
• Engage children in speaking and listening at every opportunity.
• Model choice of words for different purposes.
• Support children in providing names for new objects or
experiences, giving explanations and elaborating on meaning,
e.g. toys, animals, food items when shopping.
• Teach new words through encounters with new experiences,
e.g. visits to the zoo, the farm, a ferry ride.
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 Beginning Speaking and Listening Phase

• Model the vocabulary needed for procedures, e.g. involve children

with cooking, gardening, art/craft work.
• Model vocabulary needed in community settings, e.g. names and
labels in post office, supermarket, etc.

See the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM, Beginning Phase:

Conventions (Plan: Developing Vocabulary — Excursion) for a guide
to planning vocabulary related to an excursion.

Understanding the Conventions of Spoken Texts

The conventions of spoken texts relate to the choices that are
made to ensure common understandings in a variety of contexts.
These choices include vocabulary, tone and non-verbal behaviours.
Conventions can be described in terms of the structures and language
features of a spoken text. The structure of spoken text refers to the
way ideas, feelings or communication are linked in the text. For
example:
• turn-taking in a conversation
• making an apology
• introducing people.

The language features of a spoken text refer to the type of vocabulary,

grammar, tone and pace chosen. For example:
• using colloquial words or sayings when conversing with friends
• using emotive language to persuade such as modelling language
used in advertisements
• stressing certain words or altering volume to gain impact.

At all phases of development it is important that students are

exposed to different models of speaking so that attention can be
drawn to the conventions that suit particular purposes.

Students in the Beginning phase will develop understandings of

the way language is structured through challenging, enjoyable
experiences where they are able to explore and approximate
language use.
• Encourage children to join in songs, chants and rhymes. This will
help them to remember and use language patterns.
• Model Standard Australian English where appropriate.
• Model the structures and features of the different functions of
language:
– request information
– ask a question
– relay a message
– describe an object
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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

– recount an experience
– greet or farewell a visitor
– tell a joke.
• Model the use of conjunctions when speaking, e.g. and, but,
because
• Model the use of the correct tense.

Understanding the Behaviours Associated with

Speaking and Listening
Students need to be aware of the behaviours associated with speaking
and listening and how it affects meaningful communication in a
variety of contexts. Teachers can involve students in choosing
appropriate speaking and listening behaviours through modelling,
explicit teaching and discussion. Jointly constructing Y charts or T charts
will provide meaningful reminders. The following list of behaviours
may provide some useful starting points.
• Discuss body language when speaking, e.g. appropriate eye contact,
proximity of speaker and listener, use of gestures.
• Discuss body language when listening, e.g. nodding your head,
proximity to the speaker.
• Discuss how an audience behaves, e.g. when listening to the
teacher, when listening to another student, at assembly, at the theatre.
• Discuss how to take turns in a discussion.
• Discuss how to ensure everyone in a group has a turn.
• Discuss how to join or leave a game.
• Discuss how to express likes and dislikes sensitively.

Understanding the Conventions of Listening

Listening is an active, constructive process that involves making
meaning from verbal and non-verbal cues. The way in which we
listen is linked to the context of the communication. We listen
differently during unplanned, spontaneous situations (such as in
casual conversations) than we do when speaking and listening is
planned and formal (such as in the classroom when instructions are
being given). Teachers can assist students to become familiar with
and use the conventions of listening in some of the following ways.
• Provide opportunities for students to listen to speech constructed
for different purposes.
• Provide opportunities for students to respond to spoken texts,
for example:
– retelling a favourite part of a story
– through drawing, painting, sculpting
– by joining in and remembering songs, chants and poems
– by responding to requests
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 Beginning Speaking and Listening Phase

– following directions
– responding to questions
– listening for key words and ideas
– commenting on another person’s ideas
– joining in a game
– joining in a conversation.

Involving Students
1 Picture Talk
Picture Talk activities help to build vocabulary and provide
opportunities for students to practise the structures and features
of spoken language. They could be used to practise description,
procedures, recounts or narratives.

Prepare pictures to suit your purpose. They could be from

magazines, postcards, commercial posters or photographs taken
in and around the school.

In the Beginning phase, the activity might focus on labelling by

asking; What can you see in the picture? Extend the activity by asking
questions, e.g. What do you think will happen next? Have you been to
a place like this?

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Choose pictures to suit your purpose, e.g. student playing to
highlight social skills.
• Select rural or urban scenes to practise vocabulary.
• Select works of art — discuss line, colour, pattern and shading.
• Refer to pictures from ‘how-to’ books to practise procedures.

2 Sorting and Classifying Activities

Sorting and Classifying activities help students to learn the features
of descriptive language and develop the ability to structure their talk
effectively by describing similarities and differences.

Introduce the activity by building on to everyday occurrences such

as sorting blocks and other play equipment. Model the language of
description by ‘thinking out loud’. A simple sorting activity involves
groups of items that belong in the same category but have some
contrasting features. Try using marbles, pictures of food, buttons,
shells, leaves. Provide children with containers to help with the
sorting, e.g. marbles. Let’s sort out the marbles. We’ll find all the small
ones and put them in a bowl, and then we’ll find all the big ones and put
them in another bowl. Some marbles have one colour and some have
more than one. Try finding all the marbles that have only one colour.
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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

This activity can also be adapted for the Early, Exploratory and
Consolidating phases. (See Phase chapters for modified versions
of this activity.)

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

This could be used in a maths lesson to sort and classify shapes or in
a science class to sort and classify leaves.

3 What Can You Hear?

What Can You Hear? helps to develop listening skills by providing
students with a focus question. It also develops vocabulary as students
name things that they hear and listen to the responses of others.

Take the students for a walk to a local park. Make sure they are
sitting comfortably and ask them to listen without speaking.
Ask students to list the things they could hear. Elaborate on
their responses by providing descriptive words and/or unknown
vocabulary.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Use as an introduction to a science topic on frogs, insects or birds
or as an introduction to a Society and Environment topic on
people-made, nature-made environments.
• Make charts of words when you return to the classroom; these words
can be referred to and practised as your unit of work develops.
Add digital photographs to act as a reminder of the experience.

4 Guessing Games
Guessing Games can develop vocabulary and the structures and
features of description. They encourage students to use language
accurately and provide an effective listening focus for other students
in the group.

Prepare a ‘feely bag’ so students can put their hand inside to feel
something that other students cannot see. Model the game until all
students understand how it is played.

Link the game to a story or topic that the children have been
immersed in, e.g. put a toy bear in the bag after reading Goldilocks
and the Three Bears. Describe the features and invite the children to
guess what is in the bag.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Link the game to a Learning Area, e.g. attribute blocks for maths.
• Link the game to a topic about investigating toys or tools.

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 Beginning Speaking and Listening Phase

5 My Grandma Went Shopping

My Grandma Went Shopping develops vocabulary, memory and
reinforces the behaviour of turn-taking. Students sit in a circle.
(Keep numbers small for younger students.) One person starts by
saying, ‘My grandma went shopping and bought (e.g. apples).’ The
next person says, ‘My grandma went shopping and bought apples
and milk.’ The game continues in a cumulative fashion with each
person listing the previous items bought before adding one new
item to the list.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Provide concrete materials, e.g. have a basket containing plastic fruit
and vegetables. Students choose an item from the basket and put it
on the floor in front of them.
• Change the setting and the characters, e.g. choose things to take
on a picnic, camping trip or going fishing. Prepare pictures of items
needed to help with memory and to stimulate vocabulary.

6 Taking Turns
Taking Turns introduces the concept of taking turns to complete an
activity in cooperation with others. It suits situations where turns
can be taken in a random order. Emphasise the language of taking
turns, e.g. ‘It’s your turn’ and ‘now it’s Sam’s turn.’

Write the names of the students in the group on cards. The cards
are turned over so that the names cannot be seen. As the teacher
needs a student to take a turn in the activity, a card is turned over
and that student is chosen.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

Link the shape of cards to a topic relevant to the class, e.g. regular
two-dimensional shapes, Australian animals, articles of clothing hanging
on a line or fruit shapes.

7 Generic Games
There are many common games that can be used to support
understanding of the conventions of spoken language. See First Steps
Reading Map of Development, 2nd Edition and First Steps Writing Map of
Development, 2nd Edition for descriptions of games.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Processes and Strategies

PROCESSES AND STRATEGIES

Major Teaching Emphases

■ Model language to describe thinking.

■ Involve children in conversations with family members and

others.

■ Model the language and behaviours of listening, e.g. Let’s

listen to the music. Would you like to hear this story?

■ Model ways to improve communication, e.g. adjusting volume,

respond to comprehension checks.

Organisation of the Processes and Strategies Aspect

There are several differences in the organisation of the Processes
and Strategies aspect. Both the Teaching Notes and the Teaching
and Learning Experiences (Involving Students) are in the Speaking
and Listening Resource Book, 2nd Edition, Chapter 4: Processes and
Strategies.

The rationale for this difference in organisation is that the processes

and strategies of speaking and listening are not conceptually
hierarchical and therefore not phase-specific. In all phases, a
variety of speaking and listening processes and strategies need to
be introduced, developed and consolidated. What varies from one
phase to the next is the growth in:
• the number and integration of strategies used throughout the
processes of speaking and listening
• the awareness and monitoring of speaking and listening processes
• the efficiency in the uses of the speaking and listening processes
• the ability to articulate the use of the strategies used in the process
of speaking and listening
• the awareness of how the use of processes helps with composing
and listening to texts.

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 Beginning Speaking and Listening Phase

Supporting Parents of
Beginning Speakers and
Listeners
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF BEGINNING
SPEAKERS AND LISTENERS
Beginning Speakers and Listeners imitate the sounds and patterns
of language that they hear around them. They use words, body
movements and sounds to express their feelings, their needs and to
interact with others. Familiar adults and older children may help
to work out their meaning by questioning and repeating what they
have said.

Teachers will find that parents are able to support their children
effectively when they have an understanding of how children learn
and if they are aware of what happens in the classroom. Teachers
can help build parent awareness of the learning program in which
their child is involved in the following ways:
• Invite parents in to join in class activities and talk to them before
and after the activity, e.g. The children are … The adult’s role in this
activity is to … How did the children enjoy this activity? What did you
find was effective in helping them to understand?
• Conduct parent/caregiver workshops on learning, e.g. Learning
Through Play, Learning with Technology, Helping Children to Learn.
• Make a video, DVD or a CD-ROM with the students to
demonstrate certain features of the learning program. Each family
can take it home to view with their children. A viewing guide can
be created with the student’s input.
• When creating displays of student work, add information about
the context of the activity and list the important learning that
took place during the activity.
• Provide students with home-learning activities that involve them
sharing their learning with family members.

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 Supporting Parents of Beginning Speakers and Listeners

Supporting Beginning Speakers and Listeners

in the Home
Beginning Speakers and Listeners will benefit from a range of
experiences in the home setting. Ideas for providing appropriate
experiences are available in the Parent Cards located on the
First Steps Speaking and Listening CD-ROM. Teachers can select
appropriate cards for each Beginning Speaker and Listener and
copy them for parents to use at home.

Parent Cards
1 General Description of Beginning Speakers and Listeners
2 Developing an Understanding About Different Types of
Speaking and Listening
3 Developing an Understanding About Contexts
4 Developing Vocabulary
5 Listening (Refer to the Early Phase Parent Cards.)
6 Family Meetings (Refer to the Early Phase Parent Cards.)

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 CHAPTER 5

Early Speaking and

Listening Phase
Unplanned Planned

Teacher: I wonder what is inside. Can you find out

without opening it up?
Liam: (lifting the container) I think there’d be Smarties
in there. What do you think there’ll be in there,
James?
James: Um … I think there’ll be Smarties.
Liam: Aaar … I think there’d be a film in there and Liam: First … um you get …
in that one I … think there would beee … um … Teacher: Sorry, can I just stop you a minute, Liam.
maybe some … rocks, maybe? In there? What are you going to tell us to make?
What do you think’d be in that one or that one? Liam: A money … a clay money box. First um ... um … how
James: Camera. to make a clay money box. First, you get a bit of clay
Liam: Film? and then you get a tin and then you get a bit of paper
James: Yeah, film and then cut it ... how much … how big the tin is and
(overlapping and inaudible) then wrap it around the tin, then stick the tin on and
Liam: Can we have a look? then get a bit of clay and wrap it around the tin and
Teacher: What do you think is in there? then make the bottom and then … um … do the um …
Liam and James (together): Smarties, film and rocks. do some pictures on it then make the top and cut a
Teacher: OK, which one is the Smarties? hole in it.
Liam: This one. (pointing) Teacher: And is that all, Liam?
Teacher: Do you think so? Have a look! Liam: Yep.
Liam: Ooh! It buttons and … bits of paper. Teacher: OK, thanks Liam.
James: And a button!

Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2

Global Statement
In this phase, students use their own variety of English language to
communicate needs, express ideas and ask questions. They understand
spoken language relating to personal and social interests and respond
in their own way. They are becoming aware of appropriate ways of
interacting in familiar situations.

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 Early Speaking and Listening Indicators

Early Speaking and Listening

Indicators
Use of Texts Conventions
◆ Makes sense of spoken texts with familiar ◆ Structures simple spoken texts
others. appropriately.
◆ Uses a range of brief unplanned spoken ◆ Uses everyday terms related to their
texts independently. experiences and some subject-specific
◆ Participates with support in some planned words.
talk for school purposes. ◆ Relies on simple sentences or uses simple
◆ Recalls personally significant information connectives to link ideas.
from spoken texts. ◆ Interprets and uses simple statements,
• Asks and answers questions seeking information commands and questions.
and clarification. • Sequences speech in intelligible ways.
• Follows, one step at a time, short, simple • Interprets and responds to non-verbal cues,
instructions, e.g. for playing a game, completing a e.g. facial expressions, gestures.
classroom task.
• Contributes personally significant knowledge,
ideas and feelings to discussions.
Processes and Strategies
• May use own variety of English to communicate ◆ Talks about thinking with others, e.g. I think.
in familiar contexts. ◆ Uses a small range of processes and
strategies when speaking, e.g. uses props to
support speaking.
Contextual Understanding ◆ Uses a small range of processes and
◆ Beginning to adjust speaking and listening strategies when listening, e.g. asks questions
for familiar situations in a school context. to clarify.
◆ Will often assume a shared background • Shows understanding of spoken language in
between speaker and listener when personal ways, e.g. responds with some relevant
speaking, e.g. may not give sufficient information comments.
to orientate the listener. • Anticipates stages in familiar spoken texts, e.g.
◆ Is aware that people talk about their ideas. predicts next part of teacher’s directions for an
• Often relies on gesture, intonation and activity.
repetition to convey meaning. • Uses strategies to adjust speaking for different
• Discusses appropriate ways to speak and listen purposes, e.g. shares ideas and offers opinion in
in different situations. structured situations.
• Recognises there are different spoken texts. • Uses known familiar cues in order to clarify
• Understands purpose and their roles in routine message, e.g. through body language, facial
classroom activities involving speaking and expression or simple response – What?
listening.
• Can state purpose for own talk.

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 Early Speaking and Listening Phase

Major Teaching Emphases

Environment and Attitude (see p. 85) ■ Provide support for students to recognise
how they can contribute to discussions.
■ Provide opportunities for relevant, ■ Provide opportunities for students to
challenging and purposeful analyse the meaning of spoken texts.
communication. ■ Support students to recognise how simple
■ Create a supportive environment which devices improve speaking and listening in
values the diversity of students’ speaking different contexts, e.g. volume, simile, rhyme,
and listening development (in their home common sayings.
languages).
■ Encourage students to see the value
of effective listening and speaking for Conventions (see p. 113)
community, school and family life. ■ Provide opportunities for students to
develop and use new vocabulary.
Use of Texts (see p. 90) ■ Model language structures and features to
suit the purpose, e.g. recount an experience
■ Expose students to a range of functional using time order, checking on listener’s
spoken texts composed in Standard understanding, adding supporting detail, give
Australian English. explanations using conjunctions, e.g. if, then, and,
■ Provide authentic opportunities for because.
students to participate in unplanned and ■ Model the skills of conversation.
planned speaking and listening. ■ Teach speaking and listening behaviours
■ Provide opportunities for students to that support meaning making, e.g. asking
participate in extended talk. clarifying questions, seeking confirmation,
■ Teach students to compose spoken providing sufficient detail.
texts using basic text structures e.g. using ■ Model and discuss agreed ways to respond
people’s names in social situations and providing to spoken texts in school, e.g. when and how
background information in recounts, responding to to take turns.
questioning.
■ Teach students to make connections with
their existing knowledge of common Processes and Strategies (see p. 129)
topics. ■ Model thinking aloud about the selection
■ Teach students the metalanguage of appropriate speaking and listening
associated with speaking and listening strategies.
and encourage its use, e.g. meaning, question, ■ Encourage students to verbalise own
topic, message, Standard Australian English, point thinking.
of view, sharing, volume, expression, turn, plan, ■ Provide opportunities for students to
memory. engage in conversations for specific
purposes, e.g. to socialise, to get things done.
Contextual Understanding (see p. 103) ■ Teach simple planning tools for speaking,
e.g. plan recounts that orientate the listener, plan
■ Discuss ways in which particular spoken how …
texts are suitable for different audiences, ■ Teach simple planning tools to help
e.g. conversations with adults or peers during students gain a listening focus, e.g. use
outdoor play. drawings to respond to listening, listen for specific
■ Provide explicit feedback to students who information.
are adjusting their speaking and listening, ■ Model strategies to adjust communication,
e.g. when they are talking in small groups/to e.g. self-correct to clarify meaning, rephrase if not
teachers. understood.
■ Help students recognise where background
and supporting information are needed
when speaking.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Environment and Attitude

Teaching and Learning

Experiences
ENVIRONMENT AND ATTITUDE
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Provide opportunities for relevant, challenging and

purposeful communication.

■ Create a supportive classroom environment which

values the diversity of students’ speaking and listening
development (in their home languages).

■ Encourage students to see the value of effective listening

and speaking for community, school and family life.

Teaching Notes
Students in the Early phase will need assistance to prepare them for
the demands and challenges of formal learning. In the classroom,
the purposes for speaking and listening place different demands
on students to use spoken language in particular ways. Different
audiences and situations will also be presented to students which
will influence the types of speaking and listening they are required
to do. Teachers can design teaching and learning activities that draw
on students’ interests, knowledge and skills. It is through these
experiences that students develop the skills needed to interact with
others in order to meet a variety of purposes.

The focus for developing positive attitudes towards speaking and

listening as well as a supportive environment is organised under
the following headings:
• Creating a Supportive Classroom Environment
• Opportunities for Relevant, Challenging and Purposeful
Communication
• Speaking and Listening for Community, School and Family Life

Creating a Supportive Classroom Environment

A supportive classroom environment can be planned to include
both the physical aspects and the culture of the classroom. Teachers
can provide challenging teaching and learning experiences that
enable students to improve their existing language strengths.
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 Early Speaking and Listening Phase

Physical Environment
The physical environment for Early phase students will need to be
flexible to accommodate learning and structured play, both indoors
and outdoors. Students will need to be taught routines such as
moving in and out of groups, moving furniture, and collecting and
storing equipment.

Figure 5.3

Other considerations for an effective physical environment

are listed below.
• Teach students how to organise, use and store equipment.
• Include tables or pin-up boards to display students’ items of
interest, work samples or topic-related resources.
• Provide a selection of materials that will stimulate imaginative
play, e.g. cardboard boxes, old blankets, rope, steering wheels, blocks
and items for students to ‘dress-up’.
• Provide a quiet, comfortable reading area that includes a variety
of text types.
• Provide sets of telephones and message pads. Encourage students
to ring each other, take messages and have conversations.
• Provide resources to assist with storytelling and imaginative
conversations such as puppets, magnetic or felt characters.
• Provide tape recorders or listening posts with taped stories.
Blank audio tapes should be available to record students’ spoken
language.
• Plan outdoor areas that will require students to interact, share
equipment, experiment and investigate.
• Establish learning centres that will help students explore a topic
or develop a unit of work. Students can contribute ideas and
suggestions as to what equipment can be in a learning centre.
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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Environment and Attitude

The table below shows examples of topics that could be explore

in this way. Refer to the First Steps Speaking and Listening
CD-ROM, Beginning Phase (Creating a Learning Centre and
Audit of Existing Classroom Contexts for Speaking and Listening).

Unit of Work/Topic Areas That Teachers/Students Might Create

Animals veterinary surgery, zoo, pet shop
Food restaurant (Chinese, Italian ...) kitchen, grocery store
Travel travel agent, tourist information centre, airport
(Choose a country to study.)
Toys toy shop, repair shop, toy factory
Transport car yard, bus depot, garage, harbour, train station, airport
Local community hairdresser, petrol station, supermarket, swimming pool, video shop
Community services first-aid post, ambulance, fire station
Communities workers doctor’s surgery, dental surgery, library

Figure 5.4 Setting up learning areas

Classroom Culture
Students in the Early phase will need to feel supported as they interact
in unfamiliar situations and with unfamiliar people. It is important
to establish a classroom culture that accepts individual differences
and encourages students to use speaking and listening to develop
positive relationships with teachers and peers. It is also important to
foster a sense of independence and confidence.
• Maintain sensitivity to cultural differences. (See First Steps Linking
Learning, Teaching and Assessment for more information.)
• Teach students to think of others, e.g. to make space for others, to
invite others to join in and to share equipment.
• Teach students how to take turns in a group, e.g. to speak, to
decide who will go first when choosing equipment or playing a game.
• Teach students to ask for help when they are experiencing difficulty
(help from teachers or peers).
• Teach students to discuss problems, e.g. teach words and phrases
that will support students to describe their feelings.
• Provide positive feedback when students attempt to adopt new
speaking and listening behaviours.
• Provide opportunities for students to choose their own activities.
• Teach students to share classroom responsibilities e.g. co-construct
a chart of daily jobs, change the date on the calendar, set up the
writing centre.

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 Early Speaking and Listening Phase

• Teach students the process of making decisions,

e.g. to take a vote in a class meeting.
Display the decisions made and refer How to Be Independent
to them when needed. 1 Listen carefully.
• Teach students the skills needed to 2 Look around at others.
act independently, e.g. to listen to 3 Ask someone close to you.
instructions carefully, to ask questions
4 Ask someone in your
when they are unsure (of teachers or
group.
peers), to watch what other students
are doing to see if it helps them to 5 Ask your teacher.
understand a task. Figure 5.5

Opportunities for Relevant, Challenging

and Purposeful Communication
Students in the Early phase use spoken language throughout the
day as they explore relationships and gain an understanding of new
topics and concepts. These everyday occurrences provide teachers
with insight into the language functions that students control and
those that need to be taught. A planning guide is located on the
Speaking and Listening CD-ROM that will assist teachers to identify
their students’ range of functions.

Ongoing, Incidental Teaching

• Notice when students use home talk, e.g. when exploring a new
idea, when role playing in the dress-up corner. Decide which aspects
of Standard Australian English will need to be taught.
• Teach students how to use Standard Australian English for
appropriate contexts, e.g. when talking to a visitor who may have
a position of authority (police officer, a visiting teacher).
• Use shared experiences to model the language required to recount
events in sequence.
• Teach attentive listening through modelling and paraphrasing.
• Teach students to resolve conflicts through language, e.g. next time
you should say, ‘I would like to use the scissors when you have finished,
please.’
• Involve students in singing and chanting raps and rhymes every
day. This will provide them with the practice needed to understand
language structures and features.
• Read aloud every day. Invite other teachers and adults to read to
students. Include some stories with predictable patterns or refrains
so that students can join in. Read non-fiction topics that students
have expressed an interest in.
• Tell stories and invite storytellers into the classroom.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Environment and Attitude

Units of Work
Teachers can create relevant, challenging and purposeful speaking
and listening experiences through planning units of work that
integrate skills and knowledge needed to achieve educational
outcomes across the curriculum. This can be done by developing
units of work that provide meaningful contexts for learning. Some
of the following questions, based on ideas from Murdoch (2004),
may help to guide planning.
• How will the topic be chosen?
• Are there opportunities for choice or negotiation in this unit?
• How will this unit of work engage the students?
• What educational outcomes will be achieved?
• What are the vocabulary demands of the topic?
• How can we help students make connections between learning areas?
• How will students reflect on their learning?
• What assessment opportunities are occurring?

Design learning experiences that provide students with the

opportunity to talk for a range of purposes.

Speaking and Listening for Community,

School and Family Life
Students in the Early phase are becoming aware of different speaking
and listening contexts and the need to adjust spoken language to
suit different purposes and audiences. Teachers can assist students in
the Early phase to develop awareness of different kinds of speaking
and listening in the following ways:
• Talk about personal interests and experiences.
• Talk about behaviours that are appropriate inside the classroom,
e.g quiet voices, words to be friendly and help with sharing.
• Talk about appropriate behaviours in the playground, e.g. choosing
what games to play, making sure that everyone has a turn.
• Engage students in conversations with a variety of people
including peers, teachers and visiting adults.
• Develop awareness of expected behaviours for more formal
situations, e.g. assembly, a visiting performer.
• Model greeting and saying farewell to visitors to the classroom
using words and phrases that have been previously taught.
• Engage students in role play, e.g. what is said when buying
something at the shop, inviting a friend to a party.
• Invite guest speakers into the classroom, e.g. parents might talk
about their jobs or hobbies, community workers might discuss matters
of safety such as a fire-control officer talking about emergency
procedures.

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 Early Speaking and Listening Phase

USE OF TEXTS
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Expose students to a range of functional spoken texts

composed in Standard Australian English.

■ Provide authentic opportunities for students to participate

in unplanned and planned speaking and listening.

■ Provide opportunities for students to participate in

extended talk.

■ Teach students to compose spoken texts using basic text

structures, e.g. using people’s names in social situations and
providing background information in recounts, responding to
questioning.

■ Teach students to make connections with their existing

knowledge of common topics.

■ Teach students the metalanguage associated with speaking

and listening and encourage its use e.g. meaning, question,
topic, message, Standard Australian English, point of view, sharing,
volume, expression, turn, plan, memory.

Teaching Notes
The focus for supporting Early Speakers and Listeners in this aspect
is organised under the following headings.
• Exposure to a Range of Spoken Texts
• Participation in Unplanned and Planned Spoken Texts
• Focusing on Text Structure
• Developing Topic Knowledge
• Developing Metalanguage

Exposure to a Range of Spoken Texts

Early Speakers and Listeners are developing an awareness that there
are different types of spoken texts as they interact with others at
school in their play, activity time and in conversations. Students
in the Early phase need opportunities to engage with a variety
of functional spoken texts, which include everyday, literary and
informational.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

Figure 5.6

Participation in Unplanned and Planned Spoken Texts

Students learn about language indirectly as they listen to others
and observe the behaviours that accompany speech. They learn
about language directly when teachers give explicit and supportive
feedback.

There are many authentic opportunities for Early Speakers and

Listeners to participate in unplanned and planned speaking and
listening, such as the following, which occur naturally every day.
• Playing
• Lunch times
• Snack times
• Packing away
• Activity time, e.g. board games, sorting games, learning centre.
• Reading together
• Collaborative tasks.

It is important to allow students to participate in extended talk

in the situations described above as it provides them with the
opportunity to put their thoughts into words.

Planned, Modelled, Shared and Guided Speaking and Listening

sessions (see Linking Assessment, Teaching and Learning, pp. 126–129)
may provide ideal opportunities for Early Speakers and Listeners to
compose a range of spoken texts.

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 Early Speaking and Listening Phase

Amy: Hey Billie ... Oscar the shark.

Shae: Amy, oh Rachel, I’ll tell you a joke ... what’s a ...
don’t tell her, OK? What’s a dinosaur’s worst enemy?
Matthew: What’s a tree’s worst enemy?
Billy: A T-rex.
Matthew: ... knock it down ...
Shae: T-rex.
Billy: I knew that.
Shae: That’s why I told uuumm
Unknown: ... said to Sophie.
Billy: I knew that. I know tons about dinosaurs.
Matthew: Don’t you, babe. Figure 5.8
Unknown: Ooops!

Figure 5.7 Transcript of lunchtime talk

Some of the understandings about spoken texts that students will

develop through planned and unplanned activities include:
• Speaking and listening is important for learning.
• Speaking and listening is important for developing and
maintaining relationships.
• Speakers and listeners use body language and different ways of
producing sounds (tone, volume, pace) as well as words to make
meaning.
• Speaking and listening is used for different purposes.
• Texts are organised in particular ways according to the context.
• The relationship between spoken and written language is indirect.

Focusing on Text Structure

Students in the Early phase are building on their knowledge about
the ways different spoken texts are structured. The focus for Early
speakers and listeners is to learn about basic text structures of a
small range of everyday, literary and functional spoken texts.

Early speakers and listeners can also be supported using the Gradual
Release of Responsibility Model (see Chapter 1, Figure 1.10) to
construct simple planned spoken texts in school contexts, using basic
text structure as seen in the following chart.

Teachers can draw attention to basic text structures as students

create texts independently for different purposes as shown in
Figure 5.9. It is important that students realise that spoken language
is influenced by the context. The examples in Figure 5.9 provide a
starting point for teachers to consider how to demonstrate different
text types.
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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

Example of Typical Spoken Text in Example of Basic Text Structure

School Context
Using people's names in social situations Do you want to play, Chloe?
Chloe, do you want to play?
• Say the name before or after.
• Say what you want/need/think.
Recounts which provide background • Setting — who, where, when
information • Events in time order
– What happened first?
– What happened next?
• Ending — personal comment, e.g. I liked ...
Procedures which include what is needed • What is it?
• What is needed?
• How is it made? What do you do first?
What do you do then? And then?
Replying to a question — when known When unknown —
and unknown • Say I don't know/ I'm not sure.
• May shake your head / look puzzled.
• Wait for some help from the speaker.
Making connections — what does that • Say It reminded me of ... or I remember ...
remind you of? • Say what you remember.

Figure 5.9

In the Early phase, it is important to provide experiences that address

all language functions. (see Figure 1.11, Chapter 1) The following
chart (see Figure 5.10) can be used as a planning and reflection tool
to address different student needs.

Developing Topic Knowledge

Students in the Early phase will draw upon individual knowledge
and experiences as they interact with others. As they listen, create
and engage with spoken texts, students will connect and construct
new knowledge and meanings for themselves. Over time, speakers
and listeners will be exposed to a diverse range of topics. It is vital
that they have the opportunity to share their knowledge and ask
questions.

Before teachers determine a teaching focus they will gather

information by:

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 Early Speaking and Listening Phase

• Talking and listening to students in informal situations, e.g. in the

playground.
• Observing students as they engage in open-ended tasks — What
do they already know? What do they do with their information?
• Observing students’ representations and ask them to tell you
about what they have represented, e.g. box construction, artwork.
• Interacting with students after their free time, e.g. What did you
find out when you went to the science table?

Early students Students in the Early phase Teachers can do these things to draw students’ attention to the different
communicate speak and listen to … purposes and to basic text structures:
for …
Provide Direction Give a Comment Ask a Question
Getting things • show someone how to play Tell your dad how we I think you must have What will you need
done a game. pack away here at told your dad very to tell your dad so he
• help others pack away. school and then he can well how we pack up, knows how we pack
• make things. join in with you. because he knew what up here at school?
• instruct others. to do!
Influencing • suggest a group activity, Work out what you are You sounded excited What did you say to
the behaviour, e.g. build a tower. going to build with the when you suggested your friends to make
feelings or • play a game. LegoTM together. you all build a tower them want to build a
attitudes of together! tower, too?
others.
Getting along • greet/depart. Talk about something It looked like you will Did your partner have
with others • plan for play. you both like to do have fun doing those any different ideas?
• cooperate in a group. together today. things together today. Maybe you could use
them next time.
Expressing • share own experience. Tell your Room 4 You talked about the What features does
individuality • discuss feelings. buddy about your furniture as well as our classroom have?
and personal classroom. the doors; they are
feelings important features of
our room.
Seeking and • raise questions about If you don’t know I wonder if we can find What can you say if
learning about classroom routines. what it means, say, out what that means. you don’t understand
the social • inquire about new ideas/ ‘What does that something?
and physical information. mean?’
environment • converse with an expert.
Creating • make up a new game with You can pretend you I can see that the fire What happened in
stories, games, a friend. are in the fire station officers have been very the fire station today?
new worlds • roleplay in the dress-up area. in the dress-up area busy. I heard someone What did the fire
and new texts • participate in music, today. say they were ready officer do?
movement, art. for a break.
Communicating • ask/answer questions. Tell your group what It's good to hear what What did you learn
information • inform parents/caregiver you have learnt today. you did and why you today? What did you
what they do during the did it. do to learn it?
day at school.
• record ideas.
Entertaining • retell and invent stories. Talk about something Your partner was Why do you like
others • participate in drama, role your partner will enjoy enjoying that story and listening to your
play, music. listening to. I think it was because partner tell stories?
it had an interesting
problem.

Figure 5.10 Suggestions for speaking and listening in all functions

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

• Conducting focused interviews with students individually or in

small groups, e.g. What can we use to find out more about ants?
• Negotiating familiar topics to study with the students, e.g. What do
you like to learn about? What do you know about … ?

Teachers can extend students’ topic knowledge through learning

that involves direct observation, language experience activities and
discussion.

Direct Observation
Students observe things such as fish, snails or tadpoles in an
aquarium. They may plant seeds and observe growth, or conduct
simple science experiments. Students will be asked to describe their
observations to others and explore possible causes and effects of
observed events.

Language Experience Activities

Activities such as cooking, blowing bubbles or making clay models
teach students to use language to describe and follow procedures.
Students talk to make connections with previous experiences, make
predictions and discuss observations.

Discussions
When students are involved in discussions about what they would
like to learn, they are given opportunities to pose questions, e.g.
students may be involved in planning an excursion to learn more about
community services such as the post office or fire control. Students
can brainstorm the types of questions that could be asked to gain
information. They could role play questioning conventions in
preparation for the excursion. Students can later discuss what they
learned from asking questions.

These types of activities are what Jones (1996) describes as language

accompanying action which helps students build first-hand knowledge
of topics. These activities also reveal what students already know
about topics and what they need to learn next. Teachers will also
have the opportunity to observe the structures and features of
students’ spoken language to determine what needs to be taught,
e.g. technical vocabulary, organising key words and ideas in an
explanation.

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 Early Speaking and Listening Phase

Figure 5.11

Developing Metalanguage
Metalanguage is the language used to talk about language. It
is important to teach students the words needed to discuss and
describe their own speaking and listening and the processes and
strategies that they use. Early Speakers and Listeners will become
familiar with metalanguage when it is used as part of everyday
teaching. This can be done across learning areas, as part of targeted
discussions, during explicit demonstrations, during one-on-one
conversations with students or as part of planned Modelled, Shared
or Guided speaking and listening sessions.

Certain terms tend to be more prominent when focusing on different

aspects of speaking and listening. For example, when working with
Early Speakers and Listeners, consider the use of the following terms:
• Use of Texts: meaning, question, topic
• Contextual Understanding: message, Standard Australian English,
point of view
• Conventions: sharing, volume, expression, turn
• Processes and Strategies: plan, memory

For further information about the Use of Texts aspect, see First
Steps Speaking and Listening Resource Book, 2nd Edition:
• Chapter 1: Use of Texts
• Chapter 4: Processes and Strategies.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

Involving Students
1 What Comes Next?
What Comes Next? is an activity that helps students to understand
the structure of different text types. They will listen to a chosen text
several times so they are prepared when they reconstruct a part of
a text.

Select a spoken text such as:

• an everyday spoken text, e.g. playing a game like I Spy, inviting
someone to play.
• a literary spoken text, e.g. fairy tale.
• an informational spoken text, e.g. recount of recent excursion,
making something.

Present the spoken text to be reconstructed. It can be repeated and

presented in different ways, for example:
• Retell a story or event by using puppets or props.
• Read a story aloud, and then use the puppets to retell the story
and show it on film.
• Read a recipe aloud. Use real ingredients and act out the
instructions with toys from the dress-up area.
– Ask the students to identify sections of the text, e.g. What do we
need to include to retell this story? What do we need to remember
to do in this recipe?
– Record the basic structure of a text in a pictorial form. It can be
recorded on large sheets of paper, a whiteboard or cards.
– Make up sets of cards or charts for students to use as visual
prompts when it is their turn to reconstruct the text. If students
are working in small groups, the teacher will need to make cards
or a chart for each group or have groups rotate to the single
set of cards or chart. (See the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM,
Early Phase: Use of Tests (What Comes Next?).

This activity is also suitable for the Beginning, Exploratory and

Consolidating phases.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Ask a small group of students to take turns in a circle with the
cards stacked in the middle. Each person takes a card, in turn, and
adds to the spoken text being reconstructed.
• Students may perform their spoken text to another group.
Encourage the audience to ask questions or give comments.

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 Early Speaking and Listening Phase

• Small objects could be used instead of cards to remember sections

of spoken texts, e.g. a story, recipe.
• After students have reconstructed the text orally, they may
reconstruct it visually by drawing, painting or making a model.
This could be done independently, in a small group or whole class.
• The reconstruction might be in the form of a whole-class
dramatisation.

2 Props with a Purpose

Props with a Purpose is designed to teach students to construct
their own spoken texts using basic text structures. Students learn
to include text features in a range of texts, using props as visual
reminders. This task can be performed by individuals, small groups
or the whole class.

Figure 5.12

– Select an everyday, literary or informational spoken text that

students need to learn more about.
– Model selecting props to help construct the spoken text and
discussing with students the reasons for selecting particular items
for props, e.g. a picture of a face with a light bulb could be used
to give an idea when trying to work out a social problem in a small
group; peg puppets for characters in a story; several pictures for
information about an animal.
– Model the spoken text using the props. Stop at critical sections of
the text to discuss the text structures with students, e.g.
• The light bulb means that I need to think of some ideas to solve the
problem about who is going first and I need to say, ‘I think ...’
• I’m going to tell you the problem in the story with this little shoe
and these two characters ...
• I have two pictures here to show what the butterfly can do …
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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

– Students can find or make their own props for their spoken text.
Have a range of materials available to select from, e.g. What will
you need to find or make to remember what you want to say? What
else do you need to include? What could you use that for?
– Instruct students to construct their own spoken text with a
partner or small group using their props.
– Ask questions and refer to the props and text structure as they
construct their own spoken text, e.g. What happened after that?
What is that prop for? What is the problem in your story? Where did it
happen?
– Arrange an audience in the class to listen to literary and
informational spoken texts.
– Ask students to reflect on the use of their props to remember
the basic structures of their spoken text, e.g. What prop did you
like using? Why? How did your props help you? What was the most
interesting feature of ... ? What other kinds of problems could you use
the light bulb for?
– Revise the basic text structures with students, e.g. When you solve
a problem with a friend, what do you need to say? What does a story
need? How do you make it interesting for the listener? What did I
include to help the listener to find out about the butterfly?

How Might This Activity be Used in Your Class?

• Ensure props are available, rather than having students create them.
• Have a box or bag of small toys to make a story or to use for
descriptions.
• Teach students to play games such as What Am I? and What
Is Missing? using the props, particularly when focusing on
descriptions.
• Place the props in a Mystery Bag. Students ask questions to find
out what might be in the bag to describe, report, recount or retell.
• As you create a set of props for a particular spoken text, put them
in a bag with a chart for independent use, e.g. first you say how you
feel, secondly, you say what would make it better for you and thirdly
you think of ideas for next time.
• Parents or caregivers may help to make props.

3 Listen to Learn
Listen to Learn is an activity designed to teach students how to
listen in order to record and recall important information. It assists
in building knowledge of the way spoken language is structured and
introduces students to listening for main ideas and key words.

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 Early Speaking and Listening Phase

• Select a recorded spoken text that will support a current unit of

work, e.g. a narrative, informational text or students speaking during
a group activity.
• Decide on the particular structures that will be the focus of the
lesson, e.g. the names of characters in a story, a fact about an animal,
how someone shared material fairly.
• Decide how students will record the information they are
listening for, e.g. draw a picture or write a word.
• Decide how students will share the information, e.g. talk to a partner,
contribute to a whole-class discussion, contribute to a class chart.

This activity is suitable for all phases.

Figure 5.13 Journey of a letter — students Figure 5.14

watched and listened to this video

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• The spoken text might relate to the students’ unit of inquiry —
the questions they have already asked.
• The activity might be set up in a reading or viewing area of the
room for small groups to work in over several days.
• Students might have several spoken audio texts to select.
• The whole class might hear the same spoken text together and
then work independently to represent their learning.
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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

4 Talk to Teach
Talk to Teach is a cross-curricula activity that helps students to use
speaking to inform, explain, instruct and narrate. It asks students to
recall and represent what they know in their own way as it helps
them reshape and refine their own understandings. Their task is to
teach someone else what they know. The selection of the audience
is important as there is no real purpose in teaching someone who
already knows. Students are usually involved in deciding the
audience and then inviting them to listen.

Teachers will need to model this activity first.

• Decide what students are able to share, e.g. information or skill.
They could brainstorm things that they know/things they are good at.
Teachers may observe particular strengths that a student can share.
• Decide on who will benefit
from the information.
• Help students to plan what
they will say and do. The
planning may include
discussions, a drawing, a flow
chart or a collection of objects.
• Set a time for students to
teach their audience.
• Provide guiding questions and
comments for reflection.

Figure 5.15

This activity is suitable for all phases.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• If a new student arrives in your class, have different students
teach the new student how to do things during the day.
• Students can ‘teach’ the class something with the support of their
parent/caregiver.
• Keep a list of ‘experts’ and draw upon it when needed, e.g. one
student could teach another about using a computer program or how
to use the new construction equipment.

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 Early Speaking and Listening Phase

5 What Shall I Do Today?

Refer to Chapter 4: Beginning Speaking and Listening phase,
page 61. This activity is also suitable for the Exploratory phase.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• The activities might relate to the class topic.
• Students can explain what they need to do for some of the activities.
• Explanations for the activities can be given to the whole class or
small group or the teacher may provide some pictorial instruments.
• The activity could take place in the outside learning area.
• This session could be called Free Time, Personal Learning Time,
Independent Activity time, Play time or Activity time.

6 Reflect and Respond

Reflect and Respond is an activity that teaches students the language
needed to review and reflect on learning. It can take place at the
end of a lesson or the end of the day. Teachers will need to introduce
the purpose for this activity through modelling and guiding questions
with the whole class. The ultimate aim is for students to use the
language of reflecting and responding in pairs or small groups.

Involve students in reflecting by asking questions or prompting,

e.g. What are the important things that we have learned in this lesson
(this morning, today)? Tell me about an activity that was fun today.
Tell me how you used words to sort out a problem today.

Expand on answers that students give. Remind them of important

points if they don’t remember, e.g. We found out something important
about insects today. Can anyone remember? I noticed that James and
Shelley had fun in the sandpit today. Tell us what happened? Zac was
feeling sad when the other boys wouldn’t share the blocks. Tell us what
you said to solve your problem, Zac.

This activity is suitable for all phases.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

Encourage participation by sitting students in a circle. Provide a toy
microphone or another object to hold. This will encourage students
to take turns.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Discuss ways in which particular spoken texts are suitable

for different audiences, e.g. conversations with adults or with
peers during outdoor play.

■ Provide explicit feedback to students who are adjusting

their speaking and listening, e.g. when they are talking in small
groups/to teachers.

■ Help students recognise where background and supporting

information are needed when speaking.

■ Provide support for students to recognise how they can

contribute to discussions.

■ Provide opportunities for students to analyse the meaning

of spoken texts.

■ Support students to recognise how simple devices improve

speaking and listening in different contexts, e.g. volume,
simile, rhyme, common sayings.

Teaching Notes
The focus for supporting Early Speakers and Listeners in this aspect
is organised under the following headings:
• Understandings About Context
• Providing Feedback
• Considering the Needs of the Audience
• Contributing to Matters of Importance
• Exploring the Way Ideas and People Are Represented
• Use of Devices

Understandings About Context

In this phase, it is essential that students continue to develop
their awareness of the way in which speaking and listening is
influenced by the context — audience, purpose, situation and topic.
Discussions in this phase focus on ways particular spoken texts are
suitable for different audiences. Students learn about appropriate
speaking and listening conventions for different contexts. Analysing
and Reflecting are ideal teaching practices for teaching students
to develop understandings about the way in which speaking and

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 Early Speaking and Listening Phase

listening changes according to

the purpose and the audience.
In the Early phase, students
will benefit from opportunities
to make appropriate speaking
and listening choices in
Playing and Applying sessions.
(See the Linking Assessment,
Teaching and Learning book for
Analysing p. 130, Reflecting
p. 140, Playing p. 134, and
Applying p. 132.)

Figure 5.16

Providing Feedback
Teachers’ knowledge and understanding of students’ language
development will develop over time, through ongoing interactions
in a range of different situations.

Teachers may use focused observation schedules to guide their

monitoring of individual students’ language development (over
time). This will ensure that information is gathered for each student
in the class in a systematic way. See the Speaking and Listening
CD-ROM, Early Phase: Contextual Understanding for the parent/
caregiver survey sheets.

The feedback provided by teachers values and builds the students’

own language use. As students will still be learning ways to adjust
their speaking and listening for school purposes, teachers can
provide feedback in the following ways:
• Focus on the message, not the way it has been conveyed.
• Use questions that show a genuine interest in what the student
wants and needs to communicate.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

• Acknowledge feelings, e.g. I can see that you are annoyed. You
sound really happy about that.
• Use wait time before offering support, as students may be able to
work out the meaning together. Give positive comments.
• Refer to class decisions about speaking and listening, e.g. We
decided we would walk across to people when we needed to speak to
them. Our class decided that we would have one person talking at a
time in a group.
• Use positive statements when students alter their speaking and
listening, e.g. I noticed that you changed your voice when you came
to the group. I can see that you are facing me and nodding as you
listen to me.

Considering the Needs of the Audience

Early Speakers and Listeners interact in ways that make sense to
themselves and require guidance in considering the needs of their
audience. Modelled, Shared and Guided Speaking and Listening are
ideal practices for teaching students for doing this. Teachers can also
provide direction, responses and questioning to support students,
drawing their attention to appropriate verbal and non-verbal
language, as shown below:
• Tell your partner something you think they will like to hear.
• What will your dad need to know when you tell him how you
made the boat?
• What do you think the principal would like to hear about?
• What do you think your partner liked listening to?
• How will we show that we are interested in what our partner has
to say?
• You pointed to the signs in
the room so your mum knew
what you were talking about.
• What do we need to do when
someone is talking to the
whole class?

Figure 5.17
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 Early Speaking and Listening Phase

Contributing to Matters of Importance

Early Speakers and Listeners need daily opportunities to contribute
to matters that are of personal interest. When students are
discussing topics that matter to them, their contributions will
be meaningful and they are more likely to engage in extended
conversations. These opportunities help students to develop their
abilities to express ideas, opinions and feelings.

Explorative talk about frogs becoming extinct. Overlapping is occurring in some sections.
Elizabeth: Frogs are going to get extinct, so I wanna walk to school.
Teacher: Oh, I see.
Joshua: It’s too long to walk to school.
Elizabeth: I know it’s too long but ... I still want to.
Joshua: You’ll be late.
Elizabeth: Well, I’ll go early.
Joshua: What, what if stuff happens to you like ... ?
Elizabeth: My mum and dad will come to me and robbers don’t usually come when
adults are around.
Joshua: Your mum and dad aren’t gonna walk you there.
Elizabeth: Well, they might, they might, Joshua, don’t butt in, they might, they might,
they really might do it. It’s OK … If frogs were gonna get extinct before I’m
big and leave my mum, well, I’m gonna be really sad because, I wanna be
old enough to get a reptile licence ...
Joshua: Frogs aren’t called reptiles.
Elizabeth: Well, what are they?
Joshua: Amphibians.
Elizabeth: A-m-ph-i-b-i-a-n-s.

Figure 5.18 Transcript of two students discussing topic knowledge about frogs

Teachers can support students in the following ways:

• Negotiate with students and invite their ideas and opinions when
planning, reviewing and organising tasks within the classroom.
• Have open-ended tasks which provide students with choices about
topics and materials.
• Provide effective feedback when students do talk about matters of
personal interest.
• Include sessions such as Class Meetings, What Shall I Do Today?
and Time for Talk in daily timetables.
• Have displays which capture students’ interest and invite
discussion.
• Allow students to create and share their own displays. Make free
time for students to play in the science, dress-up and the writing
areas.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

Exploring the Way Ideas and People Are Represented

Early Speakers and Listeners will need support in developing
understandings that ideas and people can be represented in
different ways in spoken texts. A range of electronic spoken texts
are available to use for discussions of how people and ideas have
been represented in particular ways. These include CD-ROMs, film,
television and audio recordings of spoken texts such as stories,
recounts, advertisements and reports. It is also possible to record
some of the spoken texts within the school and classroom to use
as a starting point for discussion. Students’ discussions in this area
in reading and writing will also support the development of this
understanding. Early Speakers and Listeners will benefit from
Analysing, Reflecting and Discussion sessions that focus on the
following kinds of questions:
• Why do you think it was explained in that way? How would you
explain it?
• How did it make you feel about the ideas or people as you
listened? Who might like the way the ideas or people are shown
in this? Why? Who might not?
• Do you think these things are true about the ideas or people? Why?
• Does that make sense?
• Does it sound right? Why?
• What interesting words have been used?
• What body language has been used? Did you see any body
language that you use, too?
• What would be another way to say this about that idea or person?

Use of Devices
Early Speakers and Listeners benefit from ongoing discussions about
how verbal and non-verbal behaviours convey meaning. Teachers
explicitly model and guide students to recognise how simple devices
improve speaking and listening in different contexts. The focus for
Early Speakers and Listeners includes:
• Body position, e.g. proximity dependent on relationship between the
people and the situation (social, personal, public).
• Affective displays, e.g. facial expression (showing pleasure, surprise,
anger, pain, etc.)
• Eye contact, e.g. how the listener encourages the conversation or
terminates it; how the speaker seeks feedback and reinforcement.
• Prosodic features, e.g. volume (pace and intonation of speech when
reciting rhymes and poems) in contrast to the volume and articulation
commonly used in the playground, classroom and school situations.

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 Early Speaking and Listening Phase

For further information about the Contextual Understanding

aspect, see Chapter 2: Contextual Understanding, Speaking and
Listening Resource Book, 2nd Edition. For further information on
the teaching and learning practices referred to in this section,
see Chapter 7: Linking Assessment, Teaching and Learning.

Involving Students
1 Act It Out
Act It Out is a small-group activity designed to give students time
to imagine and practise what they will say and do in different
situations. It allows them to discuss the information they need
to include and to try ways to improve the effectiveness of their
speaking and listening. It is usually initiated with adult support;
however, once students become familiar with the routine, they may
do it independently with a partner or in a small group. It could
be included as part of What Shall I Do Today? (See Chapter 4:
Beginning Speaking and Listening, p. 71.)

To perform the activity, a set of cards with different scenarios is

required so each group can ‘act out’ a scenario. (See the Speaking
and Listening CD-ROM, Beginning Phase: Contextual Understanding
for a sample set of scenario cards.) Alternatively, teachers could
design their own sets of cards. If the whole class is doing the activity
at the same time, each group will need a set of cards as well as an
adult to support the students with the guiding questions.

• Model the following process with a student as the other actor.

• Pick a card and discuss these questions:
– What is happening here? How do we know?
– What could have happened before this? Why do we think that?
– What could happen after? Why do we think that?
– What will we say and do so everyone understands what we mean?
– How could we say this so it sounds like the talk we use at school?
– What will we do to show we understand what has been said?
• Decide who will act out which parts.
• Decide where the action will start — before, during or after the
event on the card.
• Try acting it out.
• Reflect and discuss these questions: What made sense? Why?
Where else could we listen like this? Where else could we speak
like this? What would we say differently next time? Why?

This activity is also suitable for all phases.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Consider the focus areas in your class. The scenarios could come
from your observations of the students or from issues that are
raised at class meetings.
• Record some of the sentence starters that students use in other
classroom sessions.
• Use some photographs of students in your class as starting points,
e.g. students standing near the pile of blocks at packing-away time.
• Students could be filmed and then view the tape or their talk
could be recorded and replayed to prompt their thinking in the
reflection section of the activity.

2 Who Can I Talk to? Who Can I Listen to? How Do I Do It?
This activity helps students to reflect on the ways they speak and
listen for different audiences. It asks them to think about the people
they interact with and to think about why they choose particular
topics for different audiences.

Students make pictures of the people they listen and talk to.
They then sort the pictures according to a set criteria; cards that are
similar in some way, e.g. people who tell me what to do, people who
listen to me when I am sad.

Teachers can organise the criteria depending on their students’

needs. The criteria are recorded on cards. This activity is led by the
teacher and is best performed as a small-group activity but could be
done by the whole class or individually.

– Model the following steps with the students first.

– Invite students to make pictures of the people they speak and
listen to. Prompt them by asking questions such as: How many
people could you think of? Have you thought of people in school
and at home?
– Discuss the people using the following framework:
When I talk to my mum, I … When I listen to my friend, I …
– Introduce the sorting criteria. Start with two phrases, e.g. People
who ask me questions. People who talk to me on the phone. People
who talk to me when they see I am lonely. People who speak to me
in another language. People who listen to my ideas for outside play.
People I talk to about trucks/birds/home … Write the phrases on
cards and place them into hoops or onto a large chart.
– Have students sort the people into the criteria.
– Ask students to explain or give an example of the people they
choose, e.g. I talk to my grandma on the phone because she lives in

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 Early Speaking and Listening Phase

another city. Sarah saw me when I was lonely and started talking
to me.
– Store the pictures into an envelope or container to use later.
– Repeat the activity several weeks later. Ask questions, e.g. Have
you been talking and listening to anybody new? Have you been talking
about or listening to any new topics?

This activity is also suitable for the Exploratory Phase.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Use photographs and create a display.
• Give the criteria to the students first.
• Your class might draw the pictures and sort them according to their
own criteria, e.g. People I like listening to and people I talk to every day.

3 Personality Phones
Refer to Chapter 4: Beginning Speaking and Listening Phase,
p. 69. See the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM, Early Phase:
Contextual Understanding for a sample phone list.

Figure 5.19

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Students can select characters and situations.
• Consider how to link the activity to writing.
• The personalities could be fluffy toys or puppets.
• The frameworks developed for the What Comes Next? section in
The Use of Texts activity could be left near the phones for students
to use.
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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

4 Exploring Speaking and Listening

Exploring Speaking and Listening is an activity designed to support
students in recognising how speaking and listening needs to change
to suit a particular context. Prepare a recording of a spoken text.
This may be a segment from a children’s television show, a video
recording of assembly or an audio recording of students working in
a group. Decide what the focus of the lesson will be. For example,
students may listen to and discuss:
• the way a speaker adjusts their volume when indoors, outdoors,
talking to one person or talking to a group.
• the type of listening that is occurring, e.g. are people listening for
information so they will know when to clap or ask a question?
• when it is the right time to talk and the right time to be quiet.
• the types of words that people may use with friends or when
talking to an adult.
• the words people are using to be friendly and to share fairly.

(See the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM, Early Phase: Contextual

Understanding, Exploring Speaking and Listening framework.)

This activity is also suitable for the Exploratory phase.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Include a session each week as part of your timetable.
• Use this activity prior to a visitor coming in to show something to
the whole class.
• Introduce the activity before and after the class goes to the school
assembly, using a spoken text from a previous assembly.
• Try doing sections of the activity as small groups, then sharing
ideas as a class group to make a summary.
• Keep a chart or book called Things We Know About Speaking and
Listening to record main ideas and summary statements.

Teacher: Why do we listen?

Student: ’Cos if someone tried to tell you something, if they were doing something,
they would need to explain.
Teacher: Why do we talk?
Student: So you can communicate.
Teacher: What does that mean?
Student: Um ... it’s like when you’re on the telephone, you speak to each other and
hear each other, too.

Figure 5.20 Transcript of student discussing speaking and listening with a teacher

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 Early Speaking and Listening Phase

5 Class Meetings
Class Meetings help to develop language needed to express a point
of view, negotiate and arrive at decisions. Students also develop
understandings about taking turns. Meeting procedures will vary
according to the needs of the class. However, there are some
common features which include a person to ‘chair’ the meeting,
time to review previous decisions and an agenda of new items to
discuss. Suggested steps for meetings are as follows.
• Students sit in a circle so that everyone can be seen.
• The teacher takes on the role of ‘chairperson’ when first
introducing the meeting procedure. Another adult may model the
process of taking minutes.
• Discussions from previous meetings are reviewed.
• Agenda items are introduced. It is best to limit items for young
students (two or three is enough).
• Discuss items.
• Record the decisions that are made on a class chart.
• Decide on a way to end the meeting, e.g. by reviewing the decisions
made, reinforcing appropriate meeting behaviours.

To develop students’ ability to participate in meetings, teachers

will need to:
• Teach students how to express their points of view, supporting
them with words and phrases that may be needed. Students
should use neutral language, e.g. I think that it is dangerous when
other people don’t stack the blocks carefully on the shelf.
• Teach ways of making decisions, e.g. take a vote or trial an idea.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Keep a book to record the ‘minutes’.
• Speakers may hold a ‘microphone’.
• At certain times of the meeting, hold a round so each person has
an opportunity to speak about an item. Students may say ‘pass’
in a round.
• Think about when the class meetings will be held; once a week,
once a fortnight, or as issues arise.
• Consider the assessments you could keep throughout the class
meetings, e.g. contribution of ideas, building on ideas, expressing
opinions, raising issues/matters to discuss, etc.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

CONVENTIONS
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Provide opportunities for students to develop and use new

vocabulary.

■ Model language structures and features to suit the purpose,

e.g. recount an experience using time order, checking on listener’s
understanding, adding supporting detail, give explanations using
conjunctions, if, then, and, because.

■ Model the skills of conversation.

■ Teach speaking and listening behaviours that support

meaning making, e.g. asking clarifying questions, seeking
confirmation, providing sufficient detail.

■ Model and discuss agreed ways to respond to spoken texts

in school, e.g. when and how to take turns.

Teaching Notes
Teaching and Learning experiences for students in the Early phase
are organised under the following headings:
• Building Vocabulary
• Understanding the Conventions of Spoken Texts
• Understanding Behaviours Associated with Speaking and Listening
• Understanding the Conventions of Listening

Building Vocabulary
Students in the Early phase develop vocabulary when they are
involved in a range of learning experiences, discussions and
conversations with adults and older students. It is important that
teachers elaborate on conversations and explain new vocabulary.
Students can be supported to develop their vocabulary in the
following ways.
• Jointly construct charts of interesting words, unusual or favourite
words. (These may come from stories, games, television, movies,
songs, etc.)
• Value and build on student’s home language.
• Model choice of words for different purposes
• Introduce subject-specific language and provide opportunities for
students to explore and use new vocabulary. Add charts of words
to learning centres or displays.
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 Early Speaking and Listening Phase

• Provide experiences through activities outside the classroom that

will introduce new vocabulary for an authentic purpose, e.g.
excursions.

Understanding the Conventions of Spoken Texts

The conventions of speaking refer to the language and behaviours
that are expected in particular contexts. Conventions can be
described in terms of the structure and the language features of a
spoken text.

The structure of spoken text refers to the way ideas, feelings or

communication are linked in the text. For example:
• turn-taking in a conversation
• making an apology
• introducing people.

The language features of a spoken text refer to the type of vocabulary,

grammar, tone and pace chosen. For example:
• using colloquial words or sayings when conversing with friends
• using emotive language to persuade, such as referring to language
used in an advertisement
• stressing certain words or altering volume to gain impact.

Teachers can involve students in a variety of experiences that will

develop their understanding of the structure and features of spoken
texts.
• Introduce chants and rhymes so students can explore the
repetitive structures of these texts.
• Use audio or video tapes to focus on the structures and features
of a spoken text.
• Model the use of conjunctions when speaking to include details,
e.g. model a description of how something was made using the
conjunctions because, and, if, etc.
• Model the use of the correct tense.
• Involve students in retelling stories or events to encourage
sequencing, giving supportive details or by giving descriptions.
• Draw attention to the different structures and features of
speech used for different purposes and for different audiences
(see Figure 5.21).

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

Purpose What Choices Do We Make?

Request information. What tone of voice should be used, e.g. friendly,
serious, polite?
Ask a question.
What words should be chosen?
Relay a message. How loud should our voices be?
Describe an object. How can we start off what we want to say?
How can we organise what we want to say in the
Recount an experience.
best order?
Greet or farewell a visitor. When should we slow down our speech?
Tell a joke.
Ask someone to stop doing something.

Figure 5.21

Conversations
Conversations are important in establishing and maintaining
relationships through expressing feelings and sharing experiences.
It is through conversations that we give and receive information
and compare ideas. This type of unplanned speaking and listening
not only develops self-awareness and interpersonal skills; it helps to
build topic knowledge and develops processes for learning. Teachers
can provide opportunities for students to engage in uninterrupted,
sustained conversations by:
• modelling conversations.
• allowing students to converse about topics of personal interest.
• providing time each day to allow for conversations.
• encouraging conversations in response to books, movies, visitors
or events.
• encouraging students to participate in conversations with students
and adults from other areas of the school.
• teaching students ways to maintain and extend conversations,
e.g. model ways to respond to questions by adding details.
• allowing students time to respond to a question or a conversational
comment. This allows students to think through a response.

Understanding Behaviours Associated

with Speaking and Listening
Students need to be aware of the behaviours associated
with speaking and listening and how they affect meaningful
communication in a variety of contexts. Teachers can involve
students in choosing appropriate speaking and listening behaviours
through modelling, explicit teaching and discussion. Joint
construction of Y charts or T charts where students identify effective
behaviours will provide meaningful reminders for them. Teachers
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 Early Speaking and Listening Phase

could involve students in reflecting on what they know about

speaking and listening before commencing a series of teaching and
learning activities. It is valuable to take time later to stop and ask
students to record their reflections on what they have learned as
a result of engaging in a series of activities. See the Speaking and
Listening CD-ROM, Early Phase: Conventions, for an example of a
Before and After recording sheet.

The following list may provide some useful suggestions for students
when discussing effective behaviours.
• Speak clearly and with enough volume so that everyone in the
audience can hear and understand.
• Use body language when speaking, e.g. appropriate eye contact,
proximity of speaker and listener, facial expression, gestures.
• Behave appropriately when part of an audience, e.g. when listening
to the teacher, when listening to another student, at assembly, at the
theatre or a concert.
• Take turns in a discussion.
• Make sure everyone has a turn in a group.
• Include someone joining the group after a conversation has begun.
• Be aware of the language required when joining or leaving a game.
• Express likes and dislikes sensitively.
• Interrupt appropriately when adults are talking, peers are talking
or when an urgent matter arises, e.g. wait for a pause in the
conversation, then say, ‘Excuse me. I’m sorry to interrupt, but …’

Elizabeth: I learned at post office today that, um ... there, um … they had their own
key to open the box, I thought that anyone could just open it by going
‘ping’.
Oscar: I learned that they have big boxes, small boxes, and medium-size boxes.
Elizabeth: The person that was there was called Rad. Now it‘s your turn.
Oscar: I had a lot of fun at the post office, and we got to put our stamps on our
envelopes.
Elizabeth: I felt happy because I got to send a letter to my grandma.
Danny: Don‘t say anything else.
Oscar: I was happy because I felt proud at myself and I felt really happy.
Elizabeth: And just then, I didn‘t like it when Danny interrupted us.
Oscar: I didn‘t like it then when Danny interrupted us.
Elizabeth: We saw stamps with cockies on ‘em, on them, and I had a yellow envelope.

Figure 5.22 Transcript of young students expressing their feelings about

being interrupted

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

Understanding the Conventions of Listening

Listening is an active, constructive process concerned with making
meaning from verbal and non-verbal cues. Effective listening
depends on the expectations and predictions about content,
language and genre that the listener brings to the text (Gibbons
2002). The way in which people listen is also linked to the context
of the communication. People listen differently during unplanned,
spontaneous situations, (for example, in casual conversations)
than they do when speaking and listening is planned and formal,
(for example, in the classroom when instructions are being given).
Teachers can assist students to become familiar with and use the
conventions of listening in some of the following ways:
• Model and discuss ways to respond to spoken texts in the
classroom, e.g. taking turns during Think, Pair, Share; taking turns
during a class discussion.
• Provide time for students to engage in conversations.
• Model active listening, e.g. repeat phrases in order to clarify
meaning.
• Provide opportunities for students to listen to and discuss speech
constructed for different purposes.
• Provide opportunities for students to respond to spoken texts, e.g.
– retelling a favourite part of a story
– through drawing, painting, sculpting
– joining in and remembering songs, chants and poems
– responding to requests
– following directions
– responding to questions
– listening for key words and ideas
– commenting on another person’s ideas.

Involving Students
1 Picture Talk
Picture Talk activities help to build vocabulary and provide
opportunities for students to practise the structures and features
of spoken language. They could be used to practise description,
procedures, recounts or narratives. Prepare pictures to suit your
purpose. They could be from magazines, postcards, commercial
posters or photographs taken in and around the school.

In the Early phase, the activity might focus on describing a scene,

e.g. What can you see in the picture? Why have the people come to this
place? What happened before? What will happen after? How are they
feeling?
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This activity is also suitable for the Beginning, Exploratory,

Consolidating and Conventional phases.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Choose pictures to help tell a narrative. Ask questions, e.g. What
happened in the beginning? What happened in the middle? Was there
some trouble? What happened in the end? Students could work in
pairs or small groups to compose a narrative. This could then be
shared with a larger group.
• Take photographs of students as they construct models, cook
or create a work of art. They could then build a talk around the
photograph, relating the procedure used to accomplish a activity.
Model the process and allow students plenty of time to rehearse
before sharing.
• Build subject-specific vocabulary related to Learning Areas by
taking photographs, adding labels and encouraging students to
use the words when explaining or describing. For example, take
photographs during a maths or science lesson and make charts to
emphasise.

2 Sorting and Classifying Activities

The Sorting and Classifying activities help to develop students’
vocabulary to describe objects and their attributes. Students learn
the features of descriptive language and develop the ability to
structure their talk effectively by describing similarities and differences.
A simple version of a Sorting Activity is described in the Beginning
Phase (see p. 76).

Model the process of sorting objects into two groups. Emphasise the
importance of precise descriptions and use of vocabulary. Model the
process of naming the groups and justifying the classification.

Provide a selection of items and ask students to make two groups.

Exclude those items that do not fit the selected criteria. Invite
students to name the groups and explain ‘the sorting rule’, e.g. these
are all the big shells; these are all the small shells; these materials are
rough; these materials are smooth.

This activity is also suitable for the Early, Exploratory and

Consolidating phases.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

Use in a maths or science lesson to sort and classify shapes.

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3 Guessing Games
Guessing Games develop vocabulary and the structures and features
of description. They encourage students to use language accurately
and provide an effective listening focus for other students in the group.

Prepare a ‘feely bag’ where students can put their hand inside to
feel something that other students cannot see. Model the game until
students understand how it is played.

Link the game to a story or topic that the students have been
immersed in, e.g. put a toy train in the bag after discussing the topic
of transport. Describe the features and invite the students to guess
what is in the bag.

This activity is also suitable for the Exploratory phase.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

Link the game to a Learning Area, e.g. attribute blocks for maths or a
topic such as investigating toys or tools.

4 Comparison Activities
Comparison Activities develop vocabulary and promote the need
to structure observations clearly and precisely. These activities
can be done in pairs and can be linked to a unit of work being
developed. A suggestion for a comparison activity is as follows.
Students choose to draw a picture on the same topic, e.g. a spaceship,
their ideal bedroom, a monster. The students create their drawings
independently. The students then compare their drawings and
discuss the similarities and differences, e.g. Mine is the same as yours.
Where? Mine is different to yours where you used … But I used …

This activity is also suitable for the Exploratory Phase.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Ask students to construct models from LegoTM, blocks or other
materials.
• Link this activity to a unit of work so that students can practise
and develop new vocabulary.

Ask the partners to share their findings with a larger group or the
whole class. In this way they have prepared a planned talk and
have the opportunity to share with a different audience.

5 Telephone Talk
Telephone Talk develops understanding of the structures and
features of telephone conversations. Organise an area where
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students can use old phones and take messages.

Teachers model a situation that relates to a current unit of work,

e.g. a restaurant may be set up in the classroom and students will
role play ordering food or making a reservation. Teachers will model
answering the phone, saying a greeting, repeating an order, ending
a conversation and writing messages.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Involve students in discussions about when, where and why
people use the phone.
• Discuss the important nature of emergency calls. Teach students
how to make an emergency call, giving essential details, e.g. name
and address.

6 What Did You See? (Gibbons 2002)

What Did You See? is a memory game that enables students to
practise their vocabulary. It could be played with a small group or
the whole class. Place objects or pictures relating to a topic on a
table. After students have looked at them for a few moments, cover
the objects with a cloth and see how many objects the students can
remember.

This activity is also suitable for the Exploratory and Consolidating

phases.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Relate this game to a science topic, e.g. equipment such as
magnifying glass, thermometer, measuring jugs, scales, ruler, stopwatch,
etc. This will help to reinforce vocabulary that may be needed for
a unit of work.
• Extend this game by taking one object away when students are
not looking. Ask students to name the missing item and ask them
to explain how they knew it was missing.

7 My Grandma Went Shopping

Refer to Chapter 4: Beginning Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 78.
This activity is also suitable for the Exploratory phase.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Change the type of shop to support a unit of work, e.g. fruit and
vegetable shop, post office, toy shop.
• Change the destination of the game, e.g. our family went camping
and took …

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

8 Take a Turn
There are many activities that develop behaviours relating to taking
turns. Knowing when to be quiet and listening to another person is
a valuable social as well as learning skill. There are some students
who tend to dominate the talk in a classroom and who need
encouragement to include all members of the group. These activities
also encourage reluctant or shy speakers as they participate in a
supportive, non-threatening environment.

Conversation Web
Students sit in a circle. The teacher introduces a ball of string and
a topic for discussion. The ball of string will be thrown about the
circle as students indicate their willingness to take a turn to speak.
At the end of the conversation, each student will be holding on
to a piece of string and a web-like pattern will have been formed.
Teachers could use the Conversation Web to discuss a class issue, to
brainstorm ideas, to give opinions relating to literature or to share
responses to a recent event.

This activity could be adapted at the beginning of the year to play

a Getting to Know You game. The teacher throws the string to a
student who says their name and something about themselves; they
throw it to another student and so on until everyone has had a turn.

Use the activity to reinforce the use of eye contact. Before you
throw the ball of string, say the person’s name, make eye contact,
and then throw the ball.

The Talking Stick

The Talking Stick could be any kind of prop — a toy microphone, a
magic wand, a ball or a block. It allows only one person to speak at
a time — the person holding the Talking Stick.

Teachers could use the talking stick as a way to include all students
in a group. Debrief after the activity by asking, Was it easier to talk
when you knew that you would have a turn? Did you feel more confident
knowing that everyone would be listening to you?

Teachers could develop the concept of building onto the ideas of others
by using the Talking Stick and modelling the language needed to
acknowledge what another person has said and to build onto that.

The Magic Rock

The Magic Rock is an activity to help shy or reluctant speakers.
Work with small groups of students of mixed abilities. Introduce the

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 Early Speaking and Listening Phase

rock as having magical powers that help people say what is in their
mind. Model the process. Support and encourage reluctant speakers,
noticing the positive behaviours they display, e.g. good volume, eye
contact with other members of the group or interesting ideas.

Inside/Outside Circle
This is a versatile activity that can be used from discussing issues to
choosing partners for an activity. Form two circles, one within the
other. The students in the inner circle turn and face the students
in the outer circle. The numbers should be even. Nominate either
the inside or the outside circle to do the moving, e.g. students in
the inside circle, raise your right arm. Now move to your right until you
reach the third person. This person is your partner.

Teachers then nominate students from one circle to be the speakers

and the others to be the listeners. After a nominated time the roles
will be swapped.

Use Inside/Outside Circle to recount a recent event or to explain a

recent topic, e.g. how the water cycle works, how you solved a maths
problem, your opinion of the new school uniform.

These activities are suitable for all phases in a modified version.

How Might These Activities Be Used in Your Class?

• What are the skills that you need to explicitly teach and model?
Use these activities as opportunities to highlight certain skills and
then to practise them.
• Jointly construct class charts to act as reminders. Engage the
students in reflection time so that they can monitor their own
progress and the progress of the group.

Figure 5.23
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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

9 Generic Games
There are many common games that can be used to support an
understanding of the conventions of spoken language. Refer to First
Steps Reading Map of Development, 2nd Edition, and First Steps Writing
Map of Development, 2nd Edition, for descriptions of games.

10 What Can You Hear?

Refer to Chapter 4: Beginning Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 77.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Incorporate this activity when on a class excursion.
• Visit a local park and use as an introduction to a science topic on
frogs, insects or birds.
• Use as an introduction to a Society and Environment topic on
people-made, nature-made environments.
• Make charts of words when you return to the classroom; these
can be referred to and practised as your unit of work develops.
Add digital photographs as a reminder of the experience.
• Use this activity as a means to gather data when on an excursion
to the shopping centre, post office, airport, etc.
• Ask students to reflect on this type of listening. How was this
listening different? Was this listening difficult or easy? Why?

11 Barrier Games
Barrier Games are simple procedures based on giving and receiving
instructions. They require students to interact and use language to
complete an activity. Students develop a range of language skills
depending on the complexity of the game. Speakers learn the
importance of giving explicit and complete information to listeners.
Listeners learn the importance of monitoring information and using
questions to clarify or gain further information. Vocabulary related
to the language of description is also developed; e.g. students begin
to use a variety of nouns, attributes and location words.

Barrier games can be bought commercially or can be easily

produced using a wide variety of formats and materials. The game
is played in pairs and there is some type of ‘barrier’ so that the
students cannot see what their partner is doing.

Introduce the game through modelling the type of language needed.

To begin with, students could observe two adults playing or an adult
and student playing. Teachers should ‘catch’ students who are using
language effectively to model the game for other students.

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 Early Speaking and Listening Phase

Types of Barrier Games

Sequencing or Pattern Making
Describe successive items in an array or sequence such as bead
threading, using attribute blocks or toys.

Matching Pairs
Students take turns to describe objects or pictures. One player
describes an item until the other student locates and displays its
matching pair. The process is repeated until all items are paired.

Assembly
Assemble pictures or objects from a choice of component parts, e.g.
use shapes to build a picture. One player describes the picture and the
other assembles the shapes to make the same picture.

Construction
One player describes the steps in building a particular construction,
e.g. using blocks. The other player follows the steps and builds the
same construction.

Location
Students choose and place items in relation to each other on a
picture board. One player describes the location of the objects to be
placed on the picture. The other player listens, follows the directions
and places the objects in the same locations.

Grids
Students describe the position of marker objects on a grid, e.g. one
player places attribute blocks on a 3 x 3 grid and describes the position
of each block. The other player follows the directions and places the
blocks in the same positions.

Mapping
One player describes how to get from one point on a map to a specified
location. The listener draws the route on a corresponding map.

Spot the Difference

Give pairs of students several pictures that vary in small details.
The students describe their pictures to each other and identify the
differences. Students could create pictures or maps for ‘spot the
difference’. Photocopy a picture and alter some of the details.

12 Role Plays
Role plays provide students with opportunities to extend their
language repertoire by providing opportunities to experience

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

various situations in a supportive environment. They are useful in

exploring speaking situations where students may not be confident.

Discuss ways to include people and ways of politely refusing a

request. Model the types of things that could be said. Discuss the
tone of voice needed. Jointly construct charts to record prompts
that students could use to initiate speaking. After brainstorming,
assign roles and allow students to act out the scene. See Figure 5.24
for examples. Also refer to the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM,
Exploratory Phase: Conventions, for scenario cards.

Scenario Things to Say (Example)

Sam is eating lunch on his own because ‘Hi (say names)’. ‘Can I sit with you today?’
his best friend is away. He wants to join Use names, keep voice friendly.
another group.

John wants to join a game of handball ‘Hi Emma and Ben, could I play, too?’
with Emma and Ben. How should he ‘We're just finishing this game, then you can play.’
ask? What should Emma and Ben say? ‘John, we're playing the best out of three so we won't be
finished for a while.’
Use names, keep voice friendly. Give short
explanations.

Jan has arrived at school late and has ‘Hi everyone. Sorry I'm late.’
missed the first part of a sharing circle. ‘Hi Jan. Sally has just been telling us about her dancing
How can the other group members help class last night. They are going to put on a concert. You can
her to feel included? have a turn after Dan.’
Jan joins the group quickly. The others tell her what
is happening and how she can join in.

Figure 5.24 Role play scenarios

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Role plays can be related to the functions of spoken language
(see Chapter 1).
• Use role plays to explore issues that students may experience in
the playground or in the classroom.

13 Watch Your Tone

Watch Your Tone focuses on tone of voice and provides an
opportunity for students to develop an understanding of tone
and pitch variation. The teacher models the process by taking a
phrase, saying it and then repeating it using a different tone of
voice. For example try saying ‘Come here, please’ as if you have a
treat to give, and then try saying it in a frustrated tone of voice.
Ask the students to suggest the meaning behind the words in each

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 Early Speaking and Listening Phase

example. Students could record their responses through drawings,

speech bubbles and captions. See the Speaking and Listening
CD-ROM, Early Phase: Conventions (Watch Your Tone).

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your class?

• The use of tone may be interpreted differently due to social,
cultural or individual differences. Discuss the use of tone sensitively
to develop an understanding of the attitudes held by students.
• Ask students to repeat phrases using different tones of voice,
e.g. angry, surprised, curious, sad, happy, etc. Try using whispers and
loud voices.
• Invite students to reflect on the times they have noticed that the
tone in someone’s voice ‘speaks louder’ than the words.
• Ask students to reflect on how they can use tone to improve their
communication.

14 Body Talk
Body Talk promotes the awareness of what attentive listening looks
like and why it is important in particular contexts. It may provide a
springboard into making class agreements on how students should
behave when attentive listening is expected. Teachers could involve
students in making charts as reminders.

Make a set of cards with words that describe behaviour, e.g. fidgeting,
looking around, mumbling to yourself, yawning and stretching, rocking
back and forth, etc. See the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM,
Exploratory Phase: Conventions (Looking at Body Language,
Investigating Body Language) for an example of cards.

Students work in pairs. The whole class could participate or a

teacher may choose one pair to demonstrate the process for the rest
of the class.

The speaker will be asked to talk about something familiar, e.g. to

describe a recent event. The listener is given a card telling them how
to behave.

Allow the activity to continue for about thirty seconds. Stop the
class and debrief the activity by asking guiding questions, e.g.
Speaker: How did you feel when … (listener) was fidgeting, looking
around …

Listener: Were you able to understand… (speaker) when you were

fidgeting, looking around …

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

Have students brainstorm behaviours that would assist

communication. Discuss the contexts when attentive listening is
expected. Ask them to role play these new behaviours and discuss
the different effects. Students could record their findings in a journal.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

Discuss different types of listening. When is it appropriate to be
listening and doing something else at the same time?

15 Analyse a Video
Analyse a Video draws attention to body language and the way it
assists communication.

Prepare a small segment of a video that students will be familiar

with and that shows two or three people involved in a conversation.
Ask the students to watch the video without any sound. Students
can predict what the conversation might be about. Allow them time
to think and discuss with a partner.

Share ideas with the whole class, highlighting the cues that were
taken from the body language. Now watch the video with the
sound on and compare it to the predictions made.

How close were the students in predicting content? Were they able
to detect emotions? Was anyone correct with predicted words?
Students could record their findings in a journal using drawings and
labels.

This activity is also suitable for the Exploratory, Consolidating,

Conventional and Proficient phases.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

Appoint a student to observe body language in a group discussion.
Ask: What body language could be seen? How did it help a person
to make their message clear?

16 Zoom
Zoom allows students to develop an understanding of appropriate
eye contact when speaking and listening in particular contexts, e.g.
to show attention, to gain attention or to get a turn in a conversation.
This game gives students an opportunity to practise the use of eye
contact.

Students sit in a circle. One person starts and decides on a direction.

The student says the word ‘zoom’ and the person in the nominated

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 Early Speaking and Listening Phase

direction repeats the word. This continues until the word has
travelled around the circle.

In the next round, eye contact and first names are used, e.g. Sally
starts and says ‘zoom Vicki’, making eye contact. Vicki turns to the next
person and says ‘zoom John’, and so on.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

Any word or action can be used. Instead of a word, try a short
clapping pattern.

Links to Other First Steps Materials

The following activities will also support the development of Early
Speakers and Listeners:

Writing Map of Development, Personal Alphabet Chart, p. 78; Generic

Games, p, 80.

Reading Map of Development, Word Walls, p. 125; Word Back

Spied Her, p. 127; Word-Sorting Activities, p. 128; Innovation on
Repetitive Sentence Patterns, p. 129; Share and Compare, p. 139.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Processes and Strategies

PROCESSES AND STRATEGIES

Major Teaching Emphases

■ Model thinking aloud about the selection of appropriate

speaking and listening strategies.

■ Encourage students to verbalise own thinking.

■ Provide opportunities for students to engage in conversations

for specific purposes, e.g. to socialise, to get things done.

■ Teach simple planing tools for speaking, e.g. plan recounts

that orientate the listener, plan how …

■ Teach simple planning tools to help students gain a listening

focus, e.g. use drawings to respond to listening, listen for specific
information.

■ Model strategies to adjust communication, e.g. self-correct

to clarify meaning, rephrase if not understood.

Organisation of the Processes and Strategies Aspect

There are several differences in the organisation of the Processes
and Strategies aspect. Both the Teaching Notes and the Teaching
and Learning Experiences (Involving Students) are in the Speaking
and Listening Resource Book, 2nd Edition, Chapter 4: Processes and
Strategies.

The rationale for this difference in organisation is that the

processes and strategies of speaking and listening are not
conceptually hierarchical and therefore not phase-specific. In all
phases, a variety of speaking and listening processes and strategies
need to be introduced, developed and consolidated.

What varies from one phase to the next is the growth in:
– the number and integration of strategies used throughout the
processes of speaking and listening
– the awareness and monitoring of speaking and listening
processes
– the efficiency in the uses of the speaking and listening processes
– the ability to articulate the use of the strategies used in the
process of speaking and listening
– the awareness of how the use of processes helps with composing
and listening to texts.

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 Early Speaking and Listening Phase

Supporting Parents of Early

Speakers and Listeners
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Early Speakers and Listeners use their own version of the English
language to talk to others, to socialise and to get what they need.
They tell others about their ideas and ask questions. They
understand when other people are talking about things in which
they are personally interested and they respond in their own way.
They are becoming aware of suitable ways of speaking and listening
in familiar situations.

Teachers will find parents are able to support their children

effectively when they have an understanding of how children learn
and if they are aware of what happens in the classroom. Teachers
can help build parent awareness of the learning program in which
their child is involved in these kinds of ways:
• Invite parents in to join in class activities and talk to them before
and after an activity, e.g. The children are … The adult’s role in this
activity is to … How did the children enjoy this activity? What did you
find was effective in helping them to understand?
• Conduct parent/caregiver workshops on learning, e.g. Learning
Through Play, Learning with Technology, Helping Children to Learn.
• Make a video, DVD or CD-ROM with students to demonstrate
certain features of the learning program. Each family can take it
home to view with their children. A viewing guide can be created
with the students’ input.
• When creating displays of student work, add information about
the context of the activity and list the important learning that
took place during the activity.
• Provide students with home-learning tasks that involve them
sharing their learning with family members.

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 Supporting Parents of Early Speakers and Listeners

Supporting Early Speakers and Listeners

in the Home
Early Speakers and Listeners will benefit from a range of
experiences in the home setting. Ideas for providing appropriate
experiences are available on Parent Cards located on the First Steps
Speaking and Listening CD-ROM. Teachers can select appropriate
cards for each Early Speaker and Listener and copy them for
parent use.

Parent Cards
1 General Description of Early Speakers and Listeners
2 Developing an Understanding About Different Types of
Speaking and Listening
3 Developing an Understanding About Contexts
4 Developing Vocabulary
5 Listening
6 Family Meetings

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 CHAPTER 6

Exploratory Speaking
and Listening Phase
Unplanned Planned

Jainika: I wonder what is inside. Can you find out without

opening it up?
(overlapping)
Emma: We … ll, I think in this one … there’s … (rattling)
... Smarties. ‘My Get Up And Talk is about how to make a musical
Jainika: I think in this one … there’s nothink [sic]. instrument …
Emma: and I think in this one … (rattling) Today I’m going to show you how to make a musical instrument
Jainika: Oh, might be ... and how to make its sound. And then … you will learn how
Emma: A marble. different sounds are made. First you will need scissors, a ruler ...
Jainika: Yeah, a marble. a pen and six straws.
Emma: Do you agree? With the straws you need to get 9 cm. Get a ruler and measure
Jainika: Yep, I agree. it 9 cms long, and then 8 then 8 … 8 cm … then 7 then 6 then 5
Emma: Do you think we should open them? with the straws up to 4. Then you need to … um … get some card
Jainika: Um, I don’t think we … are we allowed to? ... get card … and cut it with them … um … 11 cms long and 2 cms
Emma: Well, let’s just see if we were right. wide. Then you turn it like this … the card … then you get some
Jainika: Um, well … what do you think is in here? We have tape and put it and get the straws and put the straws on the tape
to wonder. 1cm apart each time … four. And then after that you stick it on
Emma: Maybe it’s some cotton wool. the card and, you use modelling clay or Plasticine … I’ve got some
Jainika: Nah, I think … it is a little ... Oh, it’s … a … Plasticine. And you put the Plasticine on the bottom of the straw so
Oh, I know, it’s a dice and a popstick. … um … if it doesn’t, if it’s not put all on and … um … if there’s
Emma: Well, I wonder if we’re right. air coming out it will go like this (blows through straw to demonstrate)
Jainika: I wonder if we’re right. and won’t make any sound and this is how and the sound goes …
Teacher: So do you think you have worked it out? your air goes into the straw and it vibrates. And if you have longer
What do you think is in them? and wider straws … um … you will make louder noises and this is
Jainika: We think there’s in ... how you play it. (demonstrates by blowing straws) Hang on … I’m not
Emma: Smarties! very good at it but.’
Jainika: Smarties, … in here, there’s nothing. (sound of children clapping)
Emma: And in here, there’s marbles.

Figure 6.1 Figure 6.2

Global Statement
In this phase, students use Standard Australian English effectively within
familiar contexts. They communicate appropriately in both structured and
unstructured situations. They explore ways of using language for different
speaking and listening purposes.

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 Exploratory Speaking and Listening Indicators

Exploratory Speaking and Listening

Indicators
Use of Texts Conventions
◆ Listens effectively for a range of familiar ◆ Experiments with vocabulary drawn from
purposes. a variety of sources e.g. literature, media,
◆ Uses a range of unplanned spoken texts learning area.
with connected ideas. ◆ Experiments with more complex
◆ Presents simple spoken texts using basic structures and features to express spoken
text structures in logical sequence, e.g. ideas and information, e.g. provides some
description, instruction, recount. supporting details.
◆ Obtains specific information from short ◆ Responds to spoken language using
informational and expressive spoken texts. common school conventions, e.g. takes turns
• Presents relevant information on a known topic in a conversation.
to group or class. ◆ Experiments with different speaking
• Explains familiar procedures or gives simple and listening behaviours, e.g. proximity, eye
instructions to peers showing awareness of the contact, volume, listens for specific information
steps required, e.g. tells a new classmate where when given instructions.
things are. • Attempts to adopt appropriate tone of voice and
intonation to convey meaning.
Contextual Understanding • Sometimes uses similes to make speech more
effective when explaining or describing, e.g. ‘It
◆ Tries different ways of adjusting speaking
was just like …’
and listening, e.g. tone and pace.
◆ Provides some background information
and supporting ideas for listener, e.g. facts Processes and Strategies
and personal reasons. ◆ Explores thinking strategies with others.
◆ Understands that people have different ◆ Experiments with a small range of
ideas. processes and strategies when speaking,
◆ Talks about different audiences and e.g. uses rehearsed phrases.
purposes for own talk. ◆ Experiments with a small range of
◆ Experiments with a small range of devices processes and strategies when listening,
to enhance meaning of spoken texts, e.g. e.g. draws a picture.
volume, simile, rhyme, common sayings. • Attends to the responses of others and reviews
• Recognises the differences between home or elaborates on what has been said, e.g.
language and school language. answers questions from listeners, repeats ideas.
• Is aware that speakers can switch codes/dialects. • Follows conventions and procedures for class
• Varies speaking and listening for familiar activities, e.g. taking turns, asking questions.
situations. • Experiments with planning for spoken
• Provides reasons for why people talk. descriptions, recounts and reports, e.g. identifies
the main ideas or information to be presented.
• Experiments with strategies to monitor
communication and responds accordingly, e.g.
self-corrects to clarify meaning.

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 Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase

Major Teaching Emphases

Environment and Attitude (see p. 135) ■ Provide support for students to contribute
to discussions about matters that interest
■ Provide opportunities for relevant, or affect them.
challenging and purposeful ■ Teach students to recognise different
communication. points of view when analysing different
■ Create a supportive environment which spoken texts.
values the diversity of students’ speaking ■ Provide opportunities for students to
and listening development (in their home express their opinions on a range of
languages). familiar topics.
■ Encourage students to see the value ■ Model and support students to use devices
of effective listening and speaking for to enhance meaning, e.g. using appropriate
community, school and family life. expression, providing the appropriate level of detail.

Use of Texts (see p. 140) Conventions (see p. 162)

■ Expose students to a range of functional ■ Provide opportunities for students to
spoken texts composed in Standard develop, refine and use new vocabulary.
Australian English. ■ Teach structures and features that
■ Provide opportunities for students to help students extend and sustain
participate in authentic unplanned and communication, e.g. using text connectives
planned speaking and listening. and conjunctions to indicate cause and effect,
■ Provide opportunities for students to maintaining the topic, taking turns.
participate in extended talk. ■ Teach speaking and listening behaviours
■ Teach students how to plan and compose that support meaning making, e.g. body
spoken texts using text features to language, facial expressions, building on others’
enhance meaning, e.g. recount includes ideas.
introduction and events in time order. ■ Teach conversational skills, e.g. turn taking
■ Teach students how to identify relevant confirmation, clarification.
information about new and familiar topics. ■ Teach skills of listening and responding
■ Teach students the metalanguage in whole-class, partner and small-group
associated with speaking and listening and discussions, e.g. how to disagree agreeably.
encourage its use, e.g. communicate, spoken
text, audience, Standard Australian English, verbal,
non-verbal, mental picture. Processes and Strategies (see p. 174)
■ Discuss and reflect on the use of thinking
Contextual Understanding (see p. 151) to make meaning in speaking and listening.
■ Provide opportunities for students to
■ Discuss ways in which speaking and engage in sustained conversations, e.g. with
listening can be adjusted for different peers, teachers and known adults.
purposes, e.g. socialising, providing information ■ Teach a range of planning tools for
in a classroom context, talking in the playground. speaking, e.g. how to share ideas.
■ Continue to provide effective feedback to ■ Teach planning tools that focus listening
students who are adjusting their speaking on before, during and after activities,
and listening, e.g. changing volume, amount of e.g. identify key ideas, record ideas in a graphic
detail, code-switching/code-mixing. organiser.
■ Teach students to include relevant ■ Model responses to miscommunication,
information to develop content and ideas e.g. how to stop, rephrase and repeat, check
when speaking. comprehension.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Environment and Attitude

Teaching and Learning

Experiences
ENVIRONMENT AND ATTITUDE
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Provide opportunities for relevant, challenging and

purposeful communication.

■ Create a supportive environment which values the diversity

of students’ speaking and listening development (in their
home languages).

■ Encourage students to see the value of effective speaking

and listening for community, school and family life.

Teaching Notes
A classroom community that nurtures students in the Exploratory
phase is one that promotes experimentation with different kinds of
speaking and listening. Emphasis is placed on providing students
with a range of purposes for speaking and listening across all learning
areas, and in experiencing different organisational arrangements
such as partner work or small-group work. Teachers can support
students by helping them to develop strategies to use when speaking
and listening in different contexts.

The focus for developing positive attitudes towards speaking and

listening are organised under the following headings:
• Creating a Supportive Classroom Environment
• Opportunities for Relevant, Challenging and Purposeful
Communication
• Speaking and Listening for Community, School and Family Life

Creating a Supportive Classroom Environment

Teachers can provide a supportive classroom environment by
considering both physical and cultural elements. Students will feel
comfortable in exploring spoken language in an environment that
values their existing strengths and interests. It is important that
students in the Exploratory phase have opportunities to engage in
a variety of meaningful situations that will develop positive attitudes
towards trying new ways of speaking and listening.
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 Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase

Physical Environment
Opportunities to develop skills in speaking and listening occur
throughout the day in all learning areas, in routine organisation and
in social interactions. The organisation of the physical environment
of the classroom will therefore change according to the teaching and
learning demands at any particular time. It is important to establish
routines for moving in and out of groups, moving furniture and
collecting and storing equipment. These routines provide opportunities
to identify speaking and listening needs and to negotiate and adopt
appropriate classroom behaviours. Other considerations for an
effective physical environment are listed below.

• Provide space for small-group, whole-class interactions, e.g.

– class meetings
– class games
– partner work
– small-group work.
• Make the behaviours for arranging furniture and resources explicit
through role play, class charts and modelling.
• Provide a table for students to display objects of personal interest,
work samples or topic related resources.
• Set up learning centres of independent activities to stimulate
conversation and discussion. Encourage students to be responsible
for the care and storage of materials and equipment.
• Set up a Listening Post with a variety of books and audio tapes to
encourage students to listen for pleasure. Students can also engage
in repeated listening experiences to practise listening skills, as an
aid to memory or as a springboard for discussion.
• Use hand-held dictaphones to enable students to record speaking
to share with others. The recordings could also help in reflecting
on performance and in goal setting.
• Display songs, poems and chants that
have been taught in class. Encourage
students to recite them for other people,
practising the patterns and rhythms of
language.

Classroom Culture
It is important to develop a culture of
acceptance so students in the Exploratory
phase feel they can confidently explore
new ways of interacting with others.
Figure 6.3 Class goal
The following ideas will help to develop
positive relationships.
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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Environment and Attitude

• Remain sensitive to cultural differences.

• Maintain an emphasis on enjoyment.
• Communicate high expectations to students.
• Provide opportunities for social talk and encourage students to
speak the language used in their homes.
• Continue to build on students’ prior knowledge and learning.
• Provide authentic purposes for speaking and listening.
• Ensure that students have a clear sense of what is expected of them.
• Support students in preparing for new speaking and listening
contexts by discussing the demands of a new context, e.g. What is
needed to allocate tasks in a small group? What is needed when
explaining the rules of a game?
• Provide multiple opportunities to practise and refine new
knowledge and skills.
• Teach problem-solving procedures that relate to speaking and
listening, e.g. how to decide who will go first, how to take turns in a
small group, how to reach a compromise when someone does not agree.
• Encourage students to speak to all members of the class.
• Provide opportunities to reflect on learning, e.g. students record
ways in which speaking or listening helped their learning.
• Provide choices and support decision making, e.g. involve students
in negotiating units of work.

See the First Steps

Speaking and Listening
CD-ROM, Exploratory
Phase for a planning
guide to assist with
negotiation and inquiry.

Figure 6.4 A chart about speaking and listening by students

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 Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase

• Develop independence, e.g. students take responsibility for daily

organisation and equipment.

Opportunities for Relevant, Challenging and

Purposeful Communication
Students in the Exploratory phase will benefit from a dynamic,
interactive classroom where time is provided for them to speak and
listen every day for a variety of purposes. Examples that can be
incorporated into classroom routines are listed as follows.
• Model language to promote effective social interactions e.g. how to
join a conversation or a game, how to ask for assistance, how to share
or resolve a conflict.
• Model attentive listening and paraphrasing to clarify meaning.
• Read a variety of fiction and non-fiction texts every day.
• Read or recite poetry to students every day.
• Read predictable stories that demonstrate the patterns and
rhythms of literary language. Encourage students to join in and
predict the next line or event.
• Tell stories and invite guest storytellers.
• Involve students in talk for exploring ideas in all learning areas,
e.g. explain the findings of a science investigation to the class.
• Develop units of work that engage students to use spoken
language to inquire about problems or issues that affect them (see
First Steps Speaking and Listening Resource book, Chapter 1, Small
Group Inquiry).

Speaking and Listening for Community, School

and Family Life
Students in the Exploratory phase are beginning to encounter
speaking and listening contexts that require them to develop new
skills. These contexts may involve situations such as answering
the telephone at home; taking part in planned speaking events
at school such as school assembly; giving a talk; or expressing an
opinion in a writer’s circle. Students will also need to know which
contexts demand the use of Standard Australian English and which
behaviours are most appropriate.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Environment and Attitude

Figure 6.5 A class Y chart

Teachers can assist students in the Exploratory phase to value

speaking and listening for classroom learning, interacting socially
and developing self-awareness. With appropriate support through
modelling, investigating and analysing speaking and listening contexts,
students can develop the knowledge, skills and attitudes to:
• talk about their personal experiences.
• offer opinions.
• refer to their personal experiences as a way of connecting with
the experiences of others as they listen, read texts, view films,
DVDs, etc.
• investigate and discuss the ways speaking and listening are used
outside of school.
• make links between skills learned at school, in the family and
community to better understand the speaking and listening
choices they need to make.
• use group discussion behaviours, e.g. turn taking, Think-Pair-Share.
• use skills of negotiation for group discussions, class meetings or
social conversations.
• explore appropriate ways to request something of peers and adults.
• explore ways of acknowledging another point of view.
• develop competence in giving and following directions.
• ask different types of questions.
• suggest answers to different types of questions.
• organise and present information.
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 Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase

USE OF TEXTS
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Expose students to a range of functional spoken texts

composed in Standard Australian English.

■ Provide opportunities for students to participate in

authentic unplanned and planned speaking and listening.

■ Provide opportunities for students to participate in

extended talk.

■ Teach students how to plan and compose spoken texts

using text features to enhance meaning, e.g. recount includes
introduction and events in time order.

■ Teach students how to identify relevant information about

new and familiar topics.

■ Teach students the metalanguage associated with speaking

and listening and encourage its use, e.g. communicate, spoken
text, audience, Standard Australian English, verbal, non-verbal,
mental picture.

Teaching Notes
The focus for supporting Exploratory Speakers and Listeners in this
aspect is organised under the following headings.
• Exposure to a Range of Spoken Texts
• Participation in Unplanned and Planned Spoken Texts
• Focusing on Text Structure
• Developing Topic Knowledge
• Developing Metalanguage

Exposure to a Range of Spoken Texts

Students in the Exploratory phase are exploring ways of using
language for different purposes and require more specific feedback
about the ways to structure their spoken texts. Familiarising,
Modelling and Discussing continue to be important teaching and
learning practices to support students’ development in using a range
of spoken texts. (See Chapter 7 in the First Steps Linking Assessment,
Teaching and Learning book.)

Students in this phase will benefit from daily opportunities to discuss

and connect with a variety of functional spoken texts, which include
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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

everyday, literary and informational. For the purposes of this

resource, everyday spoken texts include greetings, conversations,
directions and talking to explore new concepts and knowledge.

Literary and informational spoken texts may include poems, jokes,

stories, recounts, songs, descriptions, instructions and reports.
Teachers use and select texts that are composed in Standard
Australian English to provide a model of the language students
need to develop. Texts chosen could be face-to-face or multi-modal
including film, DVD, CD-ROM, PA system or telephone. They may
be planned and performed for a young audience or unplanned and
delivered spontaneously.

Participation in Unplanned and Planned Spoken Texts

Exploratory Speakers and Listeners need frequent opportunities
to speak for a range of purposes as they work throughout the day.
Teachers encourage students to use their speaking and listening
skills to assist learning in situations such as using construction
equipment to create models, explaining a procedure in a learning
centre or asking for help when undertaking a personal project.

Modelled, Shared and Guided Speaking and Listening sessions

provide ideal opportunities for Exploratory Speakers and Listeners
to compose a range of unplanned and planned spoken texts.

It is essential that students know that:

• Speaking and listening is important for learning.
• Speaking and listening is important for developing and
maintaining relationships.
• Speakers and listeners use spoken texts that are organised in
particular ways for particular purposes.
• Texts can be planned for different audiences and purposes.
• Planning can improve the meaning of spoken texts.
• The different ways of speaking and listening depend on the situation.

Focusing on Text Structure

Many everyday interactions are formulaic and follow common
structures (see the Conventions Chapter in Speaking and Listening
Resource Book). Students in the Exploratory phase will need explicit
instruction on when and how to use Standard Australian English.
They will also need instruction on how to communicate effectively
in more formal academic contexts such as reporting on a group
investigation.

Discussions about spoken texts will show students how to become

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 Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase

successful speakers and listeners. There is a continued focus in the

Exploratory phase on the use of a range of text forms for different
purposes. Teachers may utilise everyday interactions to explicitly
teach text structures by implementing some of the ideas in the
following table.

Example of Typical Spoken Example of Basic Text Structure with Added Features to Enhance
Text in School Context Meaning
Meeting and greeting • Say the greeting, e.g. Good morning. Hello.
familiar adult or student • Say the person’s name.
visitor to the classroom • Give a welcoming comment or ask a question, e.g. Welcome to our class .
How can we help you?
• Directing the person to the teacher, e.g. Mrs Smith is over in the
Mathematics area.
Sharing and taking turns • Someone gives direction for the discussion, e.g. What shall we do now?
during group work What ideas do we have about … ? Who will do the group roles today?
• Say what you want. Wait for others to say what they want.
• If someone has not said anything, ask for their ideas.
• Someone gives a closing/resolution.
• Give your agreement, e.g. OK, thanks, that’s great.
• Someone gives new directions, e.g. Let’s get on with the task now.
Introducing a planned report • What is the report about? • Who is doing what?
on their group’s progress • What tasks have been set? • Is there any help needed?
• Which tasks have been completed?
Inviting others to join their • Say what it is.
activity or game • Give a list of what and how much is needed.
• Describe how you use the items step by step.
• Give a statement of result.
• Say what the activity/game is, e.g. We’re playing …
• Invite someone, e.g. Would you like to ... ? Can you come and … ?
• Say the person’s name.
• Give some details to encourage them, e.g. It’s a lot of fun.

Figure 6.6 Focusing on text structure

As students compose spoken texts, teachers can draw their attention

to the different text structures and features used for a range of
speaking purposes in different contexts.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

Exploratory Students in the Exploratory Teachers can do these things to draw students’ attention to the different
students phase speak and listen to … purposes and to basic text structures.
communicate
for …
Provide Direction Give a Comment Ask a Question
Getting things • organise an activity. Tell Group 2 how to do Group 2 had the right What will you need
done • get the things they need. the science experiment amount of water for to tell Group 2 to
• let a new class member so they can do it, too. that experiment and collect to do this
know how to use the Include how many they poured it just as experiment? What
school’s canteen. items are needed. you told them to. do they need to do
with the materials?
Influencing • persuade a peer to read Plan what you will say I think I would like to What did you say to
the behaviour, a favourite text. to encourage a friend read that book, too! your friend to make
feelings or • convince a teacher to to read your favourite them want to read
attitudes of change a class routine. book. your favourite book?
others.
Getting along • greet others. After you greet your It feels good when How did it feel
with others • join in a conversation. partner, ask them what people ask what you when your partner
• make plans for play. mathematics game they would like to do. asked you what
would like to play with mathematics game
you today? you would like to
play today?
Expressing • recount own experiences. Talk about how you You had a few different How did you feel in
individuality • retell a favourite activity. felt when you worked feelings today. Your your group today?
and personal • let others know how they in your group today. group must have When did you feel
feelings feel. worked through some like that? Why?
problems.
Seeking and • gain further information After the talk from I was wondering what What else would you
learning about from an expert. our visitor, there will that meant, too. I’ve like to know about
the social • form own questions for a be some time for your never heard that word frogs before our guest
and physical project. questions. before. speaker leaves?
environment
Creating • give ideas for a collaborative Listen to each other’s Your story has used How did you decide
stories, games, story using LegoTM models. ideas for the story and both of your ideas. which ideas to use
new worlds • design a game to play. then try them out. to create your story?
and new texts Why did you choose
that idea?
Communicating • inform the class about the Introduce your animal, We knew what How will you
information life cycle of a butterfly. talk to your group and you were talking introduce your
• let others know how explain its life cycle. about because you animal talk? What
to complete a science introduced it and you words will be
experiment. used words that helped important to use
us understand the life when you explain
cycle. the life cycle?
Entertaining • discuss humorous topics. For free talk today Your group enjoyed What kind of texts
others • retell simple stories. you need to choose a your jokes and you can entertain your
• retell jokes and riddles. text to entertain your kept them entertained. classmates?
group.

Figure 6.7 Examples for focusing on the functions of spoken texts

Developing Topic Knowledge

Exploratory Speakers and Listeners will require support as they
learn about topics that are beyond their immediate experience. It is
important that they learn about a range of topics in order to discuss
learning in all subject areas.
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 Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase

Teachers can accumulate information about students’ current

knowledge and interests in a range of ways:
• Talking and listening to students in informal situations, e.g. in
between tasks, at recess and lunch times, while waiting for parents/
caregivers.
• Observe students as they engage in open-ended tasks during free
choice learning time, e.g. What do they already know? What do they
do with their information?
• Observe students’ representations and listen to them as they
tell you about what they have represented, e.g. painting, model,
drawing, role play.
• Interact with students after their free time, e.g. Could you show me
how you inserted a picture into your document on the computer? How
would you explain the steps?
• Conduct focused interviews with students individually or in small
groups, e.g. What are some different uses for this equipment? Why
would you do that? How can we find more? Why did you choose to
begin your research here?
• Negotiate topics to study with students. Ask: What do you like to
learn about? What do you know about?

Developing Metalanguage
The language used to talk about language is known as
metalanguage. When students can use metalanguage to talk about
their own speaking and listening, it helps them understand how
language operates. It is essential to use metalanguage as part of
everyday teaching in all learning areas.

Exploratory speakers and listeners will become familiar with the

following terms:
• Use of Texts: meaning, communicate, spoken text, media.
• Contextual Understanding: audience, Standard Australian English,
point of view.
• Conventions: verbal, non-verbal, volume, vocabulary.
• Processes and Strategies: reflect, interrupt, negotiate, mental picture.

For further information about Use of Texts, see Speaking and

Listening Resource Book, 2nd Edition:
• Chapter 1: Use of Texts
• Chapter 4: Processes and Strategies.

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Involving Students
1 Listen to Learn
Listen to Learn is a cross-curriculum activity that helps students to
use listening as a tool for learning as they recall and record what
they heard in their own way. It helps them to reshape, refine and
construct their own understandings in a range of ways including
talking, painting, making a model, making a PowerPoint presentation
or video, acting out or writing. Students can participate in planned
listening and connect with their existing knowledge of common
topics. The focus for listening and amount of detail will vary
depending on the audience. If the student decides to represent his
or her learning by talking, then the activity also allows students
to participate in extended talk and to choose appropriate text
structures and features to suit a particular audience.
• Model this task first.
• Select from a range of spoken texts including read-aloud books,
TV programs, videos, DVDs or audio tapes. The text could be
literary such as a poem or story or informational such as a simple
report or a procedure.
• Prepare the spoken text for the class. It can be presented in small
groups, one-on-one or to the whole class.
• Ask students to think of questions about the spoken texts,
focusing on the main messages in the text, e.g. What was the
main problem in the story? What were the important steps in the
instructions to make a glider? What words were used to try to
persuade us?
• Introduce some brief guidelines to students and suggest ways to
organise and record their responses, e.g. draw pictures or write key
words as you listen.
• Present the spoken text to students. Repeat if necessary.
• Ask students to represent what they learnt from their listening,
e.g. create a flow chart, make a story map.
• Arrange for students to share their representations either to each
other or in a small group with teacher or peers.

See the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM, Exploratory Phase: Use of

Texts (Listen to Learn) for recording observations formats.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Choose a particular text type as a class focus, e.g. reports. Ask
students to listen to identify particular features, e.g. how the topic
is introduced, what technical terms have been used.

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• Choose spoken texts that will help students identify relevant

information, e.g. when listening to a report. This could be recorded
through drawings or writing in preparation for a discussion.
• When introducing a new topic, ask students to list what they know
and what they would like to find out. Ask students to list ways of
obtaining the information through listening, e.g. to find out more
about snakes, invite a guest speaker from the local office for
conservation and land management, listen to an audio or video recording.
• Suggest that students record notes and make drawings while listening.

2 Talk to Teach
Talk to Teach is an activity that can be used in all areas of the
curriculum. It is an effective means of students reproducing what
they have learned, thus adding depth to their understanding of a
topic or a concept. Talk to Teach is explained in detail in Chapter
5 and can be adapted for Exploratory students by using some of
the following ideas. See the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM,
Exploratory Phase: Use of Texts for planning guides.
– Ask students to think of a skill they have that others may not
have, e.g. how to make a table on the computer, make an origami
model, play a skipping game.
– Make a list of people who would be interested in learning the skill.
– Help students to plan what they will say and do. This planning
may include discussions, drawings, flow charts, written notes or
collections of artefacts or objects.
– Provide visual, spoken and brief written prompts for the text types
selected by the students.
– Organise a time for the activity to take place.

Amy: I’m going to teach you how to

do a cartwheel. First you have
to start in an X shape with
your arms and your legs, then
you’ll look like a wonky K then
you’ll um … turn over and your
arms will be on the ground
and your feet will be in the air,
and your arms have to be very
strong. Then you’ll come down
sort of roley poley shape then
um, you’ll get back up into the
shape that you’re already in.
Teacher: So standing back up tall.
Amy: (repeats) Standing back up tall.
Figure 6.9 Sample of student planning
Figure 6.8 A transcript of a student telling
someone how to do a cartwheel

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

3 To Summarise
To Summarise is an activity that provides students with practise in
listening for key words and ideas. It helps them to recall and explain
important information. Students can work with a partner.
• Have students listen to information text. This could be from an
audio or video recording.
• Ask them to record key words as they listen. (Choose a graphic
organiser — see Chapter 4, Speaking and Listening Resource Book.)
• After listening, students should work with a partner to write three
or four summary statements about what they have learned.
• Combine pairs of students into groups of four. Students report
what they learned to others.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Combine pairs into groups of six. Ask students to write questions
based on the important information they listened to. Use the
questions to hold a class quiz.
• Role play an interview. Ask one student to interview another
student by asking questions based on the information they
listened to.
• Ask students to work with a partner and compose statements
based on the information they listened to. They should make
three statements that are true and three that are false. Combine
pairs into groups of four or six. One person reads the statement
and the other students have to consider whether it is true or false
and give a reason for their answer.

4 Reflect and Respond

Reflect and Respond is a cross-curricula activity that can become a
regular part of the class timetable. It allows students to spend some
time thinking and reflecting about what they did or said throughout
the day. It can be performed in pairs, small groups, as a class or with
familiar visitors such as older students (class buddies) or parents/
caregivers. This activity works best if it takes place at the end of a
task, a session or the day.
• Model the task for students with another student or teacher.
• Discuss with students where and how they need to sit, e.g. face-
to-face, in a circle, etc.
• Tell students what they are expected to say in their reflection and
their response, e.g. What kinds of listening did you do today? What is
something interesting you did today or yesterday? Ask your partner a
question.
• Provide the necessary amount of time for students to reflect.

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Use A Thinking Framework if necessary. See the Speaking and

Listening CD-ROM, Exploratory Phase: Use of Texts (Listen to
Learn).
• Conduct a whole-class discussion, prompting students to discuss
the main ideas or points that they have learnt to conclude the
session, e.g. What different kinds of listening did our class do? What
kinds of questions did our partners ask about our recounts?
• Main ideas can be recorded individually in journals, or as a class
summary.
• Ask questions that focus on identifying new and relevant
information, e.g. What new information did you hear today? What
made it easy to understand? How did you learn it? Ask your partner
a question about that topic. How could you make your recount more
interesting?

5 What Comes Next?

What Comes Next? is an activity that encourages students to retell
a particular spoken text. It enables students to practise the structures
and features of particular types of spoken texts. What Comes Next?
is explained in detail in Chapter 5. It can be adapted for students in
the Exploratory phase by increasing the amount of text to be retold
as well as the complexity of a text to be listened to. Teachers could
choose from some of the following ideas.

Decide on a spoken text that can be listened to and then retold

such as:
• a narrative.
• a report, e.g. an animal report that may have featured on a children’s
television program.
• an interview, e.g. choose a suitable interview shown on the TV news.
Students choose a role and re-enact the interview.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Ask students to listen carefully to descriptive words, technical
terms, where the speaker paused, how the speaker introduced
important information. Ask students to record the selected
features to encourage their use.
• When reflecting, focus on the structure and the added features
of their spoken text, e.g. Did you remember to include information
about ... ? Did you include the step? Where … ? How did people know
what you were talking about?
• Invite an audience to ask questions afterwards.
• Students could use props to assist the retelling, e.g. toys, magnetic

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

characters or felt pieces to retell a story, pictures of an animal and its

habitat to retell a report.
• Students can reconstruct an oral text visually, in a written form or
as a play.

6 Props with a Purpose

Refer to Chapter 5, Early Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 98.

7 Time for Talk

Time for Talk is a partner activity that encourages students to
make choices regarding text form, topic and audience that can be
performed on a daily basis. It allows students to practise organising
their speaking and listening to suit the needs of the listener. The aim
is for students to choose topics independently; however, teachers
will need to nominate a topic to begin with, e.g. Tomorrow, we will
all talk about our favourite TV show. Teachers may also support
reluctant speakers by displaying suggested topics along with phrases
that will encourage them to introduce an idea, e.g. talk about your
pets, ‘Today I am going to tell you about my pets ...’

Introduce Time for Talk as time to:

• speak and listen to a partner.
• talk with different class members. (The aim should be for a student
to speak with every member of the class.)
• choose a topic.
• choose a text form, e.g. recount, explanation, narrative, description.
• speak for a certain amount of time. (Suggest two minutes to begin
with and extend.)
• listen and encourage the speaker. (Teach students to use
encouraging body language, questions to probe for more
information and questions to seek clarification.)

Students can reflect on Time for Talk by:

• recording the topic, text form and name of their partner every
day. See the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM, Exploratory Phase:
Use of Texts (Time for Talk student records).
• keeping a journal. This may occur once a week. Students could
refer to the notes that were kept daily and reflect on the different
people they spoke to or listened to, note any speaking or listening
goals or make note of future ideas for talks. Teachers may use
guiding questions, e.g. What topics are being discussed? What were
some of the interesting and challenging ideas being discussed this
week? How can you explain difficult ideas or procedures so that others
understand what you are trying to say? What text types have been

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 Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase

used this week? Who have you found to be a particularly interesting

speaker and why?
• involving students in self- and peer-assessment.

Figure 6.10 Student viewing own talk with peer

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Have the class keep a record of their daily Time for Talk sessions
over a set period of time. Students can review their choices of text
types, audience and topic and set goals for themselves.
• Collate records of text types and topics in the class and these could
appear in a graph and be analysed, e.g. What is the most popular
text type used by students in our class?
• Use Time for Talk to assess students’ skills using a particular text
type, e.g. tell students that they must tell a story this week and that
you and a small group of students will be their audience.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Discuss ways in which speaking and listening can be

adjusted for different purposes, e.g. socialising, providing
information in a classroom context, talking in the playground.

■ Continue to provide effective feedback to students who are

adjusting their speaking and listening, e.g. changing volume,
amount of detail, code-switching/code-mixing.

■ Teach students to include relevant information to develop

content and ideas when speaking.

■ Provide support for students to contribute to discussions

about matters that interest or affect them.

■ Teach students to recognise different points of view when

analysing different spoken texts.

■ Provide opportunities for students to express their opinions

on a range of familiar topics.

■ Model and support students to use devices to enhance

meaning, e.g. using appropriate expression, providing the
appropriate level of detail.

Teaching Notes
The focus for supporting Exploratory Speakers and Listeners
in this aspect is organised under the following headings.
• Understandings About Context
• Providing Feedback
• Considering the Needs of the Audience
• Contributing to Matters of Importance
• Exploring the Way Ideas and People Are Represented
• Use of Devices

Understandings About Context

In the Exploratory phase, students try different ways of
adjusting their speaking and listening and are aware of the
way in which speaking and listening is influenced by the
context — audience, purpose, situation and topic. Students
study the behaviours and processes involved in speaking
and listening when teachers use Analysing and Reflecting
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 Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase

teaching practices. In these sessions, students are familiar with the

way speaking and listening changes in different school contexts
including the playground, assemblies, and a range of whole-class
and small-group activities.

Teacher: How can you improve listening?

Elizabeth: Speak louder.
(Teacher raises eyebrows and gave an expression for more information.)
Elizabeth: If you don’t hear, say, ‘Can you say that again because I didn’t really
hear it?’ Or you could say ‘Can you explain it in a better … no
another way?’

Figure 6.11 A transcript of student discussing speaking and listening

Teachers can discuss with Exploratory Speakers and Listeners the

way particular spoken texts are suitable for different audiences and
purposes. This can occur before, during and after students participate
in unplanned and planned speaking and listening. For example,
before a visit from another class of younger students, teachers can
prepare students by asking the following questions, e.g. ‘Room 3
children have not been into our room before, what might we need to tell
them when we meet them?’ During the visit, the teacher can instruct
students, ‘With your partner, find an activity to do. How will you do this
together?’ After the class has left, teachers can ask, ‘How did you
include your younger partner in the decision about which activity to do?
Did you have to change the way you talk? Was that because the children
were younger or because you did not know them?’

Providing Feedback
Exploratory Speakers and Listeners are now familiar with most
school routines but may still need to be supported in new situations
and in developing relationships with others. It is crucial that
teachers do not make assumptions about what a student knows,
believes or understands about speaking and listening. Speaking
and listening involves the interaction of personal, cultural and
interpersonal processes. The meaning students make from a
spoken text is influenced by their life experiences, their knowledge
of spoken language (the words and the behaviours) and the
relationship they have with the speaker. Teachers may find it
helpful to learn about how the student’s culture influences their
speaking and listening and interactions with parents/caregivers are
a valuable source of discovering more about your students. (See the
Speaking and Listening CD-ROM, Exploratory Phase for parent/
caregiver interview-survey sheets.)

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

Figure 6.12 Student’s informal unplanned

Figure 6.13 Student’s formal planned talk with teacher
interaction with teacher

Teachers can provide valuable feedback in the following ways:

• Focus on the message, not the way it has been conveyed.
• Pose questions that show a genuine interest in what the student
wants and needs to communicate.
• Acknowledge student’s feelings, e.g. I can see that you are annoyed.
You sound really happy about that.
• Refer to class decisions about speaking and listening, e.g. We
decided we would get people’s attention by facing them and using
their name. We were going to say ‘excuse me’ when we need to talk to
someone during an activity.
• Use positive statements when students alter their speaking and
listening, e.g. I noticed that you added some more information when
your group did not understand you. I saw that you moved closer; the
story became exciting, didn’t it?
• Use guiding questions to assist students to reflect on their speaking
and listening in unfamiliar contexts, e.g. We know that didn’t work
this time. What could you do differently if something like this happened
again?

Considering the Needs of the Audience

Exploratory Speakers and Listeners are more confident when
speaking with familiar audiences but may still need support to
include relevant information, express their opinions and make
appropriate choices. Teachers will use Modelled, Shared and Guided
teaching practices to develop an awareness of the needs of different
audiences. The following guiding questions may help to develop
relevant discussions.

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 Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase

– What will the class need to know when you tell them how you do
that experiment?
– What do you need to include in your recount so that we have a
good mental picture of what you did and where you were?
– What do you think the principal would like to hear about when
she visits our class?
– What do you think your partner liked listening to? How do you
know?
– How will we show that we are interested at the assembly?
– What do we need to do when someone is talking to the
whole class?
– What are some different ways we can start our talk about
our project?
– How will we make sure that our visitors know that we want to
listen to them?

Mikayla: Yes sometimes ‘cos you can sometimes interrupt but politely.
Teacher: OK, so where would you be able to interrupt politely?
Mikayla: If somebody said, ‘Oh well, I went to AFL to see something’ and
somebody could say ‘I went there as well.’
Teacher: Mmm, so you would do that when you’re sitting in a small group but
you wouldn’t do it if they were having a get up and talk. Yeah.
Mikayla: ‘Cos you have to listen to them ‘cos they’re the one that is talking and
they don’t, um, they’re not that, um, there’s a big group. You can’t
just interrupt in the big group.

Figure 6.14 A transcript about interrupting in different contexts

Figure 6.15 Think, Pair, Share

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

Contributing to Matters of Importance

Exploratory Speakers and Listeners need daily opportunities to
discuss matters of interest or those matters that affect them. They
soon realise that speaking and listening helps to raise awareness
and that action can be taken to solve problems. Through these
opportunities, students also develop their abilities to express ideas,
opinions and feelings. Teachers can support students in the
following ways:
• Invite students to share their ideas and opinions when planning,
reviewing and organising activities.
• Have open-ended activities with a range of topics and materials.
• Provide effective feedback when students raise matters or issues.
• Construct interesting displays that promote discussion.
• Motivate students to create and share their own displays in areas
such as science, drama or writing.

Exploring the Way Ideas and People Are Represented

Exploratory Speakers and Listeners continue to require support
in understanding the different ways ideas and people can be
represented in spoken texts. A range of electronic spoken texts are
available that explore a wide range of different points of view and
representations of ideas and people. CD-ROMs, films, television
programs and audio tapes are valuable resources for listening to
stories, recounts, advertisements and reports. It is also possible to
record some of the spoken texts from the school and classroom that
could be a starting point for discussion. Consider the following kinds
of questions:
• How did it make you feel about the ideas or people as you
listened?
• Who might like the way the idea or people are portrayed in this
text? Why? Who might not?
• Do you think these things are true about the ideas or people? Why?
• When you were listening, what were you thinking?
• Why do you think the people or ideas were explained in that
particular way?
• What do you think is the main message about the people or
ideas? Why?
• What would be another way to say this about that idea or person?
• Does it sound right? Why?
• What interesting words were used? Would you use those words?
When?
• What body language was used? Do you use that, too?
• Does the text make sense?

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Use of Devices
Exploratory Speakers and Listeners begin to experiment with verbal
and non-verbal behaviours to convey meaning. Teachers explicitly
guide students to reflect on how they as speakers and listeners
adjust their spoken language and non-verbal language to enhance
meaning. The focus for Exploratory Speakers and Listeners includes:
• Body position, e.g. proximity to indicate closeness or distance in
relationships and to show or acknowledge power.
• How verbal and non-verbal devices are often combined to convey
meaning, e.g. if a person says ‘I disagree’ and shakes his/her head,
changes their facial expression and perhaps step back or changes the
pitch in their tone.
• How to use non-verbal language to show they believe or disbelieve
a speaker (facial expressions, body position, posture, eye contact,
gestures and movement).
• How to use verbal language (such as pace, volume, intonation) to
inform, to entertain, to indicate an opinion, to agree or disagree
with the listener.
• How to use expression when giving a planned talk, e.g. to emphasise
certain words and to vary the pace of speaking to add interest to a
recount.

For further information about the Contextual Understanding aspect,

see Chapter 2: Contextual Understanding, Speaking and Listening
Resource Book.

For further information on the teaching and learning practices, see

Chapter 7: Linking Assessment, Teaching and Learning.

Involving Students
1 Communicating in the Community
This activity involves students researching speaking and listening
in the school and wider community. It is adapted from Tackling Talk
(Haig, Oliver, and Rochestouste).

Teachers and students decide on an area of focus and design a

research project. Students can work in small groups or individually.
The research could be conducted by the whole class or small groups.
Students record their observations and present them to the class.
The findings are discussed, sorted and summarised.
• Decide whether the students will work as a whole class or as a
small group.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

• Decide on an area of focus. This might be related to a local event,

an identified need or from a list of communication settings that
has been developed with the students.
• Discuss and record student responses to: What do we already know?
What questions do we have?
• Plan the action research with the students. (See the Speaking and
Listening CD-ROM, Exploratory Phase for the Planning Sheet.)
• Support students to carry out their research. This might
involve going on an excursion or include some home-learning
observations. Parent support may be needed.
• Provide time for students to plan the way in which they will
present their findings.
• Support students to discuss, compare and sort the findings. This
will need to be organised if more than one group presents their
research.
• Record any summary statements.
• Reflect and discuss — Is there anyone else who might be
interested in our findings? How can we let them know? Are we
able to communicate in that setting? Why?

Action–Research Ideas for Early and Exploratory Speakers

and Listeners
• Who asks and answers the questions in our class/school office/
home?
• What are the reasons for talking and listening in our class and
at home?
• What instructions are given in our class and homes?
• What words do you need to participate in assembly at school?
• What words do you need to participate at a friend’s party?

2 Class Meetings
Class meetings are explained in Chapter 5 (see p. 112) and can be
easily adapted for students in the Exploratory phase. Students in
this phase will be ready to take more responsibility for running a
meeting and will be able to cope with more agenda items. They
will be able to assume a greater control of the roles required to run
a class meeting, such as taking the role of chairperson, secretary,
timekeeper, etc. (See Chapter 1 in the Speaking and Listening Resource
Book for more information about class meetings.)

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Figure 6.16 A chart showing decisions made in

meetings

Figure 6.17 A class chart of a meeting agenda

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Keep a book to record the ‘minutes’.
• Have a new agenda in place, ready for students to record new items.
• Speakers hold a token or item to indicate who is speaking.
• A round may be held so that each person has an opportunity to
speak about an item. Students not wishing to speak may say ‘pass’.
• Discuss some of the agenda items in small groups.
• Students can take turns to be the chairperson, reader, time-
keeper, scribe and any other role.
• Students assigned as observers can take note of the speaking and
listening behaviours that are discussed. Observers could use a
class-made observation sheet.
• Discuss when the meetings will be held, e.g. weekly, each fortnight.
• Assessments could be obtained during class meetings, e.g.
contribution of ideas, building on ideas, expressing opinions, raising
issues or matters to discuss, etc.

3 Persuade Me/Persuade Me Not

This activity is designed to draw students’ attention to the spoken
language used to persuade by analysing a television advertisement.
This activity is best completed with a partner.
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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

• Video-tape advertisements that are aimed at the age level of

students in the class.
• Students watch the advertisement for the first time without any
specific direction so that they gain a general impression of the
spoken text.
• Ask students to list:
– the product that is being sold.
– how the characters were portrayed, e.g. real people, cartoons.
– the intended audience.
– who was speaking in the advertisement.
– who was listening in the advertisement.
• Students then watch the advertisement a second time to add any
information to the above list.
• Direct students to notice specific words in the third viewing and
to list them as they are listening, e.g. list words that try to persuade
you that the product is cool, fun or healthy.
• Compile a class list of the words and phrases that were used to
persuade and display the list for future reference.
• Compile a class list of devices that were used, e.g. analogy, testimony,
jargon, repetition (see Chapter 2, Speaking and Listening Resource Book).

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Make class charts of advertising slogans or catchphrases.
• Ask students to interpret these slogans and to state the meaning
in their own words
• Involve students in discussions on whether or not they would buy
the product and why.

4 Reviews
Reviews is an activity that promotes an understanding of points
of view and developing opinions. It is important that students
understand that others may have different opinions based on their
point of view. It is also important that students understand how
a point of view develops and what influences people’s thinking,
values and beliefs.
• Decide on a text to review (consider age appropriateness), e.g.
a book, a movie, a TV show, an advertisement (television or radio).
• Have students work in a group to discuss guiding questions such
as the following questions which are based on reviewing a movie.

Questions to guide evaluation of content:

– What was the movie about? List the main ideas.
– Who were the main characters? List the main characters.

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 Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase

Questions to develop opinion:

– Who was the intended audience?
– What was the trouble in the movie? Did you care?
– Were the characters interesting?
– Who liked or didn’t like the movie? List the reasons why.

Ask students to rate the movie, giving it a score out of ten. Students
could then be allocated to different groups to give their review.
Students will need to summarise the information that supports their
opinion and share their rating.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Students could practise language to persuade by building onto
review discussions, e.g. they could plan a short speech to persuade
others to see a movie or read a book they recommend.
• Class charts could be made to record reasons for likes and dislikes.

5 Which Words? Which Actions? Which Voice?

This activity develops awareness of the need to adjust vocabulary
choice, tone of voice and body language to suit particular contexts.
It uses role play to explore choices and the likely consequences.
Introduce this activity to the whole class. Students will progress to
working in small groups with the aid of prompt cards.

Introduce this activity by modelling. Choose a scenario and use

words, tone of voice and actions that students would recognise as
being inappropriate for the context, e.g. role play buying food from
the canteen. Shout your request using an aggressive tone and body stance.

Invite students to suggest more appropriate behaviours and record

these on a chart or whiteboard, e.g. Context: Ordering food from
the school canteen.

Which words? Which actions? Which voice?

Please may I have ... Looking directly at Friendly
canteen worker
Could you tell me Loud enough to be
how much ... ? Leaning forward heard easily
Thank you. Smiling

Involve students in scenarios that will encourage decisions regarding

choice of words, actions and voice, e.g. asking an older student for
help in the playground (perhaps a student councillor); asking an adult
for help in an emergency; offering help to a younger student who has
been hurt in the playground.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Video some of the role plays to share with parents or another
class.
• Video some of the role plays to use in a reflection, e.g. ask students
how they could improve their speaking or listening.

6 Who Can I Talk to? Who Can I Listen to? How Do I Do It?
Refer to Chapter 5, Early Speaking and Learning Phase, p. 109.

7 Personality Phones
Refer to Chapter 5, Early Speaking and Learning Phase, p. 110.

Personality Phones is designed to give students practice in adjusting

speaking and listening for different audiences and for different
purposes. It is explained in detail in Chapter 5. This activity can be
adapted for students in the Exploratory Phase by adapting it to fit
the needs of students, e.g. to express feelings or explain an issue.

Figure 6.18

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Direct students to use a personality phone to practise what they will
say, e.g. You need to apologise so use a phone to practise what to say.
• Direct students to use a phone to rehearse their report. Students
could use a phone to pretend they are telling a parent about how
they told a story at school.

8 Exploring Speaking and Listening

Refer to Chapter 5, Early Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 111.
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 Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase

CONVENTIONS
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Provide opportunities for students to develop, refine and

use new vocabulary.

■ Teach structures and features that help students extend

and sustain communication, e.g. using text connectives and
conjunctions to indicate cause and effect, maintaining the topic,
taking turns.

■ Teach speaking and listening behaviours that support

meaning making, e.g. body language, facial expression, building
on other's ideas.

■ Teach conversational skills, e.g. turn-taking confirmation,

clarification.

■ Teach skills of listening and responding in whole-class, partner

and small-group discussion, e.g. how to disagree agreeably.

Teaching Notes
Teaching and learning experiences for students in the Exploratory
phase are organised under the following headings:
• Building Vocabulary
• Understanding the Conventions of Spoken Texts
• Understanding the Behaviours Associated with Speaking and
Listening
• Understanding the Conventions of Listening

Building Vocabulary
Research has shown that vocabulary acquisition is crucial to
academic development (Baker, Sinnons & Kameenui 1998), so it is
important for teachers to ensure that students in the Exploratory
phase have every opportunity to expand their vocabulary across a
broad range of contexts and experiences.

Developing Vocabulary
By creating a rich language environment that includes reading
aloud, storytelling, conversations, discussions, inquiries, poetry,
rhymes and songs, Exploratory Speakers and Listeners will be
immersed in a variety of models and purposes for speaking and
listening. Students can be supported to develop their vocabulary in
the following ways:
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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

• Jointly construct charts of interesting words, unusual or favourite

words (from stories, games, television, movies, songs, etc.)
• Value play, social interactions and unplanned talk.
• Value and build on students’ home language.
• Model choice of words for different purposes.
• Introduce subject-specific language and provide opportunities for
students to explore and use new vocabulary. Add word charts to
learning centres or displays.

Figure 6.19 Learning centre word charts

Elizabeth: First you … you … get your tin and make lines for…
for … showing how ... how much you need to cut. Then you roll ...
roll the ball into … the clay into a ball then you ... you ... flatten it
with a roller. You … then you get your piece of paper that you cut
out and lay it onto the clay and cut it … cut it with a special tool
that ... that ... that ... that cuts the clay.
Teacher: What other things do you need to do, Elizabeth?
Elizabeth: You make it into a round shape and you … and then you make the
bottom and you decorate it and then you make the top with … put a
hole in it and … and … then you put it in the kiln.

Figure 6.20 A transcript of student using subject-specific language (art)

• Provide experiences that require students to use talk to inquire,

explore and manipulate language e.g. solve a maths problem,
explain the findings of a science experiment.
• Organise activities, such as excursions, outside the classroom to
introduce new vocabulary for authentic purposes.
• Provide experiences such as inviting visitors to the classroom,
e.g. design questions for a visiting community member.
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 Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase

Understanding the Conventions of Spoken Texts

Understanding the conventions of speaking is linked to
understanding the functions of spoken language (see Chapter 1).
Language structures and features are selected to make what is said
clear and comprehensible to the listener. Choices for unplanned,
informal conversations will differ to choices made when students
are investigating a problem or a procedure. These choices will
again be different to those of planned speaking. At all phases of
development, it is essential that students are exposed to different
models of speaking so that attention can be drawn to the structures
and features needed to suit the purpose.

The structure of spoken text refers to the way information is

organised and presented in a text. These could include:
– describing an event
– giving directions
– retelling a story.

The language features of a spoken text refer to the type of vocabulary,

grammar, tone and pace chosen. For example:
– using colloquial words or sayings when conversing with friends
– recognising emotive language to persuade in an advertisement
– stressing certain words or altering volume to gain impact.

Teachers can involve students in a variety of challenging

experiences that will promote an understanding of the choices
required for speaking and listening for different purposes.
• Explore chants and rhymes where students can explore the
Figure 6.21 Ways repetitive structures as well as the features of these texts.
to speak in a group • Use audio or video tapes to focus on talk as an object, e.g. What
interesting words did they use? How did we know what (the character)
wanted? Did you hear a question? Did you hear an explanation,
description, request, etc? How did you know?
• Model Standard Australian English where appropriate, e.g. How
will we explain this science experiment to parents when they visit?
How will we give directions to people on the day of the fete?
• Provide opportunities for students to discuss the different
structures and features of speech used for different purposes and
for different audiences, e.g. planning for assembly.
• Model how to use conjunctions when speaking to extend
sentences, e.g. justify an opinion during a discussion using ‘because’,
‘as’, ‘since’ …
• Model the use of the correct tense. Jointly construct charts to act
as reminders.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

Purpose Language Features

Introduction Greeting, mention names, use a slow
loud voice
Entertainment Poem — choral speaking, slow down,
listen to each other and keep together,
use loud and soft voices for effect
Awards Read certificates, rehearsed speaking,
practise tricky pronunciations

Figure 6.22 Purpose and style of speaking

• Provide opportunities for students to plan speaking tasks, e.g. take

turns to be reporter for group investigations, give a book report, take
part in a Reader’s Theatre, dramatise a story, etc.

Conversations
Conversations are important in establishing and maintaining
relationships through expressing feelings and sharing experiences.
Conversations enable us to give and receive information and
compare ideas. This type of unplanned speaking and listening not
only develops self-awareness and interpersonal skills; it helps to
build topic knowledge and processes for learning.

Figure 6.23 Students in conversation

Teachers can provide opportunities for students to engage in

uninterrupted, sustained conversations by:
• modelling conversations.
• allowing students to converse about topics of personal interest.
• providing time each day for conversations.
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 Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase

• encouraging students to participate in conversations with children

and adults from other areas of the school.
• encouraging conversations in response to books, movies,
unplanned visitors or events.
• teaching prompts to help students initiate conversations.

Understanding the Behaviours Associated

with Speaking and Listening
Students need to be aware of the behaviours associated
with speaking and listening and how it affects meaningful
communication in a variety of contexts. Teachers can involve
students in choosing appropriate speaking and listening behaviours
through modelling, explicit teaching and discussion. Jointly
constructing Y charts or T charts will provide meaningful reminders.

Teachers could involve students in reflecting on what they know

about speaking and listening before commencing a series of
activities. Take time later to stop and ask students to record their
reflections on what they have learned as a result of engaging in
a series of activities. (See the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM,
Early Phase: Conventions, for an example of a ‘Before and After’
recording format.)

The following list may provide some useful starting points when
considering effective behaviours.
• Suggest students speak clearly and with enough volume so those
in the audience can hear and understand.
• Discuss body language when speaking, e.g. appropriate eye contact,
proximity to listener.
• Discuss body language when listening, e.g. nodding your head,
proximity to speaker.
• Interpret body language for emotional cues, e.g. Is the person
interested in what you are saying or do you need to change the subject?
• Discuss how an audience behaves, e.g. when listening as a group
member in order to contribute to a discussion; to instructions; to a
grandparent telling a story.
• Talk about ways to acknowledge what a person has said in
a discussion and how to build on their ideas.
• Discuss ways to encourage shy people.
• Discuss ways to approach an adult to ask for help.
• Discuss ways to behave in difficult situations, e.g. when someone
feels angry or upset.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

Understanding the Conventions of Listening

Listening is an active, constructive process concerned with making
meaning from verbal and non-verbal cues. Effective listening depends
on the expectations and predictions about content, language and
genre that the listener brings to the text (Gibbons 2002). The way in
which we listen is also linked to the context of the communication.
We listen differently during unplanned, spontaneous situations (e.g.
in casual conversations) than we do when speaking and listening is
planned and formal, e.g. in the classroom when instructions are being
given. The structures and features of listening can be considered
using the following framework.

Type of Listening Features

Appreciative listening • Notices sound quality (pitch, volume, tone).
• Interprets mood and emotion.
• Notices rhyme, alliteration, onomatopoeia.
Critical listening • Prepares to respond, to agree or disagree.
• Demonstrates attention through body language, e.g. nodding or
eye contact.
• Remembers key ideas.
• Paraphrases or summarises a spoken text.
• Distinguishes between fact and opinion.
• Detects bias and prejudice.
Empathic listening • Notices underlying emotions and the speaker’s intent.
• Uses sympathetic questioning to clarify and understand key
messages.

Figure 6.24 Types of listening

Teachers can assist students to become familiar with and use the
conventions of listening by providing opportunities for students to:
• engage in conversations.
• listen to speech constructed for different purposes.
• respond to spoken texts, e.g.
– retell a favourite part of a story
– encourage drawing, painting and sculpting
– join in and remember songs, chants and poems
– answer requests
– follow directions
– answer questions
– listen for key words and ideas
– comment on another person’s ideas
– join in a game.
Figure 6.25
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 Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase

Involving Students
1 Take a Picture
Take a Picture helps students to enhance their vocabulary and
practise the structures and features of spoken language. Prepare a
series of pictures from magazines, postcards, commercial posters or
photographs taken in and around the classroom.

Students could work in pairs or small groups, using the pictures

to create a narrative by brainstorming possible settings, characters,
problems and events. The narrative could be rehearsed and
presented to another group. Students could take photographs to
help clarify a procedure, e.g. during a science experiment or when
constructing a sculpture.

2 Sorting and Classifying Activities

Sorting and Classifying Activities develop students’ vocabulary to
describe objects and their attributes. Students learn the features of
descriptive language and develop the ability to structure their talk
effectively by describing similarities and differences. Students do this
by using phrases such as:
• more than ... • it is different to …
• less than … • although …
• it is similar/ different because … • instead of …
• it belongs here because … • so that …
• it is the same as …

Teachers may design sorting and classifying activities based on the

following criteria:
• Perceptual criteria: size, shape, colour, texture, parts, materials or
features.
• Knowledge criteria: location, function, operation, characteristics,
habits, action, properties or family group.
• Evaluative criteria: usefulness, value, attractiveness, interest level,
durability, quality, condition, safety, suitability or fashion.

Students can determine for themselves the number of groups for

the classification. It may be useful to have a ‘NOT SURE’ group.
Students then share their ideas with a larger group and the
classifications can be discussed.

It is important to teach the conventions of giving feedback or an

opinion in this type of sharing so that comments are made about
the idea rather than the person, e.g. I agree with … I disagree with

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

… I would like to add to what Joshua said … I challenge the idea …

I agree with part of what you said but …

See the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM, Exploratory Phase:

Conventions for sorting and classifying sheets.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Do the students need practice in sorting and classifying concrete
materials or are they ready to deal with more abstract ideas?
• Do students justify their reasons for grouping? Does the class need
a visual reminder of the types of phrases they could use to justify
their thinking?
• Small groups can classify materials and come to an agreed rule.
One member of the group stays at this location while the rest of
the group rotates to another position. Newly arrived students try
to guess the classification rule.

3 Guessing Games
Refer to Chapter 5, Early Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 119.

4 Comparison Activities
Comparison Activities are described in detail in Chapter 5 (see
p. 119). They can be adapted to suit students in the Exploratory
phase by structuring the activity to complement a unit of work.
For example, ask students to work in pairs. Have students draw a
diagram of the water cycle, a story map or the life cycle of a frog.
Students then engage in speaking and listening to compare.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Ask students to note the main differences between the
comparisons. Ask: Was any important information left out? (e.g.
an important label in a drawing of a life cycle.)
• Ask the partners to share their findings with a larger group or
the whole class so they can prepare a planned talk and have the
opportunity to share them with a different audience.

5 Barrier Games
Refer to Chapter 5, Early Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 123.

6 Watch Your Tone

Watch Your Tone is explained in detail in Chapter 5 (see p. 125).
This activity can be adapted for students in the Exploratory phase
by drawing on a wider range of examples.

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 Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase

Brainstorm and chart a list of phrases that could be said using a

different tone of voice. Add labels to describe the tone, e.g. happy,
angry, frustrated, confused, sad, nervous, impatient, pleading.

See the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM, Early Phase: Conventions

(Watch Your Tone) for an example of a recording idea.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Ask students to repeat phrases using different tones of voice, e.g.
angry, surprised, curious, sad, happy, etc. Try using whispers and loud
voices.
• Invite students to reflect on times they have noticed that the tone
in someone’s voice ‘speaks louder’ than the words.
• Ask students to reflect on how they can use tone to improve their
communication.
• Select a poem to read aloud. Jointly decide on the words that
should be emphasised. These words could be highlighted in some
way. Decide where the pauses should be or where the volume and
pace should change.

7 Body Talk
This activity promotes awareness of what attentive listening looks
like and why it is important in particular contexts. It may provide
a springboard for making class agreements on how students should
behave when attentive listening is expected. Teachers could involve
students in making charts as reminders.

Make a set of cards that have words to describe behaviour, e.g.

fidgeting, looking around, mumbling to yourself, yawning and stretching,
rocking back and forth, etc. See the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM,
Early Phase: Conventions for an example of cards.

Students work in pairs. The whole class could participate or a

teacher may choose one pair to demonstrate the process for the
rest of the class. The speaker will be asked to talk about something
familiar, e.g. to describe a recent event. The listener is given a card
telling them how to behave.

Allow the activity to continue for about thirty seconds. Stop the
class and debrief the activity by asking guiding questions, e.g.
Speaker: How did you feel when … (listener) … was fidgeting, looking
around …

Listener: Were you able to understand … (speaker) … when you were

fidgeting, looking around …

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

Have students brainstorm behaviours that would assist communication.

Discuss the contexts when attentive listening is expected. Ask them
to role play these new behaviours and discuss the different effects.
Students could record their findings in a journal.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

Introduce the role of observer. Students could observe speaking
or listening behaviours in activities for a range of learning areas.

8 Analyse a Video
Analyse a Video is described in detail in Chapter 5 (see p. 127).
It can be adapted for students in the Exploratory phase by
increasing the complexity of the activity. Choose a video segment
to complement a current classroom topic, e.g. choose a text that
demonstrates a procedure or gives an explanation.

This activity is also suitable for the Consolidating, Conventional and

Proficient phases.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

Students watch the video without sound. They then work in small
groups to create a script to accompany the video or they work in a
small group to ‘set the scene’, e.g. What happened before the action in
this video clip? What will happen next?

9 Role Plays
Role Plays can be used to develop skills of entering or leaving
a conversation or a game. Introduce a scenario to the class and
engage students in brainstorming possible responses. Discuss ways
to include people. Discuss ways of politely refusing a request. After
brainstorming, assign roles and allow students to act out the scene.

Scenario Things to Say (Example)

Sam is eating lunch on his own ‘Hi’ (say names). ‘Can I sit with you today?’
because his best friend is away. Use names. Keep voice friendly.
He wants to join another group.
John wants to join a game of ‘Hi Emma and Ben, could I play, too?’
handball with Emma and Ben. ‘We’re just finishing this game, then you can play.’
How should he ask? What should ‘John, we’re playing the best out of three so we won’t be finished for a while.’
Emma and Ben say? Use names. Keep voice friendly. Give short explanations.
Jan has arrived at school late ‘Hi everyone. Sorry I’m late.’
and has missed the first part of a ‘Hi Jan. Sally has just been telling us about her dancing class last night.’
sharing circle. How can the other ‘They are going to put on a concert. You can have a turn after Dan.’
group members help her to feel Jan joins the group quickly. The others tell her what is happening and
included? how she can join in.

Figure 6.26 Role play scenario cards

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 Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase

Make up scenario cards as a result of these discussions and add to

them for future use (see Figure 6.26 and also the Speaking and
Listening CD-ROM, Exploratory Phase: Conventions, Role Play
Scenario Cards).

10 Telephone Talk
Telephone Talk develops an understanding of the way conversations
are structured for using the telephone, by matching phrases and
responses.

Prepare sets of cards with a conversation starter and a matching

response. Cut out the cards and distribute. Students must move
around the room, find a person and read their part until they
find the person who has the matching half of their card. See the
Speaking and Listening CD-ROM, Exploratory Phase: Conventions,
(Telephone Talk) for a sample set of cards.

This activity is also suitable for the Consolidating phase.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Involve students in discussions about when, where and why people
use the telephone.
• Discuss the important nature of emergency calls. Teach students
how to make an emergency call, giving essential details, e.g. name
and address.

11 Take a Turn
Refer to Chapter 5, Early Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 121.

12 Ask an Expert
This activity involves students in preparing and responding to
questions. Students should decide on a topic that they know a lot
about, e.g. a sport they play, a collection they have, a game they know
well, a series of books they have been reading or a favourite subject.

Prepare students by immersing them in the idea of an expert panel.

Show an excerpt from a television sports commentary or a quiz
program where contestants choose a category. Ask students to note
the structure of the program, e.g.
– How were questions asked?
– How long were the answers? How much detail was given?
– How were turns organised?
– What type of listening was needed?
– What tone of voice was used?
– Would you change anything?

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

– Was anyone in the audience inspired to learn more about one of the
subjects?

Group students according to common interests; they will become

members of the ‘expert panel’. Help the class to generate lists of
‘open’ questions that could be directed to the experts.

Students should prepare and rehearse a short introduction giving

the audience background information on their subject and why
they have become interested. The audience will listen carefully and
respond with probing questions.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Use the idea of experts when developing a unit of work. Groups
of students could be responsible for researching different aspects
of a topic. They would be responsible for sharing their knowledge
with the class through some form of presentation.
• Invite another class to visit your group of experts. How will the
students adjust their presentations for a different audience?
• Use expert groups to present to parents on an open night, or a
learning journey.

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 Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase

PROCESSES AND STRATEGIES

Major Teaching Emphases

■ Discuss and reflect on the use of thinking to make meaning

in speaking and listening.

■ Provide opportunities for students to engage in sustained

conversations, e.g. with peers, teachers and known adults.

■ Teach a range of planning tools for speaking, e.g. how to

share ideas.

■ Teach planning tools that focus on listening before, during

and after activities, e.g. identify key ideas, record ideas in a
graphic organiser.

■ Model responses to miscommunication, e.g. how to stop,

rephrase and repeat.

Organisation of the Processes and Strategies Aspect

There are several differences in the organisation of the Processes
and Strategies aspect. Both the Teaching Notes and the Teaching
and Learning Experiences (Involving Students) are in the Speaking
and Listening Resource Book, Chapter 4: Processes and Strategies.

The rationale for this difference in organisation is that the processes

and strategies of speaking and listening are not conceptually
hierarchical and therefore not phase-specific. In all phases, a variety
of speaking and listening processes and strategies need to be
introduced, developed and consolidated.

What varies from one phase to the next is the growth in the:
• number and integration of strategies used throughout the
processes of speaking and listening.
• awareness and monitoring of speaking and listening processes.
• efficiency in the uses of the speaking and listening processes.
• ability to articulate the use of the strategies used in the process
of speaking and listening.
• awareness of how the use of processes helps with composing and
listening to texts.

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 Supporting Parents of Exploratory Speakers and Listeners

Supporting Parents of
Exploratory Speakers and
Listeners
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Exploratory Speakers and Listeners have been learning to use
Standard Australian English appropriately in different settings. They
are developing knowledge needed to choose appropriate ways of
speaking to suit different people and circumstances.

They communicate successfully in both structured and unstructured

situations. They explore ways of using words, tone and body
language for different speaking and listening purposes.

Teachers will find that parents are able to support their children
effectively when they have an understanding of how children learn
and if they are aware of what happens in the classroom. Teachers
can help build parent awareness of the learning program in which
their child is involved in these kinds of ways:
• Invite parents to join in class activities and talk to them before
and after the activity, e.g. The children are … The adult’s role in
this task is to … How did the children enjoy this task? What did you
find was effective in helping them to understand?
• Conduct parent/caregiver workshops on learning e.g. Learning
Through Play, Learning with Technology, Helping Children to Learn.
• Make a video/DVD/CD-ROM with the children to demonstrate
certain features of the learning program. Each family can take it
home to view with their children. A viewing guide can be created
with the student’s input.
• When creating displays of student work, add information about
the context of the activity and list the important learning that
took place during the task.
• Provide students with home-learning tasks that involve them
sharing their learning with family members.

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 Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase

Supporting Exploratory Speakers and Listeners

in the Home
Exploratory Speakers and Listeners will benefit from a range of
these experiences in the home setting. Ideas for providing these
appropriate experiences are available on Parent Cards located on
the First Steps Speaking and Listening CD-ROM. Teachers can select
appropriate cards for each Exploratory Speaker and Listener and
copy them for parent use.

Parent Cards
1 General Description of Exploratory Speakers and Listeners
2 Developing an Understanding About Different Types of
Speaking and Listening
3 Developing an Understanding About Contexts
4 Developing Vocabulary
5 Listening
6 Family Meetings

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 CHAPTER 7

Consolidating
Speaking and
Listening Phase
Unplanned Planned

(Some overlapping) Martin: I wanted to teach you how to remove the front tyre of
Martin: On mine, I have to put safety tips,’cos it’s more your bike. Well, the materials … You need two spanners,
dangerous. adjustable or the special size, WD 40, that um … loosens
Sam: I’d say like, you know, include other tips and steps um … the a bearings, and a cloth to wash and wipe your
included, what about you? hands if you’re…. Tips: wear dirty clothes ‘cos WD 40 can
Martin: Well, I’m going to do the title, the same title as you, go over you once you …
but I’m going to do steps harder and move a tyre off a OK, the steps are, turn your bike upside down, you know
bike. And I’m gonna do what materials you need, like how it turns it upside down, that’s pretty easy, then get
you need a spanner and etc. your WD 40 and spray the bearings on the two sides off
Sam: Oh yeah. your bike.
Martin: I’ll do safety tips, because you never know, you could Teacher: So WD 40 is a spray?
hurt yourself while you’re fixing it. Your finger could Martin: Yeah it ah … prevents rust and it loosens. Step 3 put your
get stuck in something get jammed or anything, and spanner on one of, one of the bearings on either side. You
umm, so I’m gonna do steps to show and maybe have to hold it, and then you put your other spanner on
some tips, yeah. the other side and then turn it clockwise, um … once the
Sam: Well, with the safety tips, would you like … do you bearing has fell off you have to take off the other one, ‘cos
think you could … Are you gonna write some tips if it is still there, um … pull the tyre through the gap, ‘cos
your finger did get jammed or something? there’s a gap which you can push the tyre up. And that’s
Martin: Oh, I might do that, but that might … how you remove a front tyre if you’d like to. And safety
Sam: It might be a bit difficult. tips when you spray WD 40, pretty obvious, don’t drink it
Martin: Yeah. and try not to put fingers in small places in the bike.

Figure 7.1 Figure 7.2

Global Statement
In this phase, students use most language structures and features of Standard
Australian English appropriately when speaking in a range of contexts.
They show increasing awareness of the needs of their audience. They experiment
with ways to adjust listening and speaking to suit different purposes.

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 Consolidating Speaking and Listening Phase

Consolidating Speaking and

Listening Indicators
Use of Texts Conventions
◆ Listens effectively to obtain specific ◆ Varies vocabulary to add interest or to
information from informational and describe with greater accuracy.
expressive spoken texts. ◆ Uses most language structures and features
◆ Composes spoken texts using most text appropriate to purpose, e.g. indicates cause and
structures and features appropriately in effect, adjusts level of formality according to context.
planned situations. ◆ Responds appropriately to spoken language
◆ Uses a range of unplanned spoken texts in informal and some formal situations for
effectively as ideas are being developed. different purposes, e.g. attends and contributes to
• Listens and responds to peers in problem-solving small group discussions, by building on others’ ideas,
groups, showing attention to the task, e.g. extend providing feedback.
others’ suggestions, generate plans for completing ◆ Selects listening and speaking behaviours
a task. to suit the purpose and audience in familiar
• Reports briefly to the class on a group discussion situations, e.g. more formal with teachers than
or activity, e.g. present a list of group generated peers, adds more detail when listener is unfamiliar
ideas. with context of speech, uses more comprehension
• Attempts to persuade others in the class to a checks when providing unfamiliar information.
point of view or action, presenting a few reasons, • Begins to adopt grammatical patterns for formal
e.g. why a classroom rule should be changed. speaking.
• Combines personally significant opinions with • Listens to share and compare information.
information to interest their audience. • Listens to give explanations, draw conclusions,
• Conducts brief interviews to obtain information present an argument.
about an issue or topic, e.g. preferences for the • Listens for words that signal fact or opinion.
canteen menu.
Processes and Strategies
Contextual Understanding ◆ Reflects on speaking and listening activities
◆ Is aware that certain forms of spoken text and uses this knowledge in an attempt to
are associated with particular contexts and improve communication.
purposes. ◆ Uses a variety of processes and strategies
◆ Is aware that speaking and listening can be when speaking, e.g. justifies and explains
adjusted for different purposes, e.g. socialising, statements.
informing. ◆ Uses a variety of processes and strategies
◆ Understands the need to provide background when listening, e.g. asks questions to seek
information to enhance meaning, e.g. give confirmation.
examples. ◆ Selects and adjusts verbal and non-verbal
◆ Understands that people may represent their behaviours for particular groups, e.g. younger
own points of view through spoken texts. children.
◆ Uses a small range of devices to enhance • Uses scaffolds to plan listening strategies, e.g.
meaning, e.g. rephrasing, adjusting volume and graphic organisers, talk diary.
speed of speech, negotiating meaning. • Discusses with peers and the teacher strategies for
• Compares the features of different spoken texts communicating with others in different situations.
and talks about how these are related to purpose • Begins to monitor and responds to
or context, e.g. compares a telephone conversation miscommunication, e.g. stops, rephrases, repeats.
with a face-to-face discussion.
• Recognises the importance of Standard Australian
English.
• Knows when Standard Australian English is
required.
• Recognises alternative interpretations of the same
spoken texts.

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 Major Teaching Emphases

Major Teaching Emphases

■ Provide opportunities for students to analyse
Environment and Attitude (see p. 180) the way people’s beliefs and opinions
■ Provide opportunities for relevant, influence the construction of spoken texts.
challenging and purposeful communication. ■ Teach students to reflect upon the way in
■ Create a supportive environment which which they express their opinions.
values the diversity of students’ speaking ■ Teach the use of devices and discuss how
and listening development (in their home they influence meaning, e.g. volume, tone, pace,
languages). emphasis, vocabulary choices, amount of detail, type
■ Encourage students to see the value of examples provided.
of effective listening and speaking for
community, school and family life.
Conventions (see p. 206)
■ Provide opportunities for students to
Use of Texts (see p. 184)
develop, refine and use new vocabulary.
■ Discuss and explore a range of functional ■ Teach structures and features that extend
spoken texts composed in Standard and elaborate communication in informal
Australian English. and formal contexts, e.g. how to state and justify
■ Provide opportunities for students to an opinion.
participate in authentic unplanned and ■ Continue to teach conversational skills, e.g.
planned speaking and listening. turn taking, negotiating meaning, managing topic
■ Provide opportunities for students to changes.
participate in extended talk. ■ Teach students to recognise the different
■ Teach students to extend ideas logically speaking and listening behaviours that are
and coherently in spoken texts to suit a needed for different contexts.
particular purpose. ■ Teach students listening skills needed
■ Teach students to locate and interpret to respond appropriately in a variety of
complex information from spoken texts on situations, e.g. how to offer alternate viewpoints
new and familiar topics. sensitively, how to identify different points of view.
■ Teach students the metalanguage associated
with speaking and listening and encourage
its use, e.g. orientation, conclusion, dialect, terms Processes and Strategies (see p. 217)
for forms of Australian English, e.g. slang, colloquial, ■ Provide opportunities for students to reflect
negotiate, attend, facial expression, gesture, strategy, on thinking strategies used for speaking and
comparison, monitor. listening, e.g. encourage students to set goals to
improve speaking and listening, consider evidence
to support an opinion, think through an issue before
Contextual Understanding (see p. 195) raising it with others.
■ Discuss ways in which spoken texts can ■ Provide opportunities for students to engage
be constructed and adjusted for different in sustained conversations and discussions,
purposes, e.g. through register, dialect, vocabulary e.g. how to build on the ideas of others, paraphrasing,
choices. giving and seeking opinions.
■ Provide opportunities for students to reflect ■ Teach students to select planning tools to
upon the way in which they interact with help them speak effectively in a range of
particular audiences, e.g. degree of formality, contexts, e.g. debates, in group contexts related to
type of vocabulary, topics discussed, code-switching/ school contexts, with peers and unknown adults in
code-mixing. social contexts.
■ Teach students to include relevant details ■ Teach students to use scaffolds to plan for
and information of interest to their listeners listening, e.g. how to set goals for listening, how
when speaking. to make accurate notes, how to summarise key ideas
■ Teach students how to contribute to from a spoken text.
discussions of matters that interest or affect ■ Teach strategies to repair miscommunication,
them. e.g. by seeking feedback (confirmation check),
clarifying message, rephrasing.

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 Consolidating Speaking and Listening Phase

Teaching and Learning

Experiences
ENVIRONMENT AND ATTITUDE
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Provide opportunities for relevant, challenging and

purposeful communication.

■ Create a supportive classroom environment which

values the diversity of students’ speaking and listening
development (in their home languages).

■ Encourage students to see the value of effective listening

and speaking for community, school and family life.

Teaching Notes
A classroom community that supports and nurtures students in the
Consolidating phase is one that promotes problem-solving, sharing,
cooperative and collaborative experiences to develop skills needed
for more complex activities and social contexts. By providing
a variety of authentic purposes and audiences for speaking
and listening, students will become confident and enthusiastic
communicators. The focus for developing positive attitudes towards
speaking and listening is organised under the following headings:
• Creating a Supportive Classroom Environment
• Opportunities for Relevant, Challenging and Purposeful
Communication
• Speaking and Listening for Community, School and Family Life

Creating a Supportive Classroom Environment

A supportive classroom environment is one that takes into
account both the physical aspects and the culture of the classroom.
A positive classroom climate is one in which students have
opportunities to speak and listen; for a range of purposes where
others show an interest and value what they say.

Physical Environment
When organising the physical environment of the classroom,
teachers need to consider the grouping arrangements for different
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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Environment and Attitude

speaking and listening purposes. Teachers can involve students in

making decisions regarding efficient ways to move in and out of
groups and to arrange furniture and resources. Other considerations
for an effective physical environment are listed below.
• Provide space for small-group/whole-class interactions, e.g. class
meetings, games, partner and small-group work.
• Provide time and suitable areas that cater for independent activities
that will stimulate conversation and discussion. Have students share
responsibility for the care and storage of materials and equipment.
• Provide a Listening Post with a variety of books and audio tapes,
CD-ROM and computer software. Students can also engage
in repeated listening experiences as an aid to remembering or
discussing texts.
• Provide hand-held dictaphones or MP3 players to enable students
to record their speaking that can be shared with others. The
recordings could also help students to reflect on their speaking
and assist them in their goal setting.
• Provide recordings of a variety of radio segments for students to
listen to and analyse for a variety of purposes, e.g. interview, sports
commentaries, advertisements, etc.
• Provide recordings of television segments for students to listen
to and analyse the spoken language used in advertisements,
documentaries or information programs.
• Involve students in developing classroom displays that showcase
their work, illustrate new concepts or support their learning
of new skills. Encourage students to use these displays when
explaining or describing classroom experiences to visitors.

Figure 7.3
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 Consolidating Speaking and Listening Phase

Classroom Culture
It is important to develop a classroom culture where students can
confidently explore new ways of speaking and listening. Teachers
can create a supportive environment for speaking and listening in
a variety of meaningful ways. These may include:
• Remain sensitive to cultural difference.
• Maintain an emphasis on enjoyment.
• Communicate your high expectations to students.
• Value social talk and the use of home language.
• Assist students to experiment with new ideas and vocabulary.
• Provide genuine purposes to speak to different audiences.
• Encourage students to choose different speaking formats.
• Motivate students to speak to all members of the class.
• Provide opportunities for students to review and reflect on their
learning.

Opportunities for Relevant, Challenging

and Purposeful Communication
Students in the Consolidating phase will need to be supported as
they engage in speaking and listening to a wide range of audiences
for a variety of purposes. Teachers will assist students to use their
skills in the following ways.
• Teach students when to use Standard Australian English to
achieve a particular purpose.
• Model attentive listening and rephrasing to clarify meaning of texts.
• Expose students to a variety of informational texts, e.g. news
reports, panel discussions, interviews or lectures.
• Provide resources for students to record own spoken texts,
e.g. video and audio recordings.
• Tell stories and invite guest storytellers.
• Involve students in exploring ideas in all learning areas, e.g.
explain the findings of a social survey.
• Develop skills to promote social interactions e.g. how to join a
conversation or a game, how to sustain a conversation, change a topic
or negotiate meaning.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Environment and Attitude

Figure 7.4 A Y chart developed with students about communicating

Speaking and Listening for Community, School

and Family Life
Students in the Consolidating phase are showing an increased
awareness of how different situations, purposes and audiences,
require different styles of spoken language. They are starting to
reflect on how they and others vary speaking to suit different
purposes.

Teachers can support the students’ language development at this

phase by helping them to develop an awareness of how language is
used in different situations. For example, students need to know:
• that certain types of speech are used by themselves and others in
different community settings.
• how to talk to a person in authority.
• how to adapt speech for the elderly or very young.
• how to sense a person’s need from a hint or question.

Teachers can also guide students by:

• using group discussion behaviours, e.g. turn taking, Think-Pair-Share.
• encouraging them to use their negotiation skills in group discussions,
class meetings or social conversations.
• inviting them to explore appropriate ways to request something
of peers and adults.
• enabling them to explore ways of acknowledging another person’s
point of view.
• helping them develop competence in giving and following
directions.
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 Consolidating Speaking and Listening Phase

USE OF TEXTS
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Discuss and explore a range of functional spoken texts

composed in Standard Australian English.

■ Provide opportunities for students to participate in

authentic unplanned and planned speaking and listening.

■ Provide opportunities for students to participate in

extended talk.

■ Teach students to extend ideas logically and coherently in

spoken texts to suit a particular purpose.

■ Teach students to locate and interpret complex information

from spoken texts on new and familiar topics.

■ Teach students the metalanguage associated with speaking

and listening and encourage its use, e.g. orientation, conclusion,
dialect, terms for forms of Australian English, e.g. slang, colloquial,
negotiate, attend, facial expression, gesture, strategy, comparison,
monitor.

Teaching Notes
The focus for supporting Consolidating Speakers and Listeners in
this aspect is organised under the following headings:
• Exposure to a Range of Spoken Texts
• Participation in Unplanned and Planned Spoken Texts
• Using Spoken Texts Purposefully
• Developing Topic Knowledge
• Developing Metalanguage

Exposure to a Range of Spoken Texts

Consolidating Speakers and Listeners use most language structures
and features appropriately as they speak for different purposes.
As they are now experimenting with various ways of modifying
listening and speaking, it is important that they have the
opportunity to engage with a variety of functional spoken texts in
the context of different learning experiences. These texts can be
face-to-face or multi-modal including films, radio programs, DVDs,
CD-ROMs, the PA system or the telephone.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

Spoken language may include greetings, conversations, giving

directions and using talk to explore new learning. Teachers also
need to consider the specific needs of students when selecting texts.

Teachers can use Familiarising Teaching and Learning Practices to

support students’ development in using a range of spoken texts.
(See Effective Teaching and Learning Practices in the First Steps
Linking Assessment Teaching and Learning book, p. 124.)

Participation in Unplanned and Planned Spoken Texts

Consolidating Speakers and Listeners need frequent opportunities
to interact with each other in different group sizes. By participating
in different activities and receiving informative feedback, students
will be able to reflect on their use of language and will develop an
increased awareness of the specific requirements of different forms
of spoken text.

Below are some suggestions that will allow Consolidating Speakers

and Listeners to participate in unplanned and planned speaking and
listening.
• Getting organised with
a partner or small group
• Meeting and greeting people
• Independent inquiry
learning tasks
• Personal learning time
• Lunch and recess times
• Packing away resources
or equipment
• Science and maths activities
• Partner or small-group
reading
• Collaborative tasks
• Reading conference
• Reader’s circle
• Writer’s conference
• Writer’s circle
• Class meeting
• Learning goals
• Inquiry groups. Figure 7.5 A morning routine negotiated with
students provides speaking and listening
opportunities

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 Consolidating Speaking and Listening Phase

It is valuable to provide students with the time to participate

in extended talk in the previous situations as it enables them
to socialise and to put their thoughts into words. Socialisation,
exploration of ideas and experimentation with materials are
important components of students’ learning at school.

Students’ understandings about spoken texts develop over time

through Modelled, Shared and Guided Speaking and Listening
sessions. Below are some key understandings.
• Speaking and listening is useful for different social and learning
purposes.
• Australian English varies.
• Speakers may put forward their own points of view.
• Speaking and listening changes according to how well you know
the people involved, the purpose of the communication and the
situation in which it occurs.
• Speakers and listeners organise spoken texts for different purposes.
• Listening behaviours may change in different school and
community situations.
• Non-verbal language varies according to the context.
• Planning can help speakers to communicate effectively.

Using Spoken Texts Purposefully

Through carefully scaffolded discussions about specific spoken
texts, students develop an awareness of the language structures and
features of a range of text forms used for different purposes such as:
• meeting and greeting with a familiar or unfamiliar adult.
• sustaining conversations with unfamiliar audiences.
• making decisions in group work.
• accepting another person’s point of view.
• providing an introduction to engage the listener when giving
instructions about a popular game.
• using key words for headings, and expanding on them when
presenting a description.
• comparing new events with previous events and other details to
assist the listener to visualise the recount.
• summarising at the end of a report.

It is important that students realise that spoken language is

influenced by the context, with the audience and purpose
determining the structure of a spoken text. The examples provided
in Figure 7.6 offer a starting point for teachers to consider how they
might direct students’ attention to text functions that suit particular
purposes.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

Beginning Students in the Consolidating Teachers can do these things to draw students’ attention to the different
students phase speak and listen to … purposes and how to extend ideas logically and coherently.
communicate
for …
Provide Direction Give a Comment Ask a Question
Getting things • work with peers to plan Tell your group about You organised What do you think
done. and set up a new game for the game bocce and ask yourselves well to get you need to tell your
sport. them to help you set it the game set up so we group about bocce
• let a visiting teacher know up for sport today. can play it for sport. so that they can help
how to find the library. you to set it up?
Influencing • prove to the group that an Use details to convince Now that you’ve given What did you say to
the behaviour, event did occur. the group that your us more information, convince your group
feelings or recount was a true it does sound like that that your recount of
attitudes of account. actually happened! what happened was
others. true?
Getting along • greet and depart. When you greet your When you are What would you like
with others. • join in conversations or kindergarten buddy, developing a friendship to know about your
tasks. ask them a question with your buddy, it is buddy when we visit
• organise leisure time. about their week. good to find out about his/her class today?
them.

Expressing • explain what they want Include the ideas of It’s good to see that What is one thing
individuality to do in a group play or everyone in your group you have been able to that you want
and personal project. to create your display. include each person’s included? How can
feelings. • share their plans for their suggestions. You must your group ensure
new skateboard with have communicated that everybody’s
friends. well. ideas are used for the
display?

Seeking and • form questions to guide an With a partner, pose I’d like to find that What else do you
learning about inquiry into a new topic. questions you have out, too. I’m not sure need to know to be
the social about the main ideas how that happens. able to talk about the
and physical of our topic. main ideas of our
environment. topic?
Creating • make a voice-over for the Your voice-over needs The voice-over What do you need to
stories, games, model for an interactive to demonstrate how matched the display include to show that
new worlds display. the model is to be used and had details to let the model has been
and new texts. • create a skit for an in the future. the visitors know what created to solve a
assembly. it was for. problem?
Communicating • let others know how they Explain how you You organised your What will you need
information. planned a project. planned your project. explanation and you to include when you
• explain the class timetable Include what you did gave a number of explain how you
to a parent. and why you chose reasons, making it planned for your
to do it that particular easy for the group to project?
way. see the way you had
planned your project.

Entertaining • discuss entertaining media Choose a text and You look like you What can you do
others. and topics with peers. topic to talk about enjoyed telling that to make this topic
• retell stories, jokes and that would make your story; it was very entertaining or
riddles. kindergarten buddy entertaining. amusing for the
feel happy. junior class?

Figure 7.6 Examples for focusing on the functions of spoken texts

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 Consolidating Speaking and Listening Phase

Developing Topic Knowledge

Students in the Consolidating phase are being challenged to
understand new information and concepts. Teachers can support
students by assessing and building on current knowledge and
interests. Teachers can do this by:
• Talking and listening to students in informal situations, e.g. in
between tasks, at recess and lunch times, during group work.
• Discussing student’s responses to KWL (What do I know? What
would I like to know? What have I learnt?). This can be done
individually, as a group or a whole class.
• Observe students as they engage in open-ended tasks. Assess what
they already know and what they do with the information.
• Interact with students after they have completed an inquiry,
e.g. Ask: How did you find that out? What do you need to do tomorrow
with this activity?
• Conduct one-on-one or group interviews with students about
what they learnt.
• Negotiate topics to study with the students, e.g. Ask: What would
you like to learn about next? What do you know about …?

(Overlapping is occurring in some sections.)

Joshua: What do you know about frogs?
Elizabeth: That they’re amphibians.
Joshua: I know they can breathe trough their skin and lungs.
Carl: Can they? I didn’t know that!
Joshua: Yeah, that they are amphibians, that’s all I know, oh yeah, and that
they jump for bugs and flies and stuff.
Elizabeth: I know that they can be lots of colours.
Joshua: Red-eyed tree frogs have all the colours of the frogs on them … And
they can poison us.
Elizabeth: And they can fly.
Carl: They can fly?
Elizabeth: Some of them can fly.
Joshua: Frogs can’t fly.
Carl: I wonder why they’re called tadpoles.
Joshua: (reading from a book) Tree frogs have group of fingers and … some
can use their toes for swimming and some use ‘em for digging and
some use ‘em for flying.
Carl: How do frogs fly?
Elizabeth: They jump pretty high, but sometimes they jump too a bit too high
so they fly.
Joshua: Is the … That’s because they’re a webbed, like their feet are webbed
so they like, kind of glide.

Figure 7.7 Informal and unplanned discussion about frogs between

Consolidating students and an Exploratory student
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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

Developing Metalanguage
The language used to describe language is known as metalanguage.
When students are able to use metalanguage to talk competently
about their own speaking and listening, it allows them to understand
how language operates. Teachers are encouraged to model the use
of metalanguage in their daily interactions with students. Students
can then demonstrate their understanding of metalanguage in a
range of different ways. For example, when students identify different
ways to greet people or use different ways to make a request from a
friend and an adult, they are demonstrating metalinguistics awareness.

To help Consolidating Speakers and Listeners use the terms

associated with speaking and listening, it is important to use
metalanguage as part of everyday teaching — across learning areas,
during subject-specific and topic-related discussions, during one-
on-one conversations with students or as part of planned Modelled,
Shared or Guided Learning sessions. For example, teachers may
explicitly teach terms such as:
• Use of Texts: terms for particular text forms, e.g. orientation, conclusion
• Contextual Understanding: dialect, Australian English terms,
e.g. slang, colloquial
• Conventions: negotiate, attend, facial expression, gesture
• Processes and Strategies: strategy, plan, compare and contrast,
infer, reflect.

For further information about the Use of Texts aspect,

see Speaking and Listening Resource Book, 2nd Edition.
• Chapter 1: Use of Texts
• Chapter 4: Processes and Strategies

Involving Students
1 Time for Talk
Time for Talk is an activity that encourages students to reflect on the
text form, topic and audience they are using when talking to their
partners. This activity is explained in detail in Chapter 6, p. 149, and
can be easily adapted for students in the Consolidating phase by
adapting some of the ideas outlined in that chapter. See the Speaking
and Listening CD-ROM, Chapter 6, Exploratory Phase: Use of Texts
(Time for Talk Student Records).

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 Consolidating Speaking and Listening Phase

2 Conversation Starters
Conversation Starters is a partner activity that develops students’
ability to initiate and sustain a conversation on a chosen topic. This
activity helps to develop an understanding of how different text
types are composed for different purposes.

Introduce Conversation Starters by providing students with a topic.

Discuss the purpose for speaking on a particular topic to encourage
students to think about the type of details that should be included.
Keep a class chart of topics that have been discussed already as
students will soon develop skills to choose topics independently.
Choose from some of the ideas listed in the following table.

Purpose Conversation Starters

To exchange Tell your partner about:
personal • one person in your family.
information • what you usually do when you get home from school.
• people and places your family likes to visit.
Sharing likes Tell your partner:
and dislikes • things you like to do on the weekends or on the holidays.
• what your favourite TV program is and why.
• things you like to do on a rainy day.
• about your most treasured possession.
Recounting Tell your partner what you remember about:
experiences • last Christmas.
• the last movie that you saw.
• what happened at the last party that you went to.
• something that happened on your favourite TV show.
Expressing Tell your partner about:
opinions • the one thing that makes you very angry.
• what you think about kids’ TV at the moment.
• your favourite author.
• how you would feel if all the trees around your school were cut down.
Describing and Tell your partner:
explaining • how to get from school to your house.
• what your dream house would look like.
• what your favourite sandwich is and how to make it.
• how to play your favourite card game.
Entertaining Tell your partner:
• a joke or a few jokes.
• a story that one of your grandparents has told you about when they were kids.
• a tall tale, e.g. when you were a superhero.
• part of a book that you have just read.
Imagining Tell your partner:
• what you would do if school was cancelled for the day.
• what animal you would like to change into and why.
• what the world would be like if you fell asleep for a hundred years and then woke up.
• about a marvellous invention of yours.

Figure 7.8

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

3 Listen to Learn
Refer to Chapter 5, Early Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 99.

See the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM, Exploratory Phase: Use of

Texts (Listen to Learn — Thinking Frameworks).

This activity is suitable for all phases.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Choose spoken texts that will help students identify complex
information.
• Use some visual headings or props to support students in extending
their ideas logically and clearly when representing their learning.

4 Talk to Teach
Refer to Chapter 5, Early Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 101.

5 What’s My Opinion?
This activity provides students with the opportunity to locate
and interpret key information. It requires students to distinguish
between fact and opinion and to evaluate how a speaker justifies
an opinion. It also involves students in responding to the ideas and
opinions of others.

Prepare an audio or video recording of people discussing a current

issue or a topic. This may be from a television current affairs
program, talk-back radio or a documentary.
• Students should listen to the recording and note the main
information expressed by speakers. (Refer to Figure 7.9 as an
example of a recording format.)
• Provide time for students to think about the opinions they have
heard and to reflect on the way the speaker justified his or her
thinking.
• Ask students to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the
justifications/reasons given. Suggest they consider if the speaker
was convincing.
• Students can prepare to take turns so they can express their ideas
with others. Suggest prompts to help students initiate a response,
e.g. One point that I agreed with was ... because ... ; I disagreed with
the idea that ... because ... ; I had never thought about ... before ...
and I think ...
• Decide on a way to take turns, e.g. sharing circle, toss a foam ball
around the group, toss around a ball of wool to make a conversation
web.

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• Have students record a reflection on the activity in a journal, e.g.

How well did they take part in the discussion? Did they have enough
knowledge of the topic? Were they able to express ideas clearly? Did
they have the appropriate vocabulary to express their feelings clearly?

Structure of Spoken Text Comment or Example

Was the issue or problem Did the person give a personal opinion?
clearly stated? Did the speaker support their opinion?
Did the speaker present any facts?
Did the speaker offer a solution or a
suggestion?

Figure 7.9 Recording Format

6 Reflect and Respond

Refer to Chapter 6, Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase,
p. 147.

7 What Comes Next?

Refer to Chapter 5, Early Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 97.

8 Getting to Know You

Getting to Know You is an activity designed to provide students
with practice in asking and answering questions. It will help
students to develop their interviewing skills.

Students work in pairs. Discuss the nature of questioning to gain

information then how to listen carefully to respond with a related
question or comment. Teach students to ask open-ended questions
and to encourage the speaker to include details and points of
interest, e.g. students could say, ‘Tell me about: Your hobbies, sporting
interests, favourite book, favourite movie, best holiday, favourite school
subject, pets, etc.’

Allow students many opportunities to practise interviewing class

members on familiar topics.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

Have one student assume a different identity to role play in an
interview, e.g. a sporting identity, a pop star or a movie actor. Questions
could be designed to elicit information on their achievements or the pros
and cons of being famous.

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9 Mini Debate
A mini debate provides an opportunity for students to generate
alternative arguments for a given topic. It allows students to see
that there can be differing points of view surrounding a topic and
that opinions need to be supported with reasons or evidence.
• Students can work in small groups of about four and sit in a circle.
• Introduce a topic, e.g. the school day should be longer.
• Students will take turns to give reasons as to why they agree with
the statement.
• When everyone has had a turn, the group then suggests why they
disagree with the statement.
• Reflection — discuss statements that seemed to support the
statement and the opposing argument effectively.
• Discuss the word rebuttal. Teach students how to acknowledge
a point of view but then suggest an argument that refutes that
particular view.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Involve students in discussing the difference between facts and
opinions.
• Discuss with students how opinions and points of view are
developed, e.g. ask students questions such as, Where does evidence
come from? Whose opinions do you value?

10 Radio Play
Radio Play provides students with an opportunity to listen in order
to analyse the structures and features of spoken narrative. This
activity also asks students to compare and contrast the way that
spoken language is used to entertain, now and from the past. Ask
students to imagine a time before television and to list reasons why
radio would have been an important part of people’s lives, e.g. news,
music, entertainment such as plays, serials, quiz shows. Provide a
recording of a radio play or part of a serial program. Radio serials
from the past may be found in national library archives, e.g. National
Library of Australia. (Visit The National Collection of Screen and
Sound website; www.nla.gov.au.)

Provide students with guiding questions to help them focus on

their listening. Students should record answers to these questions
as they are listening. Choose from some of the following ideas and
questions.
• List the sound effects used in this story or play. How do you think
the sound effects were created?

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• Choose one sound effect. Describe how it adds to the meaning of

the story.
• How does expression and tone of voice help to tell the story?
• List key words to describe the structure of the story, e.g. setting,
main characters, problem, resolution.
• List any words or sayings that you heard in the historical
recordings that may not be used in the same way today.
• Note the way words are pronounced and list any words that
sound different to you.
• Identify attitudes, values or beliefs in the historical play or version.
Consider if any are different from those that you hold.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Have students create their own radio play with added sound
effects. Record and share with another class.
• Ask students to interview older people to discover the role that
radio may have played in their lives.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Discuss ways in which spoken texts can be constructed and

adjusted for different purposes, e.g. through register, dialect,
vocabulary choices.

■ Provide opportunities for students to reflect upon the way

in which they interact with particular audiences, e.g. degree
of formality, type of vocabulary, topics discussed, code-switching/
code-mixing.

■ Teach students to include relevant details and information

of interest to their listeners when speaking.

■ Teach students how to contribute to discussions of matters

that interest or affect them.

■ Provide opportunities for students to analyse the way

people’s beliefs and opinions influence the construction
of spoken texts.

■ Teach students to reflect upon the way in which they

express their opinions.

■ Teach the use of devices and discuss how they influence

meaning, e.g. volume, tone, pace, emphasis, vocabulary choices,
amount of detail, type of example provided.

Teaching Notes
The focus for supporting Consolidating Speakers and Listeners in
this aspect is organised under the following headings.
• Understandings About Context
• Reflecting on Interactions
• Considering the Needs of the Audience
• Contributing to Matters of Importance
• Investigating the Way Ideas and People Are Represented
• Use of Devices

Understandings About Context

Students in this phase are more aware of the impact of context
on speaking and listening. Through their involvement in learning
and teaching experiences across the curriculum, students learn
about appropriate speaking and listening conventions for different

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situations. For example, students learn how to adjust speaking and

listening when interviewing the principal as part of a class survey or
when explaining a game to a younger student. Students need to be
involved in planning before they encounter unfamiliar situations so
they are aware of the adjustments that may be required when they
speak and listen.

It is important that teachers allocate time for reflecting on the

effectiveness of student language use. This will include discussions
on situations that required a change in register, adjusting volume or
vocabulary. Engaging in these types of discussions assists students to
identify the language requirements of different contexts.

Reflecting on Interactions
Students in the Consolidating phase will benefit from opportunities
to reflect on the way they interact with unfamiliar audiences in
new situations. This will involve discussing how to judge the degree
of formality required, choice of vocabulary, topic, etc.

Teacher: Do you think your speaking changes?

Sarah: Yeah, ‘cos sometimes there’s different people. Some people are
important like not important, like adults you need to speak politely
and with children it’s kind of you speak like how you would speak to
yourself … and … casual.
Erica-Jayne: At school your language changes because, obviously you’re not
allowed to use inappropriate language at school, but some people
might be allowed to at home. And with, like, little toddlers you have
to, you wouldn’t say very long words, you’d just say, like instead
of saying, this way you would feel confident about something, to a
toddler you would say this way you would feel good about doing this.
Tristan: To your friends it’s more, like, not so formal.

Figure 7.10 Transcript of students’ discussions about listening and speaking

The meaning students make from a spoken text is influenced by

their life experiences, their knowledge of spoken language (the
words and the behaviours) and the relationship with the speaker.
Teachers may find it helpful to learn about the way in which
students’ culture influences their speaking and listening. Teachers
can use discussions with parents/caregivers to help find out about
the cultural and social knowledge of their students. (See the
Speaking and Listening CD-ROM Consolidating Phase for parent/
caregiver survey.)

As students reflect on their interactions, teachers can acknowledge

and value students’ own language use, and help them to gain
confidence to communicate effectively in different situations.
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Some students may benefit from discussions about code-switching

when considering the ways language is used in different situations.

In this way, students develop an awareness that will help them

choose a dialect that will best serve the students’ needs in a
particular context.

Teachers can support students to reflect upon the way in which

they interact with particular audiences in the following ways:
• Ask questions that show a genuine interest in what the student
wants and needs to communicate, e.g. How do you think we can
work this out together? Can you tell me in another way?
• Acknowledge students’ feelings, e.g. I can see that you are annoyed.
You sound really happy about that.
• Refer to class decisions about speaking and listening, e.g. We
decided we would express our opinions calmly in our class. We were
going to use a PMI to help the group come to an agreement. We
agreed that when we are making a decision in a group, we should stop
what we are doing and join in.
• Give guidance to students who have difficulty adjusting their
speaking and listening so they know what to do in future
situations, e.g. We know that didn’t work this time, what could you
say and do differently if something like this happened again? Let’s
listen to some different ways we can say that. That’s one way of saying
that. What’s another way?

Considering the Needs of the Audience

Consolidating Speakers and Listeners are gaining confidence when
interacting with familiar audiences and are becoming more aware
of the needs of a wider audience. They need support to include
relevant details and information of interest to their listeners when
speaking and to reflect upon the way they express their opinions.

Figure 7.11
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 Consolidating Speaking and Listening Phase

Modelled, Shared and Guided Speaking and Listening are ideal

practices for teaching students to consider the needs of their
audience. Teachers can also provide direction, responses and
questions to students and draw their attention to appropriate verbal
and non-verbal language, as shown below:
• Tell your buddy from Room 4 something you think they will like
to hear.
• What background information will the other groups need when
you tell them about your investigation?
• What kinds of talk will you need to use in your story so that we
have a good mental picture of what is happening?
• How do you think we should speak when the principal/director
comes to visit our class?
• What things will we do when the visiting footballer talks to us?
• I think your group was amazed when you told them that recount.
They know more about you and your favourite hobby.
• What do you think your partner liked listening to?
• How will we show that we are interested when our visitor comes
to tell us about water conservation?
• You used the slides on the PowerPoint to help us see what we
would need to do before we started learning how to skate.
• What do we need to do when certificates are being presented at
the assembly?
• What are some different ways we can start our project reports?
• How will we make sure that our visitors know that we want to
listen to them?

Consolidating Speakers and Listeners also need continued support

to develop their interpersonal and collaborative skills. For example,
beginning and ending a conversation, asking for help, giving and
receiving compliments, joining in, saying thank you, negotiating,
turn taking, disagreeing in an agreeable way, expressing empathy,
understanding others’ feelings, apologising.

Contributing to Matters of Importance

It is valuable for students in this phase to contribute ideas, offer
opinions, express feelings, and give feedback to others. They
learn that speaking and listening is useful for raising awareness of
issues and identifying actions that can be taken to solve problems.
Teachers can support students in the following ways.
• Negotiate with students and invite them to express their ideas and
opinions when planning, reviewing and organising tasks.
• Have open-ended tasks that allow students to choose topics and
materials.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

• Provide time for students to raise issues of concern in regular

sessions such as class meetings.
• Provide space (such as pin-up boards) for students to display work
such as posters, flow charts and artwork. These displays will help
when students discuss learning with visitors to the class.

Investigating the Way Ideas and People Are Represented

Students in this phase will need to be supported through careful
teacher scaffolding in understanding the different ways that their
own and other people’s beliefs and opinions can be represented in
spoken texts. A range of electronic spoken texts are available to use
for discussions of how people and ideas are represented in various
ways. CD-ROMs, films, television programs and audio tapes include
spoken texts such as stories, recounts, advertisements and reports.
Consolidating Speakers and Listeners will benefit from discussions
that focus on the following kinds of questions:
• Why do you think the people or ideas were explained in that way?
• How did it make you feel about the ideas or people as you listened?
• Who might like the way the ideas or people are shown in this?
Why? Who might not?
• Do you think these things are true about the ideas or people? Why?
• Did you hear a point of view that was the same as yours?
• What does the spoken text mean for you?
• What do you think is the main message about the people or ideas?
• What other messages are there?
• Is the speaker using a dialect different to yours?
• Does the spoken text make sense?
• Does it sound right? Why?
• What words have been used?
• What body language has been used?

Use of Devices
Consolidating Speakers and Listeners use a small range of verbal
and non-verbal devices to convey meaning. Teachers can explicitly
guide students to reflect on how students, as speakers and listeners,
adjust their spoken and non-verbal language to enhance meaning
in school situations. Teachers can also encourage students to discuss
how the use of these devices differs from those used in the home
and community contexts. The focus for Consolidating Speakers and
Listeners includes:
• How prosodic features (volume, tone, pace, clarity and intonation)
and vocabulary alter when conversing at home with a familiar
adult compared to discussing school work with the principal or
speaking in a small group.
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 Consolidating Speaking and Listening Phase

• How non-verbal language (facial expressions, body position,

posture, eye contact, gestures, and movement) alter when
conversing with a peer compared to an unknown adult.
• How verbal devices can be used to create an effect, e.g. asking
a rhetorical question when introducing an item to be performed at
assembly.
• How the conventions of Standard Australian English are more
powerful in certain contexts, e.g. requesting consent for an activity
from the principal is more likely if these conventions are observed.

For further information about the Contextual Understanding aspect,

see First Steps Speaking and Listening Resource Book, 2nd Edition,
Chapter 2: Contextual Understanding.

For further information on the teaching and learning practices

referred to in this section, see Chapter 7 in the First Steps Linking
Assessment, Teaching and Learning book.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

Involving Students
1 Communicating in the Community
Refer to Chapter 6, Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 156.

2 Speaking and Listening Grids

(Oliver, Haig and Rochecouste 2003)
Speaking and Listening Grids help students consider the ways
their speaking and listening is adjusted for different audiences.
Students think of different audiences and situations and then place
them onto a grid for speaking and a grid for listening. Copies of
the grids are reproduced and given to students. They record words
they would use for speaking onto the Speaking Grid; they record
listening behaviours and responses onto the Listening Grid.

Students can also use the grids in a Reflect and Respond session.

Friends Family New people The Shop Your

friends you meet principal assistants friend’s
or teachers parents
How do
you ask
for help
from … ?
How do
you share
exciting
news
with … ?
How do
you solve
a problem
with … ?

Figure 7.12 A sample of a grid made by a class

Ask students the following questions:

• Who do you interact with? How would you group them?
e.g. friends who are boys, other classmates, family friends
• What are some of the interactions you might have throughout the
day? e.g. greeting, apologising, asking for something, planning
– Record the students’ responses onto a grid.
– Reproduce and copy the grids for students.
– Model the first two grid sections, e.g. How do I greet teachers?
How do I greet friends I know really well? What do I do when a
teacher greets me? What do I do when a friend greets me?
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 Consolidating Speaking and Listening Phase

– Ask students to complete their grids.

– Discuss questions, e.g. Why do we use different words for some
people? Why do we look at some people more than others when we
are listening?
– Ask students to record some of their reflections in a journal, e.g.
What did you learn about speaking and listening after hearing about
other people’s grids?

3 Speech Pyramid
(Hymes 1974 and Oliver, Haig and Rochecouste 2003)
Speech Pyramids involve students observing and noting what
happens in a speech situation. These observations are then discussed
and placed in a Speech Pyramid. The speech situation is recorded at
the top of the pyramid, speech events in the middle and speech acts
at the bottom. Students share their Speech Pyramids and explore the
speaking and listening behaviours they need for different situations.
This helps students to develop the ability to make appropriate
adjustments when speaking and listening in different contexts.

Model the activity using a familiar speech situation at school,

e.g. class meetings, discussion groups, literature circle. Have some
observation notes about a speech situation on hand. Think aloud,
refer to the observation notes and record the speech situation, speech
events and speech acts onto a prepared pyramid on a whiteboard,
data projector, overhead or a large sheet of paper. This step can
be repeated at a later time with students contributing in a shared
session.
• Ask students to think of
speech situations that they
have participated in.
• Have students work in
small groups or individually
to select and complete
observations of a speech
situation.
• They can then complete
their own Speech Pyramid.

Figure 7.13 Observation samples

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

Figure 7.14 Speech pyramid of school assembly

– Ask students to share their Speech Pyramid with each other.

Provide discussion points, e.g. Are any speech acts similar to speech
acts in different Speech Pyramids? What are the different kinds of
reasons or purposes for the speech acts? Who is controlling the speech
acts? What do you think would control the speech acts in a different
speech situation?

4 Time Machine
Time Machine is an activity that allows students to investigate the
way English usage changes over time. Students will investigate
recordings from the past in order to compare and contrast the way
that spoken language is used today.

Locate recordings from the past such as old movies, oral histories
or archived recordings (see National Film and Sound Archive,
www.screensound.gov.au)

Have students listen to recordings from the past in order to focus on

particular features. Students could list features such as:
• unknown vocabulary
• words that are used in a different way to the way they are used
today
• pronunciation — ask students to describe the pronunciation or
accent used

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 Consolidating Speaking and Listening Phase

• pace and pausing – ask students to describe what they notice.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

Ask students to prepare a Reader’s Theatre script from an old novel,
e.g. Enid Blyton’s Secret Seven or Famous Five.

5 Class Meetings
Refer to Chapter 6, Exploratory Phase, p. 157.

6 Graffiti Groups
Graffiti Groups provides students with an opportunity to discuss
matters that interest or affect them. Students learn to express
opinions and consider other points of view.

Introduce the idea of a graffiti board as an avenue that students can

use to record issues as they arise. Issues may be of a social nature,
e.g. We should have tables and chairs outside for eating during class
breaks. Issues may arise through investigating topics in a variety
of curriculum areas, e.g. The government should make recycling
compulsory. A graffiti board can be a whiteboard or a large sheet of
paper that students can easily access.
• Choose a time to discuss the issues that have been collected on
the graffiti board.
• Introduce the session by reading through the listed ideas for
discussion. Group any ideas that may be similar.
• Students form groups based on the issue or idea they would like
to discuss.
• Students should keep a journal to record ideas as they are
discussed. The journal should be organised into two columns. One
column will be for recording summarised opinions that others in
the group give. In the other column, students should make their
own personal comments.

7 Changing Views
Changing Views provides students with the opportunity to discuss
a text, identify the point of view from which it is presented, and
consider how it would change if presented from a different point of
view. Following discussions, students are encouraged to re-create
texts or excerpts from a different point of view.
• After students have listened to a text, discuss whose point of
view is represented in it. Ask students to identify sections of the
text that lead them to their conclusions e.g. they need to consider
elements such as choice of language, tone of voice, body language, etc.
• Discuss with them whose point of view is not represented.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

• Arrange students in small groups and have them discuss a particular

event from a different point of view e.g. one not heard in the text.
• Have students brainstorm how to present the event from the
different points of view. Invite groups to share their findings,
• Students may be encouraged to deliver the alternative text to the
class; the class can then reflect on its effectiveness.

This activity is also suitable for the Consolidating, Conventional and

Proficient phases.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

Students could choose a text to listen to, e.g. a talking book, extracts
from TV news, current affairs shows, talk-back radio, formal speeches,
political broadcasts, etc.

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CONVENTIONS
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Provide opportunities for students to develop, refine and

use new vocabulary.

■ Teach structures and features that extend and elaborate

communication in informal and formal contexts, e.g. how
to state and justify an opinion.

■ Continue to teach conversational skills, e.g. turn taking,

negotiating meaning, managing topic changes.

■ Teach students to recognise the different speaking and

listening behaviours that are needed for different contexts.

■ Teach students listening skills needed to respond

appropriately in a variety of situations, e.g. how to offer
alternate viewpoints sensitively, how to identify different points
of view.

Teaching Notes
Teaching and learning experiences for students in the Consolidating
phase are organised under the following headings:
• Building Vocabulary
• Understanding the Conventions of Spoken Texts
• Understanding the Behaviours Associated with Speaking and
Listening
• Understanding the Conventions of Listening

Building Vocabulary
Students in the Consolidating phase will have developed an
extensive vocabulary through experiences at school, at home, in
the community and through the media. The challenge for them lies
in finding words that ‘best fit’ the situation. This becomes essential
when students are discussing understandings about particular
subjects. Subject-specific vocabulary needs to be learned and
practised in both informal and formal settings. Students should also
develop a precise vocabulary in order to communicate feelings and
needs in a clear, succinct manner.

Opportunities to develop, refine and use vocabulary can be

drawn from many sources. By analysing a range of spoken texts,
students will identify vocabulary used for a range of purposes.
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These texts may be from movies, television, radio, literature, the

Internet, everyday conversations and encounters with friends and
community members. Students in the Consolidating phase could be
supported in developing their vocabulary in the following ways:
• Encourage students to keep individual lists to extend their spoken
vocabulary.
• Analyse segments of news reports or current affairs programs.
Jointly construct charts of:
– interesting or unusual words
– descriptive words
– words or phrases that signal attempts at providing a balanced view
– words or phrases that signal a particular point of view.
• Analyse spoken texts to discuss speakers’ choice of words; Do they
achieve words that are the ‘best fit’ in the context?
• Introduce subject-specific language and provide opportunities for
students to explore and use new vocabulary.
• Involve students in analysing spoken language used outside the
classroom to determine the types of vocabulary used in different
social situations.

Understanding the Conventions of Spoken Texts

At all phases of development it is important that students are
exposed to different examples of spoken language so that attention
can be drawn to structures and features that suit different purposes.

The structure of a spoken text refers to the way information

is organised and presented in a text. For example:
• turn taking in a conversation
• making an apology, e.g. state name and reason
• introducing people.

The language features of a spoken text refer to the type of vocabulary,

grammar, tone and pace chosen. For example:
• using colloquial words or sayings when conversing with friends
• recognising emotive language used to persuade in an
advertisement
• stressing certain words or altering volume to gain an impact.

Students in the Consolidating phase can be encouraged to consider

the way language is used in the following ways:
• Involve students in discussions about styles of speech, e.g. research
the way they speak when talking to friends, talking to known adults,
talking to unknown adults, talking to those much younger or older
than themselves.

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 Consolidating Speaking and Listening Phase

• Involve students in examining different types of speaking used for

different purposes, e.g.
– How is the spoken language of a news program different to
a documentary?
– How is the spoken language of a soap opera different to a lifestyle
program?
– What is Standard Australian English and who uses it?
• Provide opportunities for students to plan before speaking in
formal situations, e.g. to make an announcement over the speaker
system; to deliver a speech of thanks at a sporting event; to a visiting
performer; to a guest speaker; to ask questions on an excursion.

Conversations
Conversations are important in establishing and maintaining
relationships through expressing feelings and sharing experiences.
It is through conversations that we give and receive information
and compare ideas. This type of unplanned speaking and listening
not only develops self-awareness and interpersonal skills; it helps
to build topic knowledge and processes for learning. Conversations
can be between partners or within small groups. Discuss likely
issues with students and negotiate agreed behaviours for interacting
during conversations. The following list of questions may provide a
starting point.
• What are the implications of making ‘personal’ comments?
• How can differing opinions be stated in a respectful manner?
• How can likes and dislikes be expressed sensitively?
• How can confrontation and argument be avoided?
• How can everyone be included in the conversation?
• What needs to be considered when someone new joins a group?
• How can we ensure that everyone who wants to speak gets the
opportunity?
• When and how is it appropriate to interrupt?

Understanding the Behaviours Associated

with Speaking and Listening
Students need to be aware of the behaviours associated
with speaking and listening and how it affects meaningful
communication in a variety of contexts. The expectations of school
and community may differ to those that students experience at
home. Learning new ways of communicating will build on students’
prior knowledge and add to their repertoire of skills, helping
them to choose behaviours that meet the expectations of different
contexts. Knowing when to choose certain behaviours is complex

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

and students may need the support of their teachers to do this

effectively. Teachers can support students in some of the following
ways.
• Teach students to speak clearly and with enough volume so that
those in the audience can hear and understand.
• Discuss body language when speaking, e.g. appropriate eye contact,
proximity of speaker and listener.
• Discuss body language when listening, e.g. nodding your head,
proximity to the speaker.
• Discuss how to interpret body language for emotional cues.
• Teach students to observe and reflect on the body language
portrayed by others, e.g. when watching video footage.
• Discuss how an audience behaves, e.g. when listening to the
teacher, when listening to another student, at assembly, at the theatre.
• Teach students to ensure that everyone has a chance to contribute
to a discussion, e.g. invite a shy person to speak and give them time
to think.
• Teach students how to encourage group members in a discussion,
e.g. teach students to use prompts such as, ‘Go on !’; ‘Do you have an
example?’

Teacher: So can you say it is a little bit more than just speaking,
isn’t it, Joshua?
Joshua: Aaah, yeah and well, it’s, it’s also got to do with your
tone of voice, and …
Teacher: What do you mean by that?
Joshua: I mean like if ….like, say if your mum said, ‘Emily and
Joshua, we’re going to Whiteman Park today,’ and
Emily said, ‘Oh, great.’ (Student uses a bored tone of voice.)
Do you think she really means it?
Teacher: Probably not.
Joshua: Yeah, but if, if she said, ‘Oh, cool, I’d like to go to
Whiteman Park. Can I take Pinky Pie?’ (Student uses a
happy tone of voice.) Do you think she does mean it?
Figure 7.15 Student using body Teacher: That sounds more like she wants to go.
language to enhance meaning
Joshua: So it’s got a lot to do with the tone of voice.
Teacher: Anything else?
Joshua: Um ... yeah, the look, the … your facial expressions.
If you were um …, in a bored kind of expression, which
would go with the first kind of example of voice tone,
we wouldn’t really wanna go to it, but if you actually
have a smile on your face and looked really excited,
you would wanna go, ‘cos that’s what it would look
like anyway.

Figure 7.16 A transcript of student discussing facial expression

and tone

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 Consolidating Speaking and Listening Phase

Understanding the Conventions of Listening

Listening is an active, constructive process concerned with making
meaning from verbal and non-verbal cues. Effective listening depends
on the expectations and predictions about content, language and
genre that the listener brings to the text (Gibbons 2002). The way in
which we listen is also linked to the context of the communication.
We listen differently during unplanned, spontaneous situations, e.g.
in casual conversations, than we do when speaking and listening is
planned and formal, e.g. in the classroom when instructions are being
given. The structures and features of listening can be considered
using the following framework.

Type of Listening Features

Appreciative Listening • Noticing sound quality (pitch, volume, tone).
• Interpreting mood and emotion.
• Noticing rhyme, alliteration, onomatopoeia.
Critical Listening • Preparing to respond, to agree or disagree.
• Demonstrate attention through body language, e.g. nodding or eye
contact.
• Remembering key ideas.
• Paraphrasing or summarising a spoken text.
• To distinguish between fact and opinion.
• To detect bias and prejudice.
Empathic Listening • Noticing underlying emotions and the speaker’s intent.
• The use of sympathetic questioning to clarify and understand key
messages.

Figure 7.17

Teachers can assist students to become familiar with and use the
conventions of listening in some of the following ways.
• Provide time for students to engage in conversations.
• Provide opportunities for students to listen to speech constructed
for different purposes, e.g. to be entertained, to gain information, to
build relationships.
• Provide opportunities for students to respond to spoken texts,
e.g. through discussions, questions, using journals, artwork, etc.
• Provide opportunities to develop active listening skills, for
example:
– know when it is important to stay silent and let a person speak
uninterrupted.
– acknowledge the contributions others make in a discussion,
e.g. Jo had an idea that we can build on.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

• Provide opportunities for students to explore and analyse different

types of listening inside and outside the classroom. Use students’
findings’ to clarify the conventions of listening needed for different
purposes.
– When is listening easy?
– When is listening difficult?
– When do I change the way I listen?
– How do I know when I should respond to a speaker? When
should I stay quiet?

Involving Students
1 Eye Contact (Miyata 2004)
This activity promotes the use of eye contact as a convention
to convey sincerity and to establish rapport when speaking in a
group or to a large audience. Students work in small groups. Have
students prepare for the activity by mentally rehearsing a short
recount. Explain that students will take turns to speak in the group.
The speaker should tell their recount as he or she slowly scans the
faces of the members in their group. (Suggest that the speaker starts
with the person sitting opposite and then move to those students
on one side, then slowly move to those students sitting on the other
side.) As the speaker finishes the recount, he or she should make
direct eye contact with one person and say, ‘What do you think of
that?’ The person gives a brief response, maintaining eye contact as
they speak.

Ask students to reflect on the use of eye contact during the activity
and ask questions, e.g. Did the use of eye contact make everyone
feel included? Did it help you to concentrate? Was the eye contact
uncomfortable in any way?

Vary the activity by asking students to tell tall tales as an alternative

to a recount.

2 Let’s Negotiate
Let’s Negotiate provides students with an opportunity to practise the
conventions associated with negotiating and reaching decisions in
a group. This activity will include turn-taking, initiating discussion,
attentive listening behaviours and accepting the ideas of others.
Group members are required to discuss an issue or idea in order to
reach a collective decision. It is essential to stress that all members of
the group should contribute to the discussion and the final decision.

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 Consolidating Speaking and Listening Phase

Organise students into small groups, of about four students. Ask

students to think of ways that all group members can be included.
Explain that there will be a time limit (three to five minutes). In
that time, the group will need to discuss the issue or idea and arrive
at a decision that can be shared with the rest of the class. Some
ideas for discussion could be:
• You never seem to get a chance to choose the TV programs that
are watched in your house. Decide what you could do to have a
turn to choose a program.
• You were the only person to see someone accidentally break a
window at school. The person ran away without telling anyone.
What will you do?
• You are having trouble crossing a busy road when you walk to
school and again when you walk home. What can you do about
it?
• It is your job to give the dog a bath at home but the dog seems to
hate water and you always have a battle on your hands. Can the
group invent a solution?

Provide time for students to share their decisions with the class.
Invite students to comment on the way conventions were observed,
e.g. Did everyone get a turn? How did the group arrive at the final
decision? If decisions were difficult to make, what created the difficulty?

3 Guessing Games
Refer to Chapter 5, Early Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 119.

4 Comparison Activities
Refer to Chapter 5, Early Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 119.

5 What Did You See? (Gibbons 2002)

This is a memory game that practises vocabulary. It could be played
with a small group or the whole class. Place objects or pictures
relating to a topic being studied on a table. After students have
looked at them for a few moments, cover the objects with a cloth
and see how many objects the students can remember. Also refer
to Chapter 5, Early Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 120.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

Relate this game to a science topic, e.g. equipment such as magnifying
glass, thermometer, measuring jugs, scales, ruler, stopwatch, etc. This will
help to reinforce vocabulary that may be needed for a unit of work.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

6 Take a Turn
Refer to Chapter 5, Early Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 121.

7 Let Me Introduce You

This activity allows students to explore the conventions associated
with making introductions. Students learn how to choose the
appropriate conventions to suit different contexts.

Ask students to think of situations that require an introduction.

Have students brainstorm these ideas and record them.
• Note which introductions are made in informal situations and
those that are made in formal situations.
• Note situations where people introduce themselves and when
another person makes the introduction.
• Jointly construct the steps to make an informal introduction,
e.g. informally introduce yourself: ‘Hello, my name is ... ’ ; informally
introduce another, ‘Hi ... I’d like you to meet ... ’

To create steps for a formal introduction, have students listen to

a radio or television recording where a host introduces a guest.
Jointly record the steps used, pointing out the way that a listener
is orientated by the inclusion of pertinent background information.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Introduce this activity prior to inviting a guest speaker. Allow
students to role play the conventions of introductions.
• Compare introductions made for entertainment purposes and
those made for everyday purposes.

8 Generic Games
There are many common games that can be used to support
understanding of the conventions of spoken language. See First Steps
Reading Map of Development, 2nd Edition, and First Steps Writing Map
of Development, 2nd Edition, for descriptions of games.

9 Barrier Games
Refer to Chapter 5: Early Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 123.

10 Role Plays
Role plays can be used to develop an understanding of the conventions
used for a variety of purposes. This activity is explained in detail in
Chapter 5 (see p. 124). See the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM,
Chapter 7, Consolidating Phase, Conventions: for scenarios cards.

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 Consolidating Speaking and Listening Phase

11 Say It Again
This activity explores the structure of recounts. It also makes
students critically aware of appropriate vocabulary, tone, pace and
the use of descriptive language.

Choose a scenario that will be familiar to the students, e.g. While

walking home from school, some students witnessed an accident in the
car park of the local shopping centre. A blue van reversed and hit a new
yellow Volkswagen.

Have the students work in small groups to brainstorm the details of

the accident. They can pose questions such as: Who was driving?
What were they doing before the collision? How did they react?
What action did the students take? Was anyone hurt?

The students choose an audience for their recount, e.g. a police

officer, their parents, friends at school, a passer-by. Students rehearse
their recount and share it with their group.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Ask students to reflect on their choice of vocabulary. How did it
differ in each recount and why?
• Ask students to reflect on their use of pace, intonation and
expressive language. What affected their choices?

12 Watch Your Tone

This activity focuses on tone of voice and provides an opportunity
for students to develop an understanding of tone and pitch variation.

Model an example for students, e.g. Say, ‘Have you seen my new pens
today?’ in an excited tone or as an accusation.

Ask students to reflect on one of the following sentences. Ask

students to say the sentences in different ways and record adverbs
to describe the tone of voice used.
• What time did you get home?
• The principal called me at work today.
• That was a nice thing to say.

Ask students to reflect on times we need to be careful about

choosing our ‘tone of voice’. Ask: How do we adjust our tone when
we need to negotiate or disagree when emotions are in danger of
clouding the message we want to convey? Consider ways to record
students’ reflections for future use, e.g. in journals, class charts or
posters.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Ask students to repeat phrases using different tones of voice, e.g.
angry, surprised, curious, sad, happy, etc. Try using whispers and loud
voices.
• Invite students to reflect on times they have noticed the tone in
someone’s voice ‘speaks louder’ than the words.
• Ask students to reflect on how they can use tone to improve their
communication.

13 Who’s Listening?
Who’s Listening is an activity that emphasises students’ awareness
of certain behaviours that accompany speaking and listening, such
as the factors that assist and hinder communication. The behaviours
of turn-taking and body language are explored in this activity. This
activity could take place prior to jointly constructing charts of
speaking and listening behaviours. (See the First Steps Speaking and
Listening CD-ROM, Exploratory Phase, Conventions for Listening
Behaviours cards.)

This activity can be performed in pairs. The first part is very noisy
so make sure that students know how to stop on a given signal. Tell
the students that they will have three tasks and thirty seconds to
complete each task and that speaking should stop on a given signal.
Ask the students to decide who will be A and who will be B. Stop
after each task and debrief.

Student A and Student B should talk about their family members.

They will talk at the same time.

Debrief: Could you hear your partner? Could you tell what your partner
was saying? Did it affect the way that you spoke?

• Student A should talk about their family members. Student B says

nothing, but conveys the attitude of not listening.

Debrief: What did Student B do to show that listening wasn’t

happening? How did that make Student A feel? How did that affect the
way that Student A spoke?

• Student B should talk about their family members. Student A

should say nothing but should convey that they are listening
attentively.

Debrief: What did Student B do to show that listening was happening?

How did that make Student A feel? How did it affect the way that
Student A spoke?
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 Consolidating Speaking and Listening Phase

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

Use this activity to introduce the role of observer. An observer
could be appointed to look for certain behaviours and then present
feedback to the group, e.g. observe the behaviour of asking a clarifying
question in a group discussion, observe the behaviour of following
instructions in a group science experiment.

14 Analyse a Video
Refer to Chapter 5, Early Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 127.
(See the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM, Exploratory Phase,
Conventions, for frameworks.)

15 Ask an Expert
Refer to Chapter 6, Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase,
p. 172.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Processes and Strategies

PROCESSES AND STRATEGIES

Major Teaching Emphases

■ Provide opportunities for students to reflect on thinking

strategies used for speaking and listening, e.g. encourage
students to set goals to improve speaking and listening, consider
evidence to support an opinion, think through an issue before
raising it with others.
■ Provide opportunities for students to engage in sustained
conversations and discussions, e.g. how to build on the ideas
of others, paraphrasing, giving and seeking opinions.
■ Teach students to select planning tools to help them speak
effectively in a range of contexts, e.g. debates, in group
contexts related to school contexts, with peers and unknown adults
in social contexts.
■ Teach students to use scaffolds to plan for listening, e.g.
how to set goals for listening, how to make accurate notes, how
to summarise key ideas from a spoken text.

■ Teach strategies to repair miscommunication, e.g. by seeking

feedback (confirmation check) and clarifying message, rephrasing.

Organisation of the Processes and Strategies Aspect

There are several differences in the organisation of the Processes and
Strategies aspect. Both the Teaching Notes and the Teaching and
Learning Experiences (Involving Students) are in the Speaking and
Listening Resource Book, 2nd Edition, Chapter 4: Processes and Strategies.

The rationale for this difference in organisation is that the processes

and strategies of speaking and listening are not conceptually
hierarchical and therefore not phase specific. In all phases, a
variety of speaking and listening processes and strategies need to be
introduced, developed and consolidated.

What varies from one phase to the next is the growth in:
• the number and integration of strategies used throughout the
processes of speaking and listening.
• the awareness and monitoring of speaking and listening processes.
• the efficiency in the uses of the speaking and listening processes.
• the ability to articulate the use of the strategies used in the process
of speaking and listening.
• the awareness of how the use of processes helps with composing
and listening to texts.
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 Consolidating Speaking and Listening Phase

Supporting Parents of
Consolidating Speakers and
Listeners
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Consolidating Speakers and Listeners are learning to use Standard
Australian English appropriately. They think about the needs
of their audience when communicating in order to make their
message clearly understood. They try different ways to adjust their
vocabulary, tone and body language to suit different purposes.

Teachers will find that parents are able to support their children
effectively when they have an understanding of how children learn
and if they are aware of what happens in the classroom. Teachers
can help build parent awareness of the learning program in which
their child is involved in these kinds of ways:
• Invite parents in to join in class activities and talk to them before
and after the activity, e.g. The students are … The adult’s role in
this activity is to … How did the students enjoy this activity? What did
you find was effective in helping them to understand?
• Conduct parent/caregiver workshops on learning e.g. Learning
with Technology, Helping Children to Learn, Making Learning Fun.
• Make a video, DVD, CD-ROM with the students to demonstrate
certain features of the learning program.
• Each family can take it home to view with their students.
A viewing guide can be created with the student’s input.
• When creating displays of student work, add information about
the context of the activity and list the important learning that
took place during the activity.
• Provide students with home learning tasks that involve them
sharing their learning with family members.

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 Supporting Parents of Consolidating Speakers and Listeners

Supporting Consolidating Speakers

and Listeners in the Home
Consolidating Speakers and Listeners will benefit from a range of
experiences in the home setting. Ideas for providing appropriate
experiences are available on Parent Cards located on the First Steps
Speaking and Listening CD-ROM. Teachers can select appropriate
cards for each Consolidating Speaker and Listener and copy them
for parent use.

Parent Cards
1 General Description of Consolidating Speakers
and Listeners
2 Developing an Understanding About Different Types of
Speaking and Listening
3 Developing an Understanding About Contexts
4 Developing Vocabulary
5 Listening
6 Family Meetings

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 CHAPTER 8

Conventional
Speaking and
Listening Phase
Unplanned Planned

(Reflection on planning with teacher) (Carl uses his plan to tell a familiar adult how to use an MP3™
Teacher: Carl, how did you remember what to tell about player.)
the MP3™ Player. Carl: Well, an MP3™ player is like a music downloader thing,
Carl: I just looked at my pictures that I drew. yeah, it’s small, so you can just carry it around, and when
Teacher: So you’ve got lots of writing there, did the you buy one you should get a cord with it that plugs
writing … did that help you at all? into your computer as well and your MP3™ player or
Carl: The writing, well some of it, ‘cos I didn’t draw the … an IPod. And you have to go to Windows media player,
some of the writing … umm, it helps you remember. if you have music on that you can download onto your
Teacher: Do you think your grandad would have understood it? MP3™ player. You go to synchronise list and you choose
Carl: Maybe not, probably because he’s not used to all the the music that you want on it, and on the box it should
technologies, so … say how many, how many megabytes you have on it,
Teacher: What might you have done there? that there’s the memory of it, aah, and it’s practically the
Carl: Explain what it means and perhaps have the computer same as just a little CD player, but you don’t carry around
on, he could sit, so he could sit and, umm, watch what heaps of CDs, and, um … so you practically use it as a
I was doing as I, umm, explained it. I’d need to go CD player so it has a playing button, stop button, fast
quite slow for him … so he could work out, work out forward, rewind and a pause button. So the play button
what I was doing. is obviously just to play music, the search button is to
choose the music.

Figure 8.1 Figure 8.2

Global Statement
In this phase, students recognise and control most language structures
and features of Standard Australian English when speaking for a range
of purposes. They select and sustain language and style appropriate
to audience and purpose. They are aware of the value of planning and
reflecting to improve the effectiveness of communication.

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 Conventional Speaking and Listening Indicators

Conventional Speaking and

Listening Indicators
Use of Texts Conventions
◆ Identifies main ideas and supporting ◆ Selects vocabulary to enhance meaning
details of a range of spoken informational and effect.
and expressive texts. ◆ Recognises and controls most language
◆ Develops and presents familiar ideas and structures and features appropriate
information, and supports opinion with some to the purpose in informal and some
detail, in a variety of classroom situations. formal situations, e.g. can express and justify
◆ Controls text features and structures own opinion succinctly, can rephrase others’
effectively in planned and unplanned texts. contributions to group discussions.
◆ Uses Standard Australian English ◆ Uses appropriate speaking and listening
effectively in a range of contexts. behaviours in informal and some formal
• Presents a strong point of view to peers in a situations, e.g. can style-shift when conversing
group, offering some considered reasons or with unfamiliar people, listens for general or
arguments. specific information according to purpose.
• Listens and responds to short presentations or ◆ Is aware of the audience needs when
arguments that offer alternative viewpoints on responding, e.g. offers alternate viewpoints
a familiar issue. sensitively.
• Prepares and presents accurate summaries of • Selects and sustains language style appropriate
decisions reached in group activities. to a range of purposes, contexts and audiences
• Responds constructively to other points of view • When listening, begins to explore and recognise
in groups and class discussion. structures and conventions that enable speakers
• Includes text features and structures that to influence an audience, e.g. statements of
enhance meaning for their audience, e.g. attitude, opinion, through tone and expression.
vocabulary choices.
Processes and Strategies
Contextual Understanding ◆ Draws on a range of strategies and
◆ Considers the appropriateness of text deliberately adjusts speaking and listening
form and register in relation to audience to meet the needs of the task.
when speaking and listening in familiar ◆ Adjusts information or adjusts tone of
situations. voice in response to a listener’s reaction.
◆ Adjusts speaking and listening ◆ Selects appropriate strategies when
appropriately for different familiar listening, e.g. asks questions to elicit additional
contexts. information.
◆ Includes information and text features to ◆ Identifies a range of strategies used to
maintain audience interest, e.g. choice of enhance a talk.
vocabulary, appropriate level of detail. • Independently uses strategies to plan listening,
◆ Understands that people’s points of view e.g. makes accurate notes, graphic representations,
and beliefs influence the construction of summaries.
spoken texts. • Plans and rehearses speech for informal and
◆ Uses a range of devices when attempting some formal purposes, e.g. adjusts speaking to
to influence a listener, e.g. tone, volume, communicate effectively and persuasively.
expression, choice of style. • Monitors and adjusts communication, e.g. seeks
• Considers the needs of a familiar audience feedback to ensure they have been understood.
when preparing a spoken presentation.
• Recognises and discusses some indicators of
socio-cultural bias or prejudice.
• Recognises alternative interpretations of the
same spoken text.

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 Conventional Speaking and Listening Phase

Major Teaching Emphases

Environment and Attitude (see p. 223) ■ Teach students to analyse the different
ways in which values and beliefs can be
■ Provide opportunities for relevant, represented in spoken texts.
challenging and purposeful ■ Provide opportunities for students to
communication. justify their selection of spoken texts for
■ Create a supportive environment which different audiences.
values the diversity of students’ speaking ■ Teach students to select devices to
and listening development (in their home influence a particular audience, e.g. irony,
languages). humour, counter-argue, rebuke and respond to
■ Encourage students to see the value others’ comments.
of effective speaking and listening for
community, school and family life.
Conventions (see p. 250)
Use of Texts (see p. 226) ■ Provide opportunities for students to
develop, use and refine vocabulary.
■ Discuss and compare a range of functional ■ Teach structures and features to compose
spoken texts. spoken texts for informal and formal
■ Provide opportunities for students to contexts, e.g. how to greet unfamiliar adults,
participate in authentic unplanned and how to open and close a conversation, how to plan
planned speaking and listening. and present a formal speech.
■ Provide opportunities for students to ■ Teach speaking and listening behaviours
participate in extended talk. that facilitate communication (in
■ Teach students to incorporate text unplanned and planned situations), e.g.
features and structures effectively in a how to build on the ideas of others, effective use
range of spoken texts. of body language.
■ Teach students to recognise and evaluate ■ Continue to teach students the skills
complex and challenging information on needed to communicate with others with
familiar and unfamiliar topics. critical awareness.
■ Teach students the metalanguage
associated with speaking and listening
and encourage its use, e.g. functional, literary, Processes and Strategies (see p. 262)
informational, multi-modal, recasting, contexts, ■ Teach students to plan and monitor their
style, pitch, active listening. use of thinking strategies when speaking
and listening, e.g. determine importance,
Contextual Understanding (see p. 236) compare information.
■ Provide opportunities for students to
■ Teach students to make appropriate engage in sustained conversations and
choices when speaking and listening to discussions.
suit the context, e.g. style, content, dialect, ■ Provide opportunities for students
text form. to choose appropriate processes and
■ Teach students to reflect upon the way strategies, e.g. analyse the requirements of the
in which they interact with particular task.
audiences. ■ Teach students to select tools for listening,
■ Teach students to consider the needs and e.g. use graphic organisers to synthesise
background knowledge of their audience information from several texts.
when selecting suitable content for spoken ■ Teach students to anticipate and address
texts. possible points of miscommunication.
■ Provide support for students to contribute
to discussions about matters of personal
and social interest.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Environment and Attitude

Teaching and Learning

Experiences
ENVIRONMENT AND ATTITUDE
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Provide opportunities for relevant, challenging and

purposeful communication.

■ Create a supportive environment which values the diversity

of students’ speaking and listening development (in their
home languages).

■ Encourage students to see the value of effective speaking

and listening for community, school and family life.

Teaching Notes
A classroom community that supports and nurtures students in
the Conventional phase is one that offers challenging experiences
that enable students to analyse and reflect on a wide variety of
spoken texts. Students in the Conventional phase will be involved
in planning speaking and listening for a range of purposes and
audiences as they engage in more challenging topics. Students
are encouraged to choose different ways of speaking and listening
appropriate to informal and formal purposes.

The focus for developing positive attitudes towards speaking and

listening is organised under the following headings:
• Creating a Supportive Classroom Environment
• Providing Opportunities for Relevant, Challenging and Purposeful
Communication
• Speaking and Listening for Community, School and Family Life

Creating a Supportive Classroom Environment

A supportive classroom environment is one in which both the
physical aspects and the culture of the classroom are considered.
A positive classroom climate is one in which students have
opportunities to speak and listen; where others show an interest
and value what they say. These opportunities develop a confidence
and enthusiasm to engage in speaking and listening activities.
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 Conventional Speaking and Listening Phase

Physical Environment
An environment that supports Conventional Speakers and Listeners
is intellectually stimulating as students are able to actively engage
in a variety of speaking and listening situations. Teachers can create
a supportive environment in consultation with students in the
following ways.
• Provide areas for students to display charts and posters.
• Provide hand-held dictaphones so students can record their
speaking when rehearsing and reflecting on presentations and for
peer- and self-assessment.
• Provide a video camera to record group discussions or individual
presentations.
• Provide audio or video recordings so students can analyse their
speaking.
• Teach students to utilise visual aids such as PowerPoint software,
models, posters or videos.
• Display jointly made charts that support planning for speaking
and listening.

Classroom Culture
As well as providing appropriate material and a carefully planned
physical environment, it is important to develop a supportive
environment where students can confidently explore new ways of
speaking and listening. Teachers will:
• Assist students to experiment with new ideas and vocabulary.
• Provide authentic purposes for speaking and listening.
• Provide genuine purposes to speak to different audiences.
• Establish and teach procedures for solving problems when
listening or speaking for different purposes.
• Encourage students to take responsibility for planning and refining
speaking for formal purposes.
• Involve students in developing criteria for assessments.
• Invite students to develop and participate in reasoned arguments
during discussions and debates.
• Encourage students to set personal goals to improve their speaking
and listening skills.
• Encourage students to set goals to understand the needs of listeners.

Providing Opportunities for Relevant, Challenging

and Purposeful Communication
Students in the Conventional phase control most language structures
and features of Standard Australian English but will still need to be
supported in making appropriate choices for the new situations that

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Environment and Attitude

may be encountered. Teachers can support students in some of the

following ways.
• Encourage students to examine situations that require code-
switching or style-shifting. (Code-shifting is switching between
dialects, for example from Aboriginal English to Standard
Australian English. Style shifting means adjusting style from
casual (may use slang, etc.) to a more formal style of Standard
Australian English.)
• Provide a variety of speaking situations, e.g. informal and formal,
pairs, small group, large group.
• Provide variety in speaking purposes, e.g. to inform, persuade,
entertain, respond, request.
• Model attentive listening and paraphrasing to clarify meaning.
• Read a variety of fiction and non-fiction texts every day.
• Provide a range of ICT resources for students to plan and develop
their spoken texts.
• Tell stories and invite guest storytellers. Invite local indigenous
storytellers. Read stories and poems written by indigenous people
and discuss the ‘voice’ that can be heard.
• Invite students to explore ideas in all learning areas, e.g. discuss
responses to music or works of art.
• Model language to promote social interactions, e.g. how to give
appropriate feedback.

Speaking and Listening for Community, School

and Family Life
The demands of interacting in school and in the broader community
require students to be aware of different ways of speaking and
listening in different contexts. Students also need to understand
the use of Standard Australian English in order to operate
effectively in a variety of situations.

Teachers can assist students in the Conventional phase to develop

the knowledge, skills and attitudes to:
• speak confidently to a range of familiar and unfamiliar teachers,
adults and peers.
• engage in group discussion.
• give and follow directions confidently.
• share their knowledge and understanding through
peer tutoring.
• discuss topics of increasing complexity. Figure 8.3 Students
• monitor their own listening and ask questions participating in an informal
conversation
to clarify meaning.

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 Conventional Speaking and Listening Phase

USE OF TEXTS
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Discuss and compare a range of functional spoken texts.

■ Provide opportunities for students to participate in

authentic unplanned and planned speaking and listening.

■ Provide opportunities for students to participate in

extended talk.

■ Teach students to incorporate text features and structures

effectively in a range of spoken texts.

■ Teach students to recognise and evaluate complex and

challenging information on familiar and unfamiliar topics.

■ Teach students the metalanguage associated with speaking

and listening and encourage its use, e.g. functional, literacy,
informational, multi-modal, recasting, contexts, style, pitch, active
listening.

Teaching Notes
The focus for supporting Conventional Speakers and Listeners in
this aspect is organised under the following headings:
• Discussing and Comparing a Range of Spoken Texts
• Participation in Unplanned and Planned Spoken Texts
• Using Spoken Texts Effectively
• Evaluating Complex Information
• Developing Metalanguage

Discussing and Comparing a Range of Spoken Texts

Conventional Speakers and Listeners need to experience a range of
different spoken texts. These texts should include everyday, literary
and informational texts. Some of these texts will be multi-modal
or hybrid text forms that will fit into more than one category. For
example, interactive web pages, documentaries, video games and
talking books can include a combination of voice-overs, films, texts
and images. Literary and informational spoken texts may include
poems, raps, plays, interviews, stories, recounts, songs, debates,
descriptions, procedures and reports.

It is essential that students in the Conventional phase be exposed to

a wide range of mass-media texts, such as television and newspaper
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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

reports. Students need to understand how to use, interpret and

analyse these texts.

Conventional Speakers and Listeners will benefit from ongoing

opportunities to discuss and compare a wide range of functional
spoken texts; and to also compare Standard Australian English to
spoken texts composed in other forms of English.

Teachers can use the Familiarising Teaching and Learning Practice

to support students’ development in using a range of spoken texts.
(See Effective Teaching and Learning Practices, in the First Steps
Linking Assessment Teaching and Learning book (LATL), p. 124.)

Participation in Unplanned and Planned Spoken Texts

Conventional Speakers and Listeners need to be given frequent
opportunities to experience and compose a diverse range of spoken
texts in both planned and unplanned situations. The spoken
language of students will be enhanced by teachers providing explicit
instruction and supportive feedback as well as opportunities to use
speaking and listening across all the curriculum areas. Interaction
with others in whole-class and small-group situations is also essential.

There are many instances where Conventional Speakers and Listeners

participate in unplanned and planned speaking and listening, such
as the following:
• collecting and distributing materials • collaborative tasks
• independent study or group projects • school events
• meeting and greeting • social situations.
• lunch and recess times
• sport/Physical Education/
Outdoor Education

Socialisation, exploration of ideas and experimentation with different

spoken texts are important components of students’ learning.

Small-group or partner work activities are vital to the development

of speaking and listening at this phase as it provides students with
the opportunity to practise some of the skills from the structured
speaking and listening sessions, skills such as asking questions when
interviewing an expert or arriving at a consensus when solving a
group problem.

Modelled, Shared and Guided Speaking and Listening sessions (see

LATL, p. 126–129) provide ideal opportunities for Conventional
Speakers and Listeners to compose a range of unplanned and

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 Conventional Speaking and Listening Phase

planned spoken texts. These sessions can be one-on-one, small

group or whole class. They can be mini sessions within another
activity, part of the planned learning for the day, or occur
incidentally as the opportunity arises. Some of the understandings
about spoken texts that students develop over time will include:
• People make assumptions when they speak and listen.
• Listeners can agree with or challenge points of view.
• Different language patterns and vocabulary exist for formal and
informal situations.
• Non-verbal language may be different from non-verbal language
used at home and in the community. It may be interpreted
differently by different people.
• There are strategies for speaking and listening to help in unplanned
and planned interactions.
• The combination of verbal and non-verbal language makes meaning.
• Planning can help speakers to consider and include effective text
features in everyday, informational and literary spoken texts.

Using Spoken Texts Effectively

In the Conventional phase, students continue to recognise and
have an understanding of the structures and features of spoken
texts. Students need the opportunity to independently create and
comprehend texts in a variety of ways for different purposes.
Reflection and review are essential components in developing these
abilities, and teachers should consider this when planning. (See
Figure 8.4.)

Students need to be aware that spoken language will be influenced

by the context, with the audience and the purpose determining
the structure of the text. Spoken language is structured differently
to written language, as it is more variable and responsive to the
audience. Facilitated class discussion about these differences will
provide an excellent starting point for teachers and students to
consider how they might effectively use text structures and features
to suit particular purposes. Students in this phase will encounter
new situations that require different ways of communicating.
For example, they may need to discuss the difficulties of various
situations such as explaining how they want their hair styled or cut
at the hairdresser’s, how to disagree appropriately with a teacher,
how to talk to people they don’t agree with when participating in a
group project, etc.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

Conventional Conventional students speak Teachers can do these things to draw students’ attention to the different
students and listen to … purposes and how to incorporate text features and structures effectively.
communicate
for …
Provide Direction Give a Comment Ask a Question
Getting things • show a visiting teacher the Explain the five You defined some What information
done guidelines for the class. guidelines of this of the words, used will a visiting teacher
• plan a fund-raising activity class for our visiting examples and need to know about
with a peer. teacher. Introduce and then restated the our class guidelines
give details for each guidelines. It was very before they start
guideline. clear. working with us?
Influencing • convince the group to Work out a way to There are some good What did you say to
the behaviour, present their information convince your group reasons for doing a persuade your group
feelings or as a play. that a play would be an play. I am sure that to create a play?
attitudes of • debate. effective text to use. you will persuade the
others others.
Getting along • greet/depart. In your group, discuss Socialising can be a lot When a friend asks
with others • join in conversations. things you can say to of fun as you find out you if you are well,
• seek the well-being of find out about how about other people and how do you feel?
others. your friends/teachers/ maintain friendships. What if an unfamiliar
• organise leisure time. parents feel. adult asks if you are
well?
Expressing • interview peers and others Use your own opinions I wonder if all ages What information
individuality about opinions, e.g. on sun to answer the survey would have similar will you tell your
and personal protection products. questions about sun views. peers when you
feelings • recount own experiences. protection. do the survey with
them? Why?
Seeking and • find out about the camping Find out about the That is a good question Now that you have
learning about and clothing requirements kind of clothing that to ask. You will need your questions,
the social for a camp. will be need for our to know if the weather where will you go?
and physical • form own questions. camp. varies. Do you need to
environment contact anyone?
Creating • create own role play Design a short radio Your radio play has What would be an
stories, games, scenarios. play that will run over captured the interest of appealing topic for
new worlds • develop content for school the week. the other students. your radio play?
and new texts radio.
Communicating • show senior citizens how Plan how you will tell I think the definitions What did the senior
information to use an electronic device, the senior citizen about will be very helpful citizens ask you after
e.g. mobile phone. the … Consider which to your audience and your instructions?
• teach some younger words you might need your examples gave What features helped
students how to find to define. me a good idea of how them to understand
information about … it works. the steps to take?
Entertaining • discuss topics of interest to Plan a talk to entertain Your choice of topic How can you make
others peers. your group for five for your recount was the style of your text
• retell and create narratives. minutes. Consider your suitable to entertain entertaining for the
• recount own experiences. topic and style. your group. audience?

Figure 8.4 Examples for focusing on the functions of spoken texts

In the Conventional phase, there is a continued focus on encouraging

students to use the full range of functions when speaking and
listening (see Chapter 1, Figure 1.11). Teachers will provide learning
experiences in which students can use functional spoken texts.

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 Conventional Speaking and Listening Phase

Evaluating Complex Information

Students in the Conventional phase need to be supported to
recognise and evaluate complex and challenging information from
a range of spoken texts. For example, they will need to learn how
to determine the importance of the information they hear, what are
the key words or main ideas, do they have to be remembered and if
so, how will they be remembered.

Teachers can establish students’ current knowledge and interests in

a range of ways:
• Observe students as they engage in open-ended tasks during
independent study time, e.g. ask students to design a means of
promoting sun smart behaviour for people of their age. Observe what
they already know and what they do with the information.
• Observe and listen to students’ representations, e.g. writing, role
play, PowerPoint presentations, movies, etc.
• Interact with students after their independent study time, e.g.
How did you find that out? What do you think you will do next with
this project? Why? Who did you decide to work with? How did you
convince her/him to join you?
• Conduct interviews about the students’ learning on an individual
basis or in small groups.
• Negotiate further topics to study with the students, e.g. What do you
need to further research for this project? What do you know about … ?
• Ask students to summarise new information by recounting main
ideas. Observe how students interpret the information.
• Ask students to explain a newly learned concept to a partner.
Observe whether they adapt their vocabulary correctly to give a
clear explanation.

Louis: And, um, then, if you’re doing your nose, you draw like this little faded line coming off your
eyebrows, and then like, sort of doing a little loop on the end and then coming back to the other
one. Um, if you get what I mean. All right?
Teacher: So it’s like this big long tunnel thing?
Louis: Yeah, and then you can like just, you can like, you draw this little, like an arch sort, um, on the
sides of it and you sort of ... What you can do for a technique like, you make it sort of look like
you haven’t just drawn a line there and make it look realistic, you can smudge it a bit and it gives
sort of an effect like it looks like it’s actually round or something, or like shadow and all that. And,
um, then you can just like colour it between these little corners here to sort of, like, the nostrils,
and then you draw two short lines going down from the nostrils to these two points of the um, of
the mouth! And it is sort of like when you’re drawing a wave etc. you just go like that.

Figure 8.5 Students discussing art concepts

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

Developing Metalanguage
The vocabulary used to talk about language is known as
metalanguage. Students need to use metalanguage so they can
discuss their knowledge of spoken language. It is expected that
students will demonstrate their understanding of metalanguage. For
example, when students are able to say that they heard a speaker
pause before presenting a main point in their argument, they are
demonstrating metalinguistic awareness.

To help Conventional Speakers and Listeners continue to use the

terms associated with speaking and listening, teachers can use
metalanguage as part of everyday teaching and across all learning
areas. It can be incorporated into targeted discussions, during
explicit demonstrations, during one-on-one conversations with
students or as part of planned Modelled, Shared or Guided Speaking
and Listening sessions.

Below are some words and terms that are associated with speaking
and listening in the Conventional phase.
• Use of Texts: literary, informational, functional, text structures, text
features, multi-modal
• Contextual Understanding: dialect, recasting, contexts, style
• Conventions: pitch, tone, syntax
• Processes and Strategies: refining, extending, active listening.

For further information about the Use of Texts aspect, see the
Speaking and Listening Resource Book,
• Chapter 1: Use of Texts
• Chapter 4: Processes and Strategies.

Involving Students
1 The Speech of the Century
The Speech of the Century requires students to listen to public
speeches in order to identify the structure of a formal speech and
the features used. This activity also provides an opportunity for
students to discuss the way spoken language can be composed to
persuade, inspire or motivate the listener. Students will need to take
notes to prepare before imitating a speechmaker.

Prepare an audio or video recording and transcripts of a speech.

(These may be obtained through history websites or from current
events reported on radio or television websites.) Students can use
a transcript to focus on particular language features by highlighting
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 Conventional Speaking and Listening Phase

words or phrases that are emphasised through volume, tone or

a change in pace. Students should also highlight devices such as
idioms or repetition.
• Have students listen to the recording several times.
• Provide time for students to think about and discuss the way in
which the speech has been structured, e.g. the sequence of main
ideas.
• Allow time for students to rehearse the speech as they attempt to
imitate the speaker, using similar pace, expression, etc.
• Have students share their version of the speech with a partner.
• Reflect on the devices used and the effects they create, e.g. ask
students to discuss their favourite part of the speech, the part that was
most powerful or moving, etc. Ask students to discuss the devices
that they could use when doing performance speaking.

Students may record their responses to discussions in a reflective

journal.

2 Rate the Reporter

Rate the Reporter promotes awareness of interviewing techniques.
This activity provides students with an opportunity to examine
the types of questions that reporters ask and to evaluate the
effectiveness of different types of questions.

Prepare an audio or video recording of an interview from radio or

television. Have students discuss the types of questions that need to
be asked in an interview, e.g. open questions, clarifying questions and
probing questions.

Have students discuss the role of the reporter. Discussions could

centre around what the role should be if the report was to be
objective and what the role could be if the reporter wanted to
manipulate a story in a certain way, e.g. to encourage people to
‘open-up’, to elicit the facts or to support a particular point of view.
Invite students to develop a rubric that could be used to assess
a particular reporter.

Students can listen to an audio or video recording of an interview

and make their assessments. They can then form small groups to
discuss their assessments.

Students may record their reactions to this activity in journals.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Students could role play interview scenarios based on imaginary
or current issues. They could assume different characters with
different points of view that may surround an issue.
• Students could innovate on an interview that they have listened
to. The reporter could ask the same questions but the interviewee
could give alternative answers based on a different point of view,
e.g. a reporter may have asked the Prime Minister questions about
sending troops overseas. When innovating, the student who is
assuming the Prime Minister’s identity answers from the point of
view of a pacifist.

3 Listen to Learn
Refer to Chapter 6, Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 145.

4 Talk to Teach
Refer to Chapter 6, Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 146.

5 Reflect and Respond

Refer to Chapter 4, Beginning Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 63.

6 Independent or Collaborative Study Time

Refer to Chapter 9, Proficient Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 275.

7 Time for Talk

Refer to Chapter 7, Consolidating Speaking and Listening Phase,
p. 189.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Students can keep a record of their daily Time for Talk over a set
period of time. They can then reflect on the complexity of their
topics and consider the effectiveness of text types. Students can
also use the review time to set goals.
• Collate, graph and analyse records of text types and topics. Ask
questions, e.g. What is the most popular text type used by students in
our class? What social talk is taking place? What information talk is
happening?
• Use Time for Talk to assess students’ skills using a particular text
type, e.g. tell students that they must tell a recount this week to you
and a small group of students.
• Explore the differences between writing and speaking and listening,
e.g. spoken recount and a written recount. Consider the potential for
combining texts in spoken language.

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 Conventional Speaking and Listening Phase

8 Report Talk
Report Talk is an activity that develops an understanding of the
way information is structured when giving an oral report. Students
analyse a television current affairs program in order to investigate
the text types that are used and how information is organised.
This activity could involve the whole class or students could form
discussion groups after taking notes.
• Prepare a recording of a current affairs program and decide which
story will be the focus of the activity.
• Have students listen carefully in order to record key words and
main ideas. The video will need to be paused and rewound from
time to time so that students have the opportunity to re-listen to
significant information.
• Students should record information on the following structures
and features of a television report.

Introduction
– Who introduces the segment?
– What background information is provided?
– Are their attempts to build knowledge of the topic for the listener?
– Are any attempts made to introduce and explain technical or
specialised vocabulary?

Involving Others
– How is the reporter in the field introduced?
– How are other people connected with the segment introduced?
– How does the reporter introduce him/herself?
– How does the reporter introduce interviewees to the television
audience?
– What type of questions does the reporter ask, e.g. open or closed
questions, probing questions or clarifying questions?

Conclusion
– How is the interview concluded?
– How does the reporter conclude the segment?
– How does the studio reporter conclude the segment, e.g. Are the
main points summarised? Are personal opinions or comments given?

Allow time for students to discuss the information they have

collected. Have students reflect on the effectiveness of the structure
and features of this type of report, asking them to note elements
that they could use when planning to give a report.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

9 Storytelling
Storytelling is a very powerful activity to use with students. Telling
stories to and with students helps them to discover themselves and
make sense of the world around them. Through listening and telling
stories, Conventional students develop an extensive understanding
of how texts are structured and presented to suit particular,
audiences and purposes.

The following activities suggest ways to involve students in

storytelling.

Personal Stories: These stories provide students with the opportunity to

listen to people reflecting on the past and telling personal anecdotes.
Invite guest speakers to the class or students can listen to a range
of recorded oral histories. These are available at libraries or via the
Internet.

Students can be invited to tell ‘their story’; it should be planned

using storyboards and presented orally. Conventional students
should be encouraged to use a range of different presentations,
e.g. PowerPoint presentations, digital story maker , Microsoft™ Photo
Story 3, Dream Weaver, video footage, radio scripts, podcasts, etc.

Photo Fun: This activity requires students to collect photographs of

past or significant events in their life. They use these photographs to
prepare a storyboard and tell a story. This activity can be used in a
small group and students can plan the writing and presentation
of the story.

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 Conventional Speaking and Listening Phase

CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Teach students to make appropriate choices when speaking

and listening to suit the context, e.g. style, content, dialect,
text form.

■ Teach students to reflect upon the way in which they

interact with particular audiences.

■ Teach students to consider the needs and background

knowledge of their audience when selecting suitable
content for spoken texts.

■ Provide support for students to contribute to discussions

about matters of personal and social interest.

■ Teach students to analyse the different ways in which values

and beliefs can be represented in spoken texts.

■ Provide opportunities for students to justify their selection

of spoken texts for different audiences.

■ Teach students to select devices to influence a particular

audience, e.g. irony, humour, counter-argue, rebuke and respond
to others’ comments.

Teaching Notes
The focus for supporting Conventional Speakers and Listeners in
this aspect is organised under the following headings.
• Understandings About Context
• Reflecting on Interactions
• Considering the Needs of the Audience
• Contributing to Matters of Importance
• Investigating the Way Ideas and People Are Represented
• Justifying Selections
• Use of Devices

Understandings About Context

It is important that students are supported to consider the context
— audience, purpose, situation and topic — when making speaking
and listening choices. Students need to know how to choose
appropriate speaking and listening conventions and behaviours to
suit different contexts. Analysing and Reflecting are ideal teaching

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

practices for teaching students to make appropriate speaking and

listening choices according to the purpose and the audience. In the
Conventional phase, students will benefit from opportunities to
make appropriate speaking and listening choices in the Simulating
and Applying sessions. (See Linking Assessment, Teaching and Learning
book for sections on Analysing p. 130, Reflecting p. 140, Simulating
p. 139, and Applying p. 132.)

Conventional Speakers and Listeners are supported as teachers

discuss with students the suitability of spoken texts for different
audiences and purposes. This can occur before, during and after
participation in unplanned and planned speaking and listening as
shown in the following example.

Task: Visiting a class of younger students to play some games that the students have made in
small groups.
Examples of Teacher Interactions

Before During After

The children in Kindergarten Provide feedback and What helped the children
are looking forward to our encouragement to students understand the game we
visit. However, since you are with comments such as made?
unknown to most children, The children are joining Did we have to restate any of
there may be some children in and playing your game our instructions?
who do not want to join in really well. I can see that you Were there any words that the
your group’s game. What showed the children what children did not understand?
could you say and do to to do as you explained it for Did you change anything else
encourage them? How would them. such as tone?
this be different to what you Have you tried … ? Did you move closer?
might say to a younger child Did you sit down so you could
you know well? see the children’s faces?

Figure 8.6

Reflecting on Interactions
Students in the Conventional phase will be interacting with people
they are not familiar with. For example, they may be asked to teach
a concept to a group of younger students, they may play host to
students visiting from another school or be involved in a survey to
collect information or opinions from adults. Unfamiliar audiences
place challenging demands on students as they need to know how
to adjust speaking and listening for different contexts.

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When guiding students to reflect on their interactions, teachers

acknowledge and value students’ own language use, building
their confidence to communicate in different situations. Some
students may benefit from discussions about code-switching when
considering the ways language is used in different situations.

Teachers can support students to reflect upon the way in which

they interact with particular audiences in the following ways:
• Ask guiding questions, e.g. Do you feel as though you achieved your
purpose? Do you think the listeners understood your main points? Could
you control your emotions effectively enough to state your different
point of view?
• Use questions that show a genuine interest in what the student
wants and needs to communicate, e.g. How do you think we can
work this out together? Can you tell me in another way?
• Acknowledge the student’s feelings e.g. I can see that you are
annoyed. You sound really happy about that.
• Wait before offering support. Students may be able to work out
the meaning together and then teachers can give positive comments.
• Refer to class decisions about speaking and listening, e.g. We decided
we would respond to other opinions calmly in our class. We decided
that we needed to include all ideas in a small-group brainstorm. We
agreed that we would use Standard Australian English for this session.
• Use positive statements when students adjust their speaking and
listening, e.g. I liked the way you rephrased what you had said in
response to a question from the audience.

When students are having difficulty adjusting their speaking and

listening, teachers will support them in generating alternative
responses, e.g. We know that didn’t work this time, what could you say
and do differently if something like this happened again? Let’s listen
to some different ways we can say that. I wonder why it is difficult to
understand what is meant by that. That’s one way of saying that. What’s
another way?

Considering the Needs of the Audience

Students in the Consolidating phase are aware that speaking and
listening needs to be adjusted to suit particular audiences. They
consider factors such as the age of the audience and the formality
of the situation, choice of topic, level of detail, vocabulary, tone and
pace. Teachers can support students to make considered choices by
discussing some of the following points.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

– What do you think your parents would like to hear about when
they come for your Learning Journey?
– I noticed that you are planning to show your parents how you
learnt to include video clips on a PowerPoint. What do your
parents already know about using PowerPoint?
– What kinds of talk will you need to use in your story so that we
can visualise the events?
– The principal/director is coming to visit our class to find out about
what we are learning. What text forms could we use to talk about
the Science Investigations or solving maths problems?
– How will we show our interest when our visitor comes to tell us
about water conservation?
– It was good that you found out what some of the class knew
about skateboards before you started your planning for your class
presentation on hobbies.
– What background information can you give about the fund-
raising event at the school assembly? What do you think people
need to know?

Conventional Speakers and Listeners benefit from continued support

in developing their interpersonal and collaborative skills to help them
consider the needs of their audience and to learn to adjust their
spoken language for different contexts. For further information refer
to Chapter 3, in the First Steps Speaking and Listening Resource Book,
2nd Edition.

Figure 8.7 Students interacting in small groups

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Contributing to Matters of Importance

Conventional Speakers and Listeners need daily opportunities to
contribute to matters of interest or issues that affect them. When
students do this, they learn that speaking and listening helps to
raise awareness of particular situations and that action can be taken
to solve problems. Students also develop their abilities to express
ideas, opinions and feelings. Teachers can support students in the
following ways.
• Negotiate with students and invite their ideas and opinions when
planning, reviewing and organising tasks in the classroom.
• Have open-ended tasks that provide students with choices about
topics and materials.
• Provide effective feedback when students do raise matters or issues.
• Include regular sessions such as Class Meetings, Personal Learning
Time, Time for Talk and Graffiti Groups.
• Have displays that capture students’ interests and invite discussion.
• Allow students to create and share their own displays in areas
around the room or school.

Investigating the Way Ideas and People Are

Represented
Conventional Speakers and Listeners will need support in
investigating the different ways ideas and people can be represented
in spoken texts. A range of electronic spoken texts are available to
use, e.g. CD-ROMs, films, television programs and audio tapes that
include spoken texts such as stories, recounts, advertisements and reports.
It is also possible to record some of the spoken texts from the school
and classroom to use as a starting point for discussion. Students’
discussions in reading and writing will also support the development
of critical awareness in speaking and listening. Conventional
Speakers and Listeners will benefit from Analysing, Reflecting and
Discussion sessions that focus on the following kinds of questions:
• Why do you think the people or ideas were explained in that way?
• How did the spoken text make you feel?
• Would this spoken text work as recount or procedure? Why?
• Why did you select that text? Who might agree with the way the
ideas or people are shown in this? Why? Who might not?
• Do you think ideas or people have been excluded? How?
• Whose is the main point of view?
• What does the spoken text mean for you?
• Does the spoken text make sense?
• What do you think is the main message about the people or
ideas? What other messages are there?

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• Does it sound right? Why?

• Are these words subject-specific?
• What devices have been used to get the message across?
• What would be another way to say this about that idea or person?
• Is the choice of style appropriate for this context?

Justifying Selections
It is beneficial for Conventional Speakers and Listeners to explain or
justify why they have chosen a particular text. When students have
to justify their choices, it allows them to explain and elaborate on
what they know about speaking and listening.

Teachers can support students to discuss the choices they make by

using some of the guiding questions outlined in Figure 8.8.

Features Students Can Choose Examples of Questions and Statements by Teachers

to Enhance Meaning

Text form • Why did you choose a recount for your planned talk to the class?
• Your narrative appeared to begin with the ending, which was
an effective way to gain the audience’s attention. Describe your
planning process, including the decision to begin the narrative in
that way.
• Why did you choose that combination of text types for your
presentation?
Content • What helped you to organise the content you needed to include
in your group’s report?
• When you introduced your new friend to the art teacher, what
did you say? Why?
• The anecdotes helped you to influence the audience
in your planned talk. Why do you think they were so
effective in gaining the audience’s attention and input?
Delivery • Your volume changed throughout the story. Did you plan that?
If not, why do you think that happened?
• When you were helping your group to make a decision about
which task to do, you gave examples of how it might feel if you
did the art activity. Why?
Language • Why did you choose that style? Dialect?
• I noticed you used a dialect of English for that section of the
story. Why was it important to use it there?
• Why did you use those subject-specific words?

Figure 8.8

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The following suggestions will give students the opportunity to

express and justify their selections of texts.
• Reflect and Respond sessions (see Use of Texts in this chapter)
• Self-assessment (see the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM,
Chapter 8: Conventional Phase, Contextual Understanding)
• Journal entries after unplanned and planned speaking and
listening.

Use of Devices
In the Conventional phase, emphasis is placed on speakers and
listeners selecting devices for maximum effect when constructing
messages. Teacher-guided discussions on the use of these devices
and their reasons for choosing them will help Conventional
Speakers and Listeners determine their effectiveness. The focus for
Conventional Speakers is on experimenting with the purposes and
effects of:
• Body language, tone, pace, inflection and emphasis in family,
school and community situations, e.g. style shift takes place
when conversing with peers or unfamiliar adults such as choice of
vocabulary,
• Varying pitch, pace, phrasing, pronunciation, facial expression,
gestures, sound and silence to deliberately influence the
interpretation of spoken texts, e.g. utilising the persuasive language
and manipulative devices used in commercials.
• Using humour and irony in planned presentations to engage the
interest of the audience.
• Using code, dialect, technical terms, slang and jargon to exclude
others, e.g. political, computer or surfing jargon.
• Different varieties of English that are appropriate according to
different contexts, e.g. knowing that Standard Australian English
is more appropriate when looking for employment or requesting a
service.

For further information about the Contextual Understanding

aspect, see Speaking and Listening Resource Book, 2nd Edition,
Chapter 2: Contextual Understanding.

For further information on the teaching and learning practices

referred to in this section, see Chapter 7: Linking Assessment,
Teaching and Learning book.

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Involving Students
1 Mock Trials
Mock Trials provide students with the opportunity to practise using
spoken language for formal situations. Students are required to plan
persuasive texts that include the use of devices that will strengthen
an argument. Students can role play the judge, the accused, lawyers
for the defence and prosecution, witnesses, members of the jury and
court officials.

Introduce mock trials by showing students a recording of court

proceedings from a suitable movie. Ask students to observe the way
speaking and listening is organised in a formal manner, e.g. people
are instructed to take turns by the judge, and those listening do not
interrupt. Students should note how lawyers ask questions of witnesses
and present arguments to the jury. The jury makes a decision and
the judge either dismisses the case or imposes a sentence.
• Mock trials could be based on issues arising from fictional texts or
matters relating to social studies, e.g. The Big Bad Wolf could be on
trial for breaking and entering, a mining company could be on trial for
environmental damage.
• Allow time for students to prepare for their part in the mock trial
and for the trial to take place.
• Have students reflect on the way that language was used,
e.g. Could students maintain a formal style of speech? Did those
presenting arguments use persuasive language effectively?

2 Class Meetings
Refer to Chapter 6, Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 157.

3 Graffiti Groups
Graffiti Groups provide students with an opportunity to contribute
to matters that interest or affect them. Students add ideas to a
Graffiti Board which is displayed for easy access. When the board
is full, the ideas are grouped together and students form groups
according to their interest. Students may do this activity with a
partner or in small groups. They should feel that they can express
their opinions confidentially and participate in sustained conversation.

Groups decide on a system to ensure all members have their say.

The students are given a time frame for their talk and then they
write their reflections in their journals. A page is divided. On one
side of the page, they record the ideas and statements they have
heard about the topics and, on the other side, they write their
reflections and personal comments about the issue.
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• Introduce the Graffiti Board

activity and discuss some
guidelines for its use, e.g.
general topics are included,
brief statements, clear
messages, etc.
• Model appropriate comments
and place on the Graffiti
Board.
• When the board is full,
model and talk through the
following process:
– Form a group with others
who also want to discuss
the same topic.
Figure 8.9 A sample of a Graffiti Board
– Decide on how turns will
be taken.
– Discuss the topic in the stipulated time.
– Complete a journal entry about the discussion. Record
observations of what was said on one side; reflect and make
personal comments on the other side.

Ask students to choose an item on the Graffiti Board and follow the
above steps.
• Negotiate with the students to decide those items that should be
removed from the board.
• Discuss the process and consider ways to improve it for the next
session.
• Have students assess their own participation in this activity over
time.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Keep copies of the Graffiti Boards and compare the kinds of
matters raised, e.g. What topics appear regularly on Graffiti Boards
in our class?
• The class could compare their topics with other classes participating
in this activity.
• This activity could be used as a preparation for debating.

4 Context Game
Context Game helps students to discuss ways in which speaking and
listening changes according to the situation. This activity teaches
students to consider the background knowledge and needs of the
audience when selecting content. It also assists students to consider

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

the choices they make about verbal and non-verbal devices to

improve their speaking.

Students make a set of cards for different purposes, audiences and

situations. The cards are used to create a random set of contexts.
Students work in pairs of small groups to develop the spoken
language that suits the context.

– Model the activity first.

– Have students work in pairs to record a range of audiences
(who?), purposes (why?) and situations (where? how?) on three
different-coloured cards, e.g. red cards for audiences, blue cards for
purposes, and yellow cards for situations. Share and discuss. Place
the cards upside down into three piles.
– Use the cards to play a game in pairs or small groups.
– One card from each pile is drawn and displayed.
– The team discusses and decides how to demonstrate the interaction
for this context, within a specified time limit, e.g. two minutes. For
example, students may draw out four cards labelled grandparent,
thank-you speech, anecdote and birthday party.
– Teams share their ideas and compare their interpretations, e.g.
How and why were the interactions different? Does this happen in
real life?
– Return the cards to the piles, shuffle and repeat.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• The ideas can be used for role-play sessions.
• Have students design a different game or use for the cards.

5 Time Machine
Refer to Chapter 7: Consolidating Speaking and Listening Phase,
p. 203.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

Have students create transcripts for particular times and places; the
activity could be incorporated into Society and Environment, e.g. a
study of a historical event.

6 Speaking and Listening Grids

Refer to Chapter 7: Consolidating Speaking and Listening, p. 201.

7 Speech Pyramid
Refer to Chapter 7: Consolidating Speaking and Listening, p. 202.

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 Conventional Speaking and Listening Phase

8 Networks
Refer to Chapter 9, Proficient Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 284.

9 Communicating in the Community

Refer to Chapter 6, Exploratory Speaking and Listening, p. 156.

10 Come On! (Abbot & Godhino 2004)

It is important that students in the Conventional phase develop an
understanding of how different factors can influence the way people
construct meaning from a spoken text. The following activity will
provide an opportunity for students to experience and reflect on
how the choice of tone of voice, pace, stress, intonation, volume,
body language, etc. can affect the way a message is delivered and
received.
• Students are given a statement on a card and they then have to
express the words in a particular way, e.g. ‘Come on!’ could be
expressed in a tone registering shock, fear, surprise or pleading.
• The teacher asks for a volunteer.
• The students try to guess what feeling was expressed.
• The volunteer student or the teacher asks the students why they
guessed that particular feeling. Answers might be, e.g. the way you
were standing, the look on your face, the tone of your voice.
• Students can explore how differing contexts will affect the
meaning of a statement.
• Repeat the activity with different statements. It can be performed
by the whole class, in small groups or in pairs.

11 Listening Between the Lines (Abbot & Godhino 2004)

Listening Between the Lines provides students with an opportunity
to explore implied meaning in relation to different audiences,
situations and purposes. In spoken language there is often a
significant meaning contained in what is left unsaid. Being able
to recognise this implied or inferred meaning is an essential skill.
Many communication breakdowns occur through the inability of
people to read all the signs in a conversation.

Teachers can develop students’ ability to recognise implied or

inferred meaning by:
• Explaining the meaning of ‘reading between the lines’. When
people ‘read between the lines’, they are constructing a meaning
that is implied rather than stated or obvious.
• Discussing the different meanings that people construe even
though they are hearing the same words. Model this by using
words or expressions that have different meanings, e.g. wicked,

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

real, gay, fine, or a question such as ‘What are you doing?’ or

statements such as ‘Nice shoes’, ‘Oh my God’, ‘Hurry up’, ‘Come on’,
etc. All these expressions take on different meanings depending
on who is saying them, e.g. parents, friends, teachers, police, etc.
• Students can present their findings to other groups or to the class.
• Allow students to consider why meanings are different. Typical
responses might be, e.g. meanings vary depending on age groups,
cultural groupings, the purpose of the speaker, and the intention of
the listener.
• Encourage students to collect examples of expressions used in
different contexts where there may be a number of different
meanings, e.g. home, school, advertising, the Internet, TV, etc.

12 Adjusting My View
This is a role play activity that makes students aware that speaking
must be adjusted to suit different social and situational contexts.
Ask students to think of a time when they have deliberately
adjusted the way they spoke because of a particular situation or
because they had to consider the person or people they were talking
to. Students can do this activity in pairs. Provide scenario cards.

Each pair is to create a two-minute role play, acting out the

scenario. They need to consider the way they should speak and the
scenario must be in the appropriate social context, e.g. thanking a
grandparent/peer/boy or girl friend for a present, asking an employer for
time off, asking a teacher for an extension on an assignment, asking a
bank/parent/friend for money.

– During the role plays, the class can reflect on whether the role
plays were an accurate representation.
– As a class, discuss the ways people deliberately adjust the way
they talk to meet the needs of the audience, situation and context.
Remind students of the devices that are used when constructing
spoken text.

13 Consumer Quandaries!
Consumer Quandries! is designed to make students aware of how
advertising uses language to persuade or convince consumers to buy
a product or service.
• Students view and listen to a variety of different advertisements.
• They describe their favourite advertisement and explain their
choice.
• Discuss how language is used in advertisements to promote products
or services.

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 Conventional Speaking and Listening Phase

• Make a class chart with the devices that have been used,
e.g. testimonial.
• Discuss the meaning of the devices that have been used and how
these strategies are designed to influence people’s thinking.
• In pairs or small groups, students can think of other persuasive
advertisements that meet the strategies that appear on the class
chart.
• Share findings of groups. Discuss the spoken language strategies
that they think are the most powerful. Ask: how much does this
depend on the social/cultural/age context of the consumer?
• Students can create a storyboard, then record a range of
advertisements and present them to the class to analyse.
• Students can explore the impact of sound in advertisements,
e.g. background music, voice-overs, tone, pitch, pace, etc.

14 Advertising Avalanche
This activity is an extension of the previous activity. Students are
required to review their previous learning and create their own
advertisements using techniques and devices that were discussed.

Students can work in pairs or small groups. They can select

advertisements from the following ideas.

Cause: e.g. anti-smoking, preserving old-growth forests

• Product: e.g. consumer goods — clothing, food, video and computer
games, sporting equipment.
• Event: e.g. Big Day Out concert, live bands, sporting event community
fund-raiser, etc.
– Students will have to take into account the target audience,
e.g. adult, child, specific age or gender group.
– They can select the most appropriate devices or techniques
to use.
– Students then develop a plan, e.g. a storyboard for presentation.
– Groups are encouraged to use a range of multi-media, e.g.
video, PowerPoint, sound effects, to enhance the delivery of their
presentation.
– Groups can present their advertisements to the class.
– The class reviews and provides feedback on the effectiveness
of the presentation, and the devices and techniques that were
chosen.

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Links to Other First Steps Materials

These activities will also support the development of Contextual
Understanding for Conventional Speakers and Listeners.

Reading Map of Development, Picture the Author p. 227; Interviews

p. 222; Do You Get It? p. 225; Text Innovation p. 226; Spot the
Devices p. 278; Panel Discussion p. 277; What’s Missing? p. 280.

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 Conventional Speaking and Listening Phase

CONVENTIONS
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Provide opportunities for students to extend, refine

and use vocabulary.

■ Teach structures and features to compose spoken texts

for informal and formal situations, e.g. how to greet unfamiliar
adults, how to open and close a conversation, how to plan and
present a formal speech.

■ Teach speaking and listening behaviours that facilitate

communication (in unplanned and planned situations),
e.g. how to build on the ideas of others, effective use of body
language.

■ Continue to teach students the skills needed to

communicate with others with critical awareness.

Teaching Notes
Teaching and learning experiences for students in the Conventional
Phase are organised under the following headings:
• Building Vocabulary
• Understanding the Conventions of Speaking
• Understanding the Behaviours Associated with Speaking and
Listening
• Understanding the Conventions of Listening

Building Vocabulary
Students in the Conventional phase understand the potential of
words to persuade, clarify, solve problems and entertain. They will
continue to need practice in refining and using vocabulary that ‘best
fits’ a particular purpose. They will also continue to need explicit
teaching in order to learn and use new technical and subject-specific
words.

Opportunities to develop, refine and use vocabulary can be

drawn from many sources. By analysing a range of spoken texts,
students will identify vocabulary used for a range of purposes.
These texts may be from movies, television, radio, literature, the
Internet, everyday conversations and encounters with friends and
community members.

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Students in the Conventional phase could be supported in

developing their vocabulary in the following ways:
• Encourage students to read widely and to discuss the word choice
of various authors.
• Involve students in poetry readings and discussions.
• Analyse segments from television, e.g. news reports or current
affairs programs. Jointly construct charts of:
– interesting or unusual words
– descriptive words
– subject-specific words
– words that signal attempts at providing a balanced view
– words that signal a particular point of view.
• Analyse spoken texts to discuss speakers’ choice of words. Ask:
Do they achieve words that are the ‘best fit’ in the context?
• Make charts of synonyms, antonyms, adjectives and adverbs.
• Encourage students to keep individual lists to extend their spoken
vocabulary.
• Analyse popular songs and discuss word choice. Ask: Who does
the song appeal to and why?
• Introduce subject-specific language and provide opportunities for
students to explore and use new vocabulary.
• Involve students in analysing spoken language needed outside
the classroom to determine the types of vocabulary needed in
different social settings.

Understanding the Conventions of Speaking

Students in the Conventional phase will benefit from analysing a
wide variety of speaking and listening situations. This will develop
an understanding of the way spoken language is structured and
how features are chosen to meet the needs of different audiences
and purposes.

The structure of spoken text refers to the way information is

organised and presented in a text. These could include:
• seeking and giving clarification
• giving and justifying an opinion
• explaining cause and effect.

The language features of a spoken text refer to the type of

vocabulary, grammar, tone and pace chosen. For example:
• using colloquial words or sayings when conversing with friends
• emotive language used to persuade in an advertisement
• signal words in a formal presentation, e.g. first of all, finally.

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 Conventional Speaking and Listening Phase

Teach students the skills needed to extend discussions, e.g. model

ways to extend a discussion by elaborating on other people’s ideas,
model how to give and justify an opinion, model how to offer viewpoints
sensitively, model ways to include all the people in the group.

Teachers may work with a small group of students to facilitate

a discussion. These sessions may be video-taped. The video can
then be used to highlight the type of speaking and listening skills
that were used to progress the discussion and then to generate a
framework that will guide them during independent discussions.

Conversations
Conversations are important in establishing and maintaining
relationships through expressing feelings and sharing experiences.
It is through conversations that we give and receive information
and compare ideas. This type of unplanned speaking and listening
not only develops self awareness and interpersonal skills; it helps
to build topic knowledge and processes for learning. Teachers can
discuss likely issues with students and negotiate agreed behaviours
for interacting during conversations. The following list of questions
may provide a starting point.
• What are the implications of making ‘personal’ comments?
• How can differing opinions be stated in a respectful manner?
• How can likes and dislikes be expressed sensitively?
• How can confrontation and argument be avoided
• How can everyone be included in the conversation?
• What needs to be considered when someone new joins a group?
• How can we ensure that everyone who wants to speak gets the
opportunity?
• When and how is it appropriate to interrupt?

Understanding the Behaviours Associated

with Speaking and Listening
Students need to develop a critical awareness of the behaviours
associated with speaking and listening and how it affects meaningful
communication in a variety of contexts. Teachers can involve
students in choosing appropriate speaking and listening behaviours
through modelling, explicit teaching and discussion. Jointly
constructing Y charts or T charts will provide meaningful reminders.
The following list may provide some useful starting points when
considering effective behaviours:
• Speak clearly and with enough volume that everyone can hear
and understand.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

• Discuss body language when speaking,

e.g. appropriate eye contact, proximity of
speaker and listener.
• Discuss body language when listening,
e.g. nodding your head, proximity to
speaker.
• Discuss how to interpret body language
for emotional cues.
• Provide opportunities for students to
observe and reflect on the body language
portrayed, e.g. watch an interview with the
sound turned off.
• Discuss how an audience behaves, e.g.
when listening to the teacher, when listening
to another student, at assembly, at the
theatre.
• How to take turns in a discussion.

Figure 8.10 Journal entries about speaking

and listening

Teacher: What do you do when you listen?

Tayla: You make eye contact. You have to let them know you’re listening.
Molly: You kind of treat the person how you wanna be treated, if you like it when you want them to listen
to what you wanna say.
Tayla: Sometimes you don’t listen properly ‘cos you don’t want to learn about that subject or something like
that.
Molly: When you’re listening, you might, you don’t overlap too much, but you say things like, yeah, but you
don’t really talk over them.
Teacher: Do you think your listening changes? We talked about speaking changing from home and school, how
does listening change?
Tayla: (overlapping) We’ll like we’ve said before, when you’re at school you listen more so you get the full
instructions.
Molly: And yeah, so …
Tayla: And if the teacher’s telling you to do an essay or something it’s a really big deal, then you might
wanna listen to make sure you get it right.
Teacher: A lot of people think you need to be looking to be listening. Do you think that is true?
Tayla: Yes, sometimes. Sometimes if you’re not … With me it’s … I don’t have to look at them to …
Molly: Nah … sometimes you’re not looking but you’re listening.
Tayla: Yeah, I think it helps to look at the person but sometimes it gets too easy to look at something else and ...
Molly: My mum, she could be, like, cooking dinner or something, and I talk to her making sure she’s
listening even when she’s doing something else, ’cos she answers me as well.

Figure 8.11 Transcript of discussion about listening

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 Conventional Speaking and Listening Phase

Understanding the Conventions of Listening

Listening is an active, constructive process concerned with
making meaning from verbal and non-verbal cues. By building an
awareness of the conventions of listening, teachers assist students to
develop and refine communication skills. Effective listening depends
on the expectations and predictions about content, language and
genre that the listener brings to the text (Gibbons 2002). The way in
which we listen is also linked to the context of the communication.
We listen differently during unplanned, spontaneous situations,
e.g. casual conversations, than we do when speaking and listening is
planned and formal, e.g. in the classroom when instructions are being
given. The structures and features of listening can be considered
using the following framework based on Nunan 1991.

Type of Listening Features

(Structure)
Surface listening • Is listening to only the obvious or literal meaning and ignoring other
levels of meaning.
Participatory listening • Is expressive and lets the speaker know that you are tuned in.
• Apparent not only in verbal responses, but also through facial expressions,
body language, etc.
• The speaker may build on to what has been said, may agree or disagree
with the speaker, will encourage the speaker to continue.
Passive listening • Is listening without talking or directing the speaker in any way, verbally
or non-verbally.
• The listener remains still and silent but indicates attentiveness through
body language.
• Can be a powerful means of communicating acceptance.
• Allows the speaker to develop thoughts with another person who
supports but does not intrude.
In-depth listening • Is listening to detect underlying motives, feelings and needs.
• The listener asks clarifying questions.
Non-judgemental • Is listening with an open mind.
listening • The listener is focused on understanding the content.
Critical listening • Is listening with the intent of making an evaluation of the content.
• The listener may ask probing questions.
Empathic listening • Involves not only understanding the content of a message but also
understanding how the other person feels.
• The listener indicates understanding and seeks feedback by paraphrasing
or restating a message or asking for clarification.
Objective listening • Is used when there is a danger of allowing the emotional impact of a
message to obscure objective reality.
• It allows a listener to remain impartial and to think clearly and objectively.

Figure 8.12 The structures and features of listening (Nunan 1991)

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

Involve students in different types of listening for different purposes

in some of the following ways:
• Provide time for students to engage in extended conversations.
• Provide opportunities for students to listen and respond to speech
constructed for different purposes.
• Provide opportunities for students to respond to spoken texts
through discussions, questions, journals, artwork.
• Provide opportunities for students to explore and analyse different
types of listening. Use students’ findings to clarify the conventions
of listening needed for different purposes.
– When is listening easy?
– When is listening difficult?
– When do I change the way I listen?
– How do I know when I should respond to a speaker? When
should I stay quiet?
• Invite community members into the classroom who rely on good
listening skills in their workplace, e.g. health professionals, members
of the clergy. How did they learn to listen?

Involving Students
1 Say It Again
This activity explores the structure of recounts. It also makes
students critically aware of appropriate vocabulary, tone, pace and
the use of descriptive language.
• Choose a scenario that will be familiar to the students, e.g. while
they were walking home from school, they witnessed an accident in
the car park of the local shopping centre.
• Have the students work in small groups to brainstorm the details
of the accident. They can pose questions such as: Who was
driving? What were they doing before the collision? How did they
react? What action did the students take? Was anyone hurt?
• The students choose an audience for their recount, e.g. a police
officer, their parents, friends at school, a passer-by.
• Students rehearse their recount and share it with their group.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Ask students to reflect on their choice of vocabulary. How did it
differ in each recount and why?
• Ask students to reflect on their use of pace, intonation and
expressive language. What affected their choices?

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 Conventional Speaking and Listening Phase

2 Subjective Versus Objective

This activity develops the use of non-judgemental vocabulary and
phrases needed to review and critique spoken language. Students
can use this activity to develop criteria that could be followed
when giving feedback to their peers. The emphasis is on the need
to understand contexts when it is important to use language
sensitively and objectively.

Prepare an audio or video recording of a spoken text. This could be

a segment from a television interview or a recorded presentation.
Ask students to comment on the text and record the words used.
Classify these words or phrases into groups that indicate subjective
judgements (likes or dislikes) and those that indicate objective
statements, e.g. based on factual statements.

Students could work in pairs to compile lists of objective descriptors

to be used when giving feedback. Consider how feedback could be
used for different speaking purposes, e.g.
• contributing to group discussions
• negotiating the allocation of tasks for a group project
• making a planned presentation
• taking part in a formal debate.

Discuss and compare the lists that students compile. Clarify the
type of language needed to give effective feedback. These words
and phrases could be recorded on class charts, recorded in students’
journals or developed into assessment rubrics.

3 Icebreakers and Interrogators

Icebreakers and Interrogators develops an understanding of the
structures and features of different types of questions. Students will
gain practice in identifying the intentions of a speaker so that they
can prepare to respond appropriately.

Introduce the activity by discussing the meaning of questions

intended as icebreakers and those intended to be interrogators.
Generally, icebreakers are questions that are used to initiate social
contact and require only brief responses. Interrogators are more
probing questions that require thoughtful or extended responses.

Model examples and engage students in discussions to clarify the

types of questions as icebreakers or interrogators, e.g. How are you?
How was school today? How was the disco last night? Did you have a
good weekend? What happened at the concert last night? What did you
do on the weekend? What decisions did you make in your drama class
today? What did you decide to do with your group of friends?
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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

Class charts could be made to illustrate the differences between

these questions and suggested responses. Alternatively, students
could reflect on the activity and record their response in a journal.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

Ask the students to consider how differing contexts affect the way
these questions may be interpreted. For example, Do you respond
differently to a friend asking, ‘How are you?’ compared to when you
are visiting the doctor because you are unwell?

4 Impromptu Speaking
Being asked to give a speech without warning can be nerve-racking
experience if a student has had no previous experience. This activity
provides practice in structuring language to suit the occasion.

Discuss possible scenarios with students, e.g. you are called upon to
thank the coach at the end-of-season wind-up party; you are asked to
thank a guest speaker; you receive a trophy or an award and have to
thank the organisation.

Discuss the content that each scenario should include and devise a
framework to help structure a speech.
• An introduction: e.g. ‘I would like to thank …’ ‘On behalf of …’
• Mention names.
• Include an event or a highlight: e.g. ‘I particularly enjoyed …’
‘The highlight of the season was…’
• Conclusion: build in a ‘future’ reference, e.g. ‘I hope next season is
just as successful …’ ‘We wish you all the best in your endeavours …’
‘I hope to continue with …’

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Produce scenario cards. Students choose a card from a pile and
give an impromptu speech. (See the Speaking and Listening CD-
ROM, Chapter 8 — Conventional Phase: Conventions.)
• Vary the audience, e.g. you accept an award at a charity ball, you
donate a large cheque to a telethon on behalf of your company, your
team has designed a solar car and you have won a race and television
crews are filming your acceptance speech.

5 Ask an Expert
Ask an Expert is an activity that allows students to organise
information for a planned talk. It is explained in detail in Chapter 6
but can be easily adapted to students in the Conventional phase.

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 Conventional Speaking and Listening Phase

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Use the idea of experts when developing a unit of work. Groups
of students could be responsible for researching different aspects
of a topic. They would be responsible for sharing their knowledge
with the class through some form of presentation.
• Invite another class to visit your group of experts. Ask: How will
the students adjust their presentations for a different audience?
• Use expert groups to present to parents on an open night, or
learning journey.

6 Barrier Games
Refer to Chapter 5, Early Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 123.

7 Take a Turn
Refer to Chapter 5, Early Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 121.

8 Who’s Listening?
Refer to Chapter 7, Consolidating Speaking and Listening Phase,
p. 215.

9 Telephone Talk
Telephone Talk helps students to understand the conventions of
telephone conversations and to build confidence when speaking
and listening on the telephone. (See the Speaking and Listening
CD-ROM, Conventional Phase: Conventions.)

Involve students in a brainstorming session to find out:

– What are the purposes for telephone conversations?
– When do students find using the telephone easy?
– When do students find using the telephone difficult or
uncomfortable?
– Have they experienced any conflicts or issues regarding the use
of telephones?
– When should mobile phones be used and when should they not
be used?

This session may uncover issues that could be discussed, e.g. the
school may have rules prohibiting the use of mobile phones in class,
inappropriate messages may be an issue, talking very loudly on a mobile
phone while travelling on a train or bus may irritate some people.
Other examples for discussion may include some of the following:
– How to introduce yourself and make a request.
– How to politely ask to speak to another person.
– How to make an appointment.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

– How to ask to be connected to a person when the call goes via

a switchboard.
– How to politely refuse requests to donate to charity.
– How to decline a telemarketing call.
– What information needs to be considered when contacting
emergency services?

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Involve students in making reminder cards to help prompt them
with what to say when making phone calls. Discuss strategies to
help organise what you will say on the phone, e.g. make a list to
order take-away food.
• Involve students in role playing, e.g. receiving a call and taking an
accurate message. Emphasise the details that should be recorded.
Investigate different types of commercially made message pads.
Students could design their own telephone message pad to use
at home.
• Ask students to collect examples of greetings on answering
machines. Analyse them and produce a framework to guide people
on how to create a greeting for an answering machine. Ask students
to create a greeting for the Prime Minister’s Office, the head office
of ASIO, a movie studio, etc.

10 Radio Ratings
Radio Ratings develops critical awareness of the way conventions
are chosen to suit a particular purpose and audience. This activity
is designed to focus on the conventions chosen for broadcasting.
(See the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM, Conventional Phase:
Conventions.)

Involve students in brainstorming different types of radio

presentations, e.g. talk-back, news reports: sports, weather, music
varieties, advertisements, etc. Students could be responsible for
taping segments of different broadcasts or the teacher could prepare
examples for students to listen to.

Students could analyse particular recorded examples for:

• text type
• vocabulary choice
• length of conversational turns
• pace and intonation of delivery
• intended audience
• introductions
• farewells
• standard and non-standard English.
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 Conventional Speaking and Listening Phase

Students should record their findings in a journal. They could use

the language features listed above as headings for journal entries.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

Students could use the findings of these investigations to produce
their own radio segment. Recordings could be made for particular
audiences, e.g. to share with another class, as part of an assembly
performance, to share with parents, etc.

11 Listening Matters
Listening Matters develops students’ understanding of the
importance of listening, how to recognise different listening
situations and to adjust behaviours to suit the purpose.

Prepare students by discussing occupations that rely on good

listening skills. Brainstorm a list of occupations. Prepare a list of
questions, for example:
• How does listening help you in your job?
• What helps you to listen?
• When is listening difficult for you?
• How did you learn to listen?

Invite a community member such as a pharmacist, naturopath,

councillor, builder, etc. to visit the classroom. It is essential that
well-developed listening skills be a major requirement of their
occupation. Students can prepare an interview using the questions
generated from class members.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

Students prepare a questionnaire or survey to gather information
about listening from parents and other family members in the
workforce.

12 Running Commentary
Running Commentary allows students to focus on body language
and how it is used to convey meaning in communications. Students
will become more aware of their own body language, assisting them
to make informed choices as to how they wish to convey feelings
and emotions through body language.

Show and explain a running commentary to students by playing

a video recording of a horse race, football or cricket match or
celebrities arriving on the red carpet. Students will need to focus
on conventions such as:

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Conventions

• descriptive language used.

• devices, such as analogy.
• the pace of speech, e.g. a horse race is called very quickly.
• the tone, e.g. excitement when a goal is scored or when a celebrity
stops to talk to a person in the crowd.

Have students imitate a running commentary style of speaking by

working in pairs. Prepare a video recording or access a suitable
video clip from an Internet site as the basis for this activity.

Student A should sit with their back to the screen; they will listen
to the running commentary.

Student B should watch the screen but without sound. This student
should give a running commentary of the action by focusing on
information gleaned through observing body language. Limit the
speaking time to about sixty seconds to begin with. Student A
should then respond to the commentary by summarising the main
events.

Both students should then view the video clip, with the sound
turned on. The students should discuss the running commentary,
noting information that was accurately captured through observing
body language and information that may have been misinterpreted.

Students should record their findings in a journal, noting how

body language helped them to interpret a communication.
These recordings may be organised under headings such as facial
expressions, gestures, proximity, eye contact, and posture.

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 Conventional Speaking and Listening Phase

PROCESSES AND STRATEGIES

Major Teaching Emphases

■ Teach students to plan and monitor their use of thinking

strategies when speaking and listening, e.g. determine
importance, compare information.

■ Provide opportunities for students to engage in sustained

conversations and discussions.

■ Provide opportunities for students to choose appropriate

processes and strategies, e.g. analyse the requirements of
the task.

■ Teach students to select tools for listening, e.g. use graphic

organisers to synthesise information from several texts.

■ Teach students to anticipate and address possible points

of miscommunication.

Organisation of the Processes and Strategies Aspect

There are several differences in the organisation of the Processes
and Strategies aspect. Both the Teaching Notes and the Teaching and
Learning Experiences (Involving Students) are in the Speaking
and Listening Resource Book, 2nd Edition, and Chapter 4: Processes
and Strategies.

The rationale for this difference in organisation is that the processes

and strategies of speaking and listening are not conceptually
hierarchical and therefore not phase-specific. In all phases, a
variety of speaking and listening processes and strategies need to be
introduced, developed and consolidated.

What varies from one phase to the next is the growth in:
• the number and integration of strategies used throughout the
processes of speaking and listening.
• the awareness and monitoring of speaking and listening processes.
• the efficiency in the uses of the speaking and listening processes.
• the ability to articulate the use of the strategies used in the process
of speaking and listening.
• the awareness of how the use of processes helps with composing
and comprehending texts.

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 Supporting Parents of Conventional Speakers and Listeners

Supporting Parents of
Conventional Speakers and
Listeners
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Conventional Speakers and Listeners are confident users of
Standard Australian English. They select and maintain language and
styles to suit particular purposes and audiences. They know that it
is important to plan and reflect on their speaking and listening to
communicate successfully.

Supporting Conventional Speakers and

Listeners in the Home
Conventional Speakers and Listeners will benefit from a range of
experiences in the home setting. Ideas for providing appropriate
experiences are available on Parent Cards located on the First Steps
Speaking and Listening CD-ROM. Teachers can select appropriate
cards for each Conventional Speaker and Listener and copy them
for parent use.

Parent Cards
1 General Description of Conventional Speakers
and Listeners
2 Developing an Understanding About Different Types of
Speaking and Listening
3 Developing an Understanding About Contexts
4 Developing Vocabulary
5 Listening
6 Family Meetings

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 CHAPTER 9

Proficient Speaking
and Listening Phase
Unplanned Planned

(An extract form Rebecca’s planned description of

‘How to Surf’)
(Rebecca speaking about her workplace experience.) The first step is to paddle. You have to paddle really hard to
Rebecca: We also had a buddy day which was my absolute get in with the wave and you feel like a push from behind
favourite where we actually paired up with other you when you’re on the wave. You will know, because it’s
women actually working there on the day. like a gliding feeling. And when, as soon as you know you
Teacher: So you could follow someone around for the day? are on the wave, it’s best to push up with your hands on the
Rebecca: In the morning I paired up with an environmental board and have your feet follow it up so you are like … you
scientist and she told me that her job was more are still holding onto the board but you’re in a low crouching
than planting trees which was quite funny. And position. And then when you think you have got your feet
we got to wear sexy hard hats with really bright in the right position which is kind of, almost your back foot’s
jackets, um, and funny goggles and it was really almost right at the back of the board and your other foot’s
good fun … and in the afternoon, I worked with almost in the middle, you’ll be able to balance, usually test
a few girls but most were guys in the apprentice run a few times.
workshop they’ve got there … did some welding
and stuff, just shown that.

Figure 9.1 Figure 9.2

Global Statement
In this phase, students’ control of Standard Australian English reflects
their understanding of the way language structures and features are
manipulated to achieve different purposes and effects. They evaluate
the appropriateness and effectiveness of spoken texts in relation to
audience, purpose and context. They experiment with complex devices
to improve their communication.

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 Proficient Speaking and Listening Indicators

Proficient Speaking and Listening

Indicators
Use of Texts Conventions
◆ Processes ideas and information from a range ◆ Understands and manipulates language
of classroom texts dealing with challenging structures and features in formal and
ideas and issues. informal situations, e.g. structures a formal
◆ Interacts with peers in structured situations speech, sustains conversation with an unfamiliar adult.
to discuss familiar or accessible subjects. ◆ Experiments with some language structures
◆ Listens to a range of sustained spoken texts and features that enable speakers to influence
on challenging ideas and issues, noting key audiences.
ideas and information in a systematic way. ◆ Selects vocabulary to impact on target
◆ Uses text features and structures for effect in audience.
unplanned and planned texts. ◆ Adjusts speaking and listening behaviours
◆ Use of Standard Australian English in appropriate to the purpose and situation
different contexts shows critical awareness when interacting, e.g. builds on the ideas of
of audience and purpose. others to achieve group goals, invites others to have a
• Provides considered reasons for opinions and ideas speaking turn.
while discussing complex or controversial topics ◆ When listening, identifies and analyses
with others. structures and features that signal bias and
• Monitors audience cues and controls responses, e.g. points of view.
anticipates likely questions, adds humour for effect. • Uses conventions of formal speaking, e.g. introduces
• Takes part in a range of team-speaking situations, and concludes formal speeches, uses staging cues and
e.g. reader’s theatre, debates. transition markers, e.g. firstly, finally.
• Recognises aspects of language use, such as
Contextual Understanding vocabulary, rhythm and imagery which enhances
spoken texts.
◆ Judges appropriateness and effect of text
• Manages a wide range of registers, e.g. to deliver
form and register in relation to audience,
a sustained, effective argument.
purpose and context.
◆ Makes adjustments in speaking and listening
to suit specific purposes and audiences. Processes and Strategies
◆ Includes relevant and appropriate ◆ Selects and applies appropriate strategies for
information to orientate their listeners, e.g. monitoring and adjusting communication.
acknowledges differing opinions. ◆ Monitors and reflects on spoken texts
◆ Discusses ways in which spoken texts can drawing on knowledge of differences in
include or exclude the values and beliefs of non-verbal behaviours, e.g. facial expression, eye
particular audiences. contact, proximity.
◆ Selects devices designed to impact or ◆ Plans and selects appropriate processes and
influence a particular audience, e.g. irony, strategies when speaking, e.g. uses anecdotes and
humour. data to influence an audience.
• Can critically discuss spoken language use ◆ Plans and selects appropriate processes and
• Shows awareness of the difference between writing strategies when listening, e.g. records important
and speaking. data.
◆ Develops strategies to improve listening in
challenging contexts, e.g. seeks clarification,
confirms information.
• Notices cues such as change of pace and key words
which indicate a new or important point is about
to be made.
• Transforms information from one context to
another, e.g. uses information gained in an interview
as the basis for a written report.
• Monitors communication and responds to listeners
needs, e.g. pausing, rephrasing, questioning, simplifying.

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 Proficient Speaking and Listening Phase

Major Teaching Emphases

Environment and Attitude (see p. 267) ■ Provide support for students to contribute
to matters of social interest or concern.
■ Provide opportunities for relevant, ■ Teach students to extend their critical
challenging and purposeful analysis to include complex themes and
communication. issues.
■ Create a supportive environment which ■ Teach students to reflect upon the way in
values the diversity of students’ speaking which they interact with their audience.
and listening development. ■ Teach students to select and manipulate
■ Encourage students to see the value devices to suit a particular context.
of effective listening and speaking for
community, school and family life.
Conventions (see p. 290)
Use of Texts (see p. 270) ■ Support students to take responsibility
for expanding, refining and using new
■ Discuss and compare a range of functional vocabulary.
spoken texts. ■ Provide opportunities for students to
■ Provide opportunities for students to compose complex spoken texts for known
participate in authentic unplanned and and unknown audiences.
planned speaking and listening. ■ Teach skills needed to sustain and facilitate
■ Provide opportunities for students to communication in unplanned and planned
participate in extended talk for a range of situations, e.g. to interrupt, intervene, recap or
purposes. redirect.
■ Teach students to use effective text ■ Teach skills needed to respond
structures and features to suit a range of appropriately to the intellectual and
purposes. emotional demands of different situations.
■ Teach students to extract and analyse
complex and challenging information from
spoken texts. Processes and Strategies (see p. 299)
■ Encourage students to use the metalanguage ■ Teach students to select appropriate
associated with speaking and listening thinking strategies to explore complex
independently, e.g. interaction, intertextuality, concepts and ideas.
alternative, style shifts, adjust, position, pace, ■ Provide opportunities for students to
convention, evaluate, reflection, rephrasing. engage in sustained conversations and
discussions.
Contextual Understanding (see p. 279) ■ Provide opportunities for students to
adapt a range of processes and strategies
■ Provide opportunities that challenge to compose complex and challenging texts.
students to carefully consider their choices ■ Provide opportunities for students to
when speaking and listening. interact responsively in contexts where
■ Teach students to reflect upon the way they are required to facilitate discussion.
in which they interact with particular ■ Provide opportunities for students to
audiences. identify and use prompts that anticipate
■ Teach students to consider the needs and and manage likely disagreements.
background knowledge of their audience
when selecting suitable content for spoken
texts.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Environment and Attitude

Teaching and Learning

Experiences
ENVIRONMENT AND ATTITUDE
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Provide opportunities for relevant, challenging and

purposeful communication.

■ Create a supportive classroom environment which

values the diversity of students’ speaking and listening
development.

■ Encourage students to see the value of effective speaking

and listening for community, school and family life.

Teaching Notes
Students in the Proficient phase will benefit from an environment in
which they feel supported, engaged and challenged in meaningful
speaking and listening situations. It is important to provide a variety
of contexts for speaking and listening that will help extend students’
knowledge of a wide range of text forms. Students should be
encouraged to solve problems, evaluate their own work and take
responsibility for improving and refining speaking and listening
skills. The focus for developing positive attitudes towards speaking
and listening is organised under the following headings:
• Creating a Supportive Classroom Environment
• Providing Opportunities for Relevant, Challenging and Purposeful
Communication
• Speaking and Listening for Community, School and Family Life

Creating a Supportive Classroom Environment

A supportive environment for students in the Proficient phase is
one that provides the opportunities for students to analyse, reflect
and produce a wide variety of spoken texts. These opportunities
enable students to develop a confidence and enthusiasm to engage
in speaking and listening activities.

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 Proficient Speaking and Listening Phase

Physical Environment
An environment that supports Proficient Speakers and Listeners is
intellectually stimulating as students engage in an increasing variety
of complex speaking and listening situations. Such an environment
may include:
• A wide range of recorded examples of spoken texts, e.g. television,
radio recordings, appropriate Internet sites.
• Equipment such as video cameras and audio recorders to record
rehearsals for self-assessment purposes.
• Equipment to aid formal presentations, e.g. digital projectors
to assist a PowerPoint presentation, hyper studio, video footage,
photographs, etc.
• Displays made by students such as words and phrases to use in
discussions, questions to guide critical analyses of spoken texts
and guidelines for self-reflection.

Classroom Culture
As well as providing appropriate material and a carefully planned
physical environment, it is essential to develop a comfortable
climate where students can confidently analyse and participate in
a range of speaking and listening experiences.
• Provide opportunities for students to discuss situations where they
find speaking and listening difficult.
• Encourage students to make informed choices when speaking and
listening in different contexts.
• Provide opportunities for students to express, discuss and reflect
on their thinking with others.
• Support students to take responsibility for planning, refining and
adjusting speaking and listening for formal situations.
• Establish guidelines to ensure that all class members support each
other when speaking and listening in planned situations, e.g. when
giving a formal presentation.
• Support students to evaluate their own speaking, both planned
and unplanned.
• Encourage students to evaluate their own listening.
• Encourage students to set goals to improve elements of their
speaking and listening.

Providing Opportunities for Relevant, Challenging

and Purposeful Communication
Students in the Proficient phase have developed a high level of
control over the structures and features of Standard Australian
English. However, they will need teacher guidance when

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Environment and Attitude

encountering new or demanding situations. Support can be provided

in some of the following ways:
• Teach students to consider the implications of choosing an
inappropriate style or dialect in particular contexts.
• Encourage students to use negotiating skills to deal with conflict
situations.
• Teach students to plan for situations where it is likely that people
will disagree.
• Teach students how to give constructive feedback and advice to
peers about their speaking and listening.
• Involve students in speaking and listening related to complex
issues and topics.
• Ask students to reflect on the type of listening chosen for a
particular context, e.g. critical, empathetic or appreciative.

Speaking and Listening for Community, School

and Family Life
Students in the Proficient phase are able to monitor and control their
use of language with confidence in most familiar situations. They
will still need to be supported in managing spoken language with
unfamiliar audiences. They will also continue to critically evaluate
the social and cultural implications of spoken texts.

Teachers can assist students in the Proficient phase by developing

the knowledge, skills and attitudes to be able to:
• use language to include all members of an audience, e.g. explain
technical terms that may be unknown by some listeners.
• facilitate group discussions.
• make an impromptu speech to a known audience, e.g. an
acceptance speech, thanking someone.
• acknowledge different points of view in a variety of situations.
• use spoken language to critically reflect on and analyse a range
of texts.
• compare and contrast different points of view.
• choose conventions appropriate to a range of contexts, e.g. choose
suitable vocabulary and non-verbal behaviours for friends and for
unfamiliar adults, initiate and close a conversation.
• monitor their listening comprehension and know when to take
notes and when to ask clarifying questions.

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 Proficient Speaking and Listening Phase

USE OF TEXTS
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Discuss and compare a range of functional spoken texts.

■ Provide opportunities for students to participate in

authentic unplanned and planned speaking and listening.

■ Provide opportunities for students to participate in

extended talk for a range of purposes.

■ Teach students to use effective text structures and features

to suit a range of purposes.

■ Teach students to extract and analyse complex and

challenging information from spoken texts.

■ Encourage students to use the metalanguage associated

with speaking and listening independently, e.g. interaction,
intertextuality, alternative, style shifts, adjust, position, pace,
convention, evaluate, reflection, rephrasing.

Teaching Notes
The focus for supporting Proficient Speakers and Listeners in this
aspect is organised under the following headings:
• Discussing a Range of Spoken Texts
• Participation in Unplanned and Planned Spoken Texts
• Using Texts for a Purpose
• Understanding Complex Information
• Developing Metalanguage.

Discussing a Range of Spoken Texts

Students in the Proficient phase will need to develop the skills
required to meet the demands of complex social and academic
contexts. They will benefit from experiences that challenge them to
reflect on and critically analyse linguistic structures and features of
a variety of spoken texts. These texts will be literary, informational
and social and will include narratives, poetry, reports, speeches,
interviews and debates. Students require opportunities to develop
critical awareness of the social and cultural functions of language,
discussing the way in which language can influence attitudes,
values and beliefs.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

Participation in Unplanned and Planned Spoken Texts

Proficient Speakers and Listeners continue to need frequent
opportunities to interact with each other as they work throughout
the day. These interactions should occur in both planned and
unplanned situations and will allow them to fully experience,
analyse, comprehend and produce a diverse range of spoken texts.

At this phase, students’ spoken language will be developed through

the ongoing combination of explicit instruction and supportive
feedback as well as opportunities to use speaking and listening
across curriculum areas. Development of Proficient students’
speaking and listening will best occur through a mixture of whole-
class and small-group interactions.

In the course of everyday interpersonal interactions, students in

the Proficient phase will engage in a wide range of planned and
unplanned speaking and listening, e.g.
• Social interactions: one-on-one or in groups
• Workplace interactions: co-workers, management, customers
• Collaboration with others: family, school, wider community
• Commercial transactions: retail consumers, banking.

Figure 9.4

Figure 9.3

It is important to allow students to participate in substantive

conversations. Talking and listening to others allows students to
adjust, refine and even change existing views or misconceptions.

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 Proficient Speaking and Listening Phase

Modelled, Shared and Guided Speaking and Listening sessions

(see First Steps Linking Assessment, Teaching and Learning book,
pages 126–129) provide ideal opportunities for Proficient Speakers
and Listeners to compose a range of unplanned and planned spoken
texts. Over time, students will develop some of the understandings
about spoken texts through Modelled, Shared and Guided Speaking
and Listening sessions. Some of these understandings will include
the following:
• People use functional spoken texts frequently throughout the day.
• When points of view are explored, other views can be confirmed
or extended.
• Speakers make choices about how they will use spoken language
according to the situation, audience and purpose.
• Non-verbal language and use of devices can influence the way a
listener interprets a spoken text, e.g. a politician may use repetitive
words and gestures to highlight a particular point. The listener will
need to judge whether they agree or disagree with the underlying
message.
• The relationship between language and power, e.g. politicians,
advertisers and business executives are accomplished in manipulating
language in order to influence decision-making in the community.
• Language and culture are linked, e.g. our attitudes, values and
beliefs are influenced by the stories told through generations of family
members or by the way families are portrayed through television
programs and movies.
• There are different attitudes to varieties of English.
• Meaning is communicated through a combination of verbal and
non-verbal language. Planning and rehearsing can help speakers
to improve their speaking in both informal and formal situations.

Using Texts for a Purpose

Proficient students need to extend their understanding of how
successful speakers and listeners use a range of text forms for
different purposes.

In the Proficient phase, students will encounter increased demands

on their speaking and listening skills as they engage in unfamiliar
speaking and listening situations in different curriculum areas, in
wider community settings and in workplace experiences. Therefore,
students in this phase will still need to be explicitly taught to use
effective text structures and features to suit a range of purposes.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

Proficient Speakers and Learners should feel confident to use

appropriate spoken language when they need to:
• use social conventions for a range of situations (both in and out
of school).
• initiate a conversation with an unknown person.
• maintain a conversation.
• organise information in a report so that the listener is provided
with enough information to understand a complicated procedure.
• change a topic.
• clarify and confirm ideas in small-group work.

Teachers can focus attention on the different functions of language

and the way that language is structured by using guiding questions
and providing feedback before, during and after speaking and
listening activities. (See Figure 9.5 for examples of ways to focus on
the functions of spoken texts.)

Proficient Students in the Proficient Teachers can involve students in these activities to draw their attention
students phase speak and listen to … to the relationship between structure, text features and purpose.
communicate
for …
Provide Direction Give a Comment Ask a Question
Getting things • instruct parents on where Ensure that you You have written How do you expect
done they need to go for a provide a brief down the exact teachers may
special event. explanation to the amounts, model feel about being
• explain to an unfamiliar teacher of why you number and colours interrupted from
teacher what they or their have come so that they so that you can their work? What
class teacher requires for a understand where provide precise details words and phrases
particular task or resource. you are from and the in your explanation. might we use to
reasons for you being You have also made acknowledge these
there before you make notes on what you feelings before
your specific requests. require if you are explaining why we
asked to provide this are here?
information.
Influencing • convince the group to Think about which You used some very Why do you think
the behaviour, accept a particular identity examples would be emotive words that others in the group
feelings or for a challenge. most convincing in conveyed the passion do not view it the
attitudes of • present a strong case for a demonstrating your you feel for this topic. same way as you?
others particular point of view on point of view.
an issue.

Getting along • greet or depart. In your group discuss Yes, talking about How would you ask
with others • initiate and maintain the kinds of topics someone you have in these questions so
conversations. that you might use to common, or asking that they feel you are
• seek the well-being of initiate a conversation about something that genuinely interested?
others. with your group of you know they have What would it look
• organise leisure time. friends/another group some experience like, feel like, sound
of peers/your friend’s in, can help get the like?
parents/a parent of a conversation going.
friend who you have
not met yet.
Expressing • recount own experiences. Describe your reaction You sounded passionate What are some of the
individuality • describe personal reactions to … e.g. a current about what happened. language features you
and personal to and feelings about event. Include reasons Your personal reaction used to express your
feelings experiences, people or for your personal was conveyed to the opinion clearly? Did
issues. opinions. group in a convincing others have similar
manner. reactions? How were
they expressed?

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 Proficient Speaking and Listening Phase

Seeking and • interview peers and others To make sure that you Writing a brief Do you think it
learning about about opinions on a have all the information introduction to yourself would be appropriate
the social controversial issue. that you require before and the reason for your to enquire about a
and physical • make a telephone inquiry contacting the pizza call and rehearsing group discount?
environment when organising a pizza place, with a partner before the call seemed
day for the class. write down two lists. to make you feel more
(Information that we confident.
need, information that
the pizza place might
need from us). Then,
number the items in
order of priority.
Creating • create stories for others Plan a story to Your exaggerated facial Why do you think
stories, games, and self. entertain young expressions to show it is important to be
new worlds • design debate topics. children. Think about different emotions, and expressive in your
and new texts • create dramatisations or your audience and the the way you looked facial expressions and
role plays that demonstrate style of presentation directly at the children voice with young
possible solutions about a that will appeal to when telling your story, children? Did any
controversial issues. them. encouraged them to of the children react
react to the events differently to how
with similar emotions. you expected?

Communicating • describe details about things Describe the significant Even if they don’t see Did you notice the
information as part of an instruction. features of the different the signs, they should listener repeat any
• show peers how to buildings or rooms be able to recognise particular details or
complete voting slips for that will help someone the school library use hand gestures?
student council elections. unfamiliar with our because you have How confident were
school to identify them. described its unique you that they would
features and explained be able to find it?
how it differs from the What signals did
other buildings. you use to make this
assessment?
Entertaining • discuss topics of interest Introduce this WWII Your reference When recounting his
others with peers and familiar veteran at the school to specific dates war experiences to
adults. assembly by briefly and places in the your family tonight,
• formally introduce a recounting his war chronological recount how will you alter the
person to a class or a experiences. Make of his war experiences details and language
school assembly. sure that you stress the really provided the you use? Will you
historical significance audience with a sense still sequence the
of these experiences. of history. events in the same
time order?

Figure 9.5 Examples for focusing on the functions of spoken texts

Understanding Complex Information

Proficient Speakers and Listeners are expected to select specialised
topics to study and to continue to develop and extend their general
knowledge. Students can also be encouraged to utilise information
from spoken texts to inform opinions, make decisions and share
information with others. They can be encouraged to understand
complex texts in a range of ways.
• Encourage students to make notes and diagrams when listening to
complex information.
• Encourage students to ask questions to clarify their understanding
of difficult content or unknown vocabulary.
• Encourage students to ask a speaker to give examples that will
assist their understanding.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

• Encourage students to retell a spoken text, explaining important

information in their own words.
• Provide opportunities for students to use reflective journals to
record the main structures or features of a particular text, or their
reaction to a particular text.

Developing Metalanguage
The language used to talk about language is known as
metalanguage. When students use metalanguage, it helps them
to understand how language operates. They also understand
the directions and feedback provided by teachers who use the
metalanguage in their daily interactions with students.

To help Proficient Speakers and Listeners continue to use the

terms associated with speaking and listening, it is important to use
metalanguage as part of everyday teaching. This can be incorporated
into learning areas, as part of targeted discussions, during explicit
demonstrations, during one-on-one conversations with students
or as part of planned Modelled, Shared or Guided Speaking and
Listening sessions.

When working with Proficient Speakers and Listeners, consider the

use of the following terms:
Use of Texts: interaction, intertextuality
Contextual Understanding: alternative, style shifts, adjust, position
Conventions: pace, convention
Processes and Strategies: plan, monitor, evaluate, reflection, rephrasing.

For further information about the Use of Texts aspect, see First
Steps Speaking and Listening Resource Book, 2nd Edition:
• Chapter 1: Use of Texts
• Chapter 4: Processes and Strategies

Involving Students
1 Collaborative Study Time
Collaborative Study Time allows students to use extended talk to
discuss their cross-curricula projects in groups. These discussion
groups give students the opportunity to discuss complex and
challenging ideas. The focus of the activity is for students to speak
and listen to make a range of decisions, such as who they will learn
with and what their study or inquiry will be about.
• Have students design their independent study tasks. Their focus
may be a topic, a text or a learning area inquiry. Students discuss

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 Proficient Speaking and Listening Phase

and record details, e.g. What do we want to find out? How will we
find out? When will we do it? How will we share? What we find out?
Who needs to know about it? What speaking and listening will we
need to do to complete this study?
• Have students arrange an appointment to discuss their plan
with you.
• Interact with students and support their selections and make
suggestions where appropriate, e.g. Have you thought about …? I
think that would be a feasible option for that investigation. Ben has
some ideas for study in this area. Perhaps you could ask him to share
his ideas. They might provide you with a starting point.
• Support students by providing feedback, suggestions and suitable
resources, such as articles to read.
• At the end of the session, students can briefly report on their
progress.
• Have students put forward any requests during this time.
• When students have completed the activity, they can reflect upon
it before considering a new project or activity.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Include some journal time in this session.
• Observe the students as they speak and listen during the session.
• Organise a notice board (electronic and physical) so students can
submit their requests; however, encourage them to use speaking
and listening as much as possible.

2 Listen to Learn
Refer to Chapter 6, Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 145.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Choose spoken texts that will provide an opportunity to help
students analyse complex ideas — these may be instructional
videos, current affairs programs, teacher lectures, radio programs,
radio plays and interviews.
• Encourage students to explore appropriate thinking frameworks to
support them in organising and recording their ideas logically and
clearly when presenting their learning.
• Students may have questions and selected audio texts that can
help their inquiry.
• Students may listen to a number of spoken texts to compare and
contrast ideas and information.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Use of Texts

3 Talk to Teach
Refer to Chapter 6, Exploratory Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 146.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Keep a list of ‘experts’ and draw upon it when you need someone
to teach something to the class.
• Arrange a task that students can do in the community on an
ongoing basis, e.g. they could teach senior citizens how to use the
computer, mobile phone, etc.
• Implement activities that are based on simulation, e.g. students can
imagine they are a board of directors for an advertising company and
students have to make a collective decision on the target audience and
image for their product. Each member of the board has to share their
vision and inform the other members of the exact requirements they
have for the advertising campaign for their product.

4 Reflect and Respond

Refer to Chapter 4, Beginning Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 63.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Provide students with opportunities to discuss challenging spoken
texts by involving them in discussions using guiding questions,
e.g. What attitudes were evident? Were there assumptions about the
audience evident? How would this change if it was delivered to …?
How was it similar or different to other texts that we have listened
to? What information was difficult to understand? How did you work
out what it meant? When you were socialising this week, what did you
do to keep the conversation going? What were some of the differences
between the kinds of topics you talked about and the way that you
spoke in these situations?
• Students can focus on the appropriateness of particular strategies
for a task, e.g. in an interview, questions need to effective in obtaining
specific details about an event, how to phrase certain questions and
the tone that should be used; the expected responses of interviewees.
• In discussion times, students can compose charts or ‘how-to’
guides for particular speaking and listening activities, e.g. ‘How to
conduct an interview’, ‘How to convince a young child to brush their
teeth’; ‘How to choose and order a mobile phone’.
• Set tasks in which students are required to investigate a particular
speaking and listening function or situation across a range of
contexts. For example, they could ‘research’ the techniques that
different people use to motivate and encourage others, such as
sports coaches, parents, and teachers. They could record the actual

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 Proficient Speaking and Listening Phase

words and statements used, the structure of the speech, e.g. the
beginning, the middle, the ending and non-verbal gestures. Small
groups could evaluate the different situations they observed.

5 Quick Topics
Quick Topics is an activity that requires students to choose a text
form suitable for an impromptu speech. Students develop the ability
to ‘think on their feet’ as they present their thoughts in a clear,
organised manner with little preparation time.

Decide on an object, statement or word that will become the topic

for a talk, e.g. display an unusual contraption such as an antique tool
and ask students to describe its use; comment on a statement such
as ‘the movie series Star Wars was based on books that were really
accounts of ancient history’; discuss the word ‘shock’.
• Decide on the length of time that a student should speak for
(perhaps one to two minutes). The students will need to quickly
decide what form their speaking will take, e.g. a narrative,
description, argument, procedure, etc.
• Ask listening students to give feedback.
• Have students record a reflection in their journals, noting
successes and areas for improvement. Ask: Was the text form
chosen effective? Were ideas organised effectively?

6 Storytelling
Refer to Chapter 8: Conventional Speaking and Listening Phase,
p. 235.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

CONTEXTUAL UNDERSTANDING
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Provide opportunities that challenge students to carefully

consider their choices when speaking and listening.

■ Teach students to reflect upon the way in which they

interact with particular audiences.

■ Teach students to consider the needs and background

knowledge of their audience when selecting suitable
content for spoken texts.

■ Provide support for students to contribute to matters

of social interest or concern.

■ Teach students to extend their critical analysis to include

complex themes and issues.

■ Teach students to reflect upon the way in which they

interact with their audience.

■ Teach students to select and manipulate devices to suit

a particular context.

Teaching Notes
The focus for supporting Proficient Speakers and Listeners in this
aspect is organised under the following headings:
• A Focus on the Context
• Reflecting on Interactions
• Considering the Needs of the Audience
• Contributing to Matters of Importance
• Analysing the Way Ideas and People Are Represented
• Use of Devices

A Focus on the Context

In the Proficient phase students continue to learn about appropriate
speaking and listening conventions for different contexts. Analysing
and Reflecting are ideal teaching practices for teaching students to
carefully consider their speaking and listening choices according
to the context. As students participate in Analysing and Reflecting
sessions, they continue to develop skills in using spoken language
in different contexts including identifying when the use of different
varieties or forms of English is appropriate.
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 Proficient Speaking and Listening Phase

Proficient Speakers and Listeners are supported as teachers guide

and support them as they consider speaking and listening choices.
This can occur before, during and after students participate in
unplanned and planned speaking and listening as shown in the
example below:

Task: Students have been placed with an employer for some learning experience in a workplace.

Examples of Teacher Interactions

Before During After

• Your employer knows that you • Do you understand what your • What speaking and listening skills
are going to make contact and is employer asks you to do? What were important for your work
looking forward to meeting you. can help here? How can you ask experience? Were they the skills
Since this is the first time you will for clarification or check that you you thought would be important?
meet, what could you say and do have understood? • How did you adjust your speaking
to convince the employer that you • I see that one of your goals relates and listening for the workplace?
are willing to learn and that you to following instructions. How will • At school we use different thinking
will be able to participate in the listening help here? What can you frameworks to help us with
set tasks? do to help with focusing on the listening and planned speaking.
• How would this be different to steps needed? Were any of these useful?
meeting a new class member for • Have you tried one of our school • How did you manage unplanned
the first time? listening strategies? speaking and listening?
• What speaking and listening skills
will be important for your work
experience?

Figure 9.6

Figure 9.7

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Contextual Understanding

Reflecting on Interactions
Proficient Speakers and Listeners benefit from many opportunities
to explore and articulate the way life experience affects the
knowledge, beliefs, attitudes and values that they personally hold
and how these may be different for other people. Students can be
involved in examining assumptions that people may make when
communicating and discussing how different cultural experiences
may result in misunderstanding. Students in the Proficient phase
will also benefit from discussing the way that English language
usage changes over time and how the attitudes towards the use of
different dialects or styles of English will be interpreted by some
people. Students will need to reflect on how they interact with
others in some of the following ways:

Making Assumptions
– Discuss the need for providing suitable background information
when explaining a problem to a peer, teacher or in a shop.
– Discuss the need to ask questions to make sure a listener has all
the necessary details, e.g. what time to meet, what to wear or bring
to a party.

Acknowledging Feelings
– Discuss how to control emotions in order to maintain a position in
a discussion.
– Discuss how to acknowledge the feelings of others in an emotional
situation in order that they have the opportunity to explain.

Making Time
– Discuss the importance of allowing people time to respond to a
question or comment.
– Discuss the importance of allowing time to respond personally,
e.g. by repeating the question to give yourself thinking time or by
saying ‘I’ll need to think about that and get back to you.’

Considering the Needs of the Audience

Proficient Speakers and Listeners are aware of ways of interacting
with different audiences. They continue to need support to consider
the needs and background knowledge of their listeners when speaking
to unfamiliar audiences or large groups. Teachers can direct students’
attention to these matters by discussing questions such as:
• What do you think the exchange students would like to hear
about when they come to our school?
• The senior citizens group said that they learnt some valuable
information when we helped them in their computers class last
week. What did we say and do that was helpful?

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• I noticed that you are planning to show your parents how you
learnt to include video clips on a PowerPoint presentation. What
do your parents already know about using PowerPoint?
• How do you think you will tell your story so that we can visualise
the events?
• What suitable text forms could we use to share our ideas about
this at the school assembly?
• After Graffiti Groups activity, which speech captured your
attention? Why? (See p. 243.)
• What background information can you give about the fund-
raising event at the group meeting? What do you think people
need to know?

Contributing to Matters of Importance

Proficient Speakers and Listeners need regular opportunities to
contribute to discussions about matters of social interest or concern.
When students are able to do this, they learn that speaking and
listening helps to raise awareness of situations and that action can
be taken to solve problems. Students also develop their abilities to
express ideas, opinions and feelings. Teachers can support students
in these ways:
• Negotiate with students and invite their ideas and opinions when
planning, reviewing and organising tasks within learning sessions.
• Have open-ended tasks that provide students with choices about
topics and materials.
• Provide effective feedback when students do raise matters or issues.
• Include regular sessions such as Group Meetings, Independent
Study Time and Graffiti Groups.
• Allow students to create and share their own displays in areas
around the room or school.
• Have displays that capture students’ interests and invite discussion.

Analysing the Way Ideas and People Are Represented

Proficient Speakers and Listeners will need support to analyse
complex themes and issues when considering the different ways in
which ideas and people can be represented in spoken texts. A range
of electronic spoken texts are available to use for discussions of how
people and ideas have been represented in particular ways. CD-ROMs,
films, television programs and audio tapes include spoken texts such
as stories, articles, recounts, advertisements and reports. Proficient
Speakers and Listeners will benefit from Analysing, Reflecting and
Discussion sessions which focus on the following kinds of questions:

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• How does this spoken text suit the purpose of the communication?
• How do I react to the text? Why?
• Why was this particular spoken text selected?
• How do groups of people socialise? How do they connect with
each other? What common texts do they use?
• Do you think particular people have been excluded? How could
they be included?
• Why is that point of view being expressed?
• Do you think particular ideas have been excluded? How could
they be presented?
• Who might agree with the way the ideas or people are shown in
this? Why? Who might not?
• Is this representation fair? Why?
• Who is privileged in this situation?
• In what way has the background knowledge of the participants
been considered?
• How else could that be interpreted?
• How does the choice of style affect me as the audience? How would
it affect other audiences?
• How have the subject-specific words been used?
• What do you think is the main message about the people and/or
ideas?
• What devices have been used to convince the listener or the
speaker?

Use of Devices
Spoken texts comprise a selection of information that can be
presented in different ways to position listeners towards certain
beliefs, assumptions and points of view. Proficient Speakers and
Listeners make many decisions when crafting their spoken texts.
It is important to provide them with many opportunities to plan
and evaluate the effectiveness of their spoken texts and their
manipulation of devices. The focus is on determining:
• What is the purpose of my text? e.g. Do I want to entertain, inform,
or present a particular point of view?
• Who is the audience for my text? e.g. Have I taken into
consideration the age, socio-economic status, cultural background,
academic background and familiarity with the subject content? Is it
a familiar audience to me or will I have to make some assumptions
about the audience?
• How I will use non-verbal devices? e.g. looking at individuals in
turn when talking to a room full of people.
• What devices will I use to best suit my audience and purpose,
e.g. choice of vocabulary—judgemental or emotive?
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Involving Students
1 Networks (Milroy and Milroy 1992)
Networks helps students to consider how the relationship between
speakers and listeners affects the way in which they interact.

Students identify and describe their speech networks within a

speech community. A speech community is a group of people that
see each other regularly and share many common understandings,
e.g. a group of friends at school, players on a basketball team.

Prepare students for this activity by providing them with background

information about the different kinds of networks (see below).

• Explain the activity and any unfamiliar terminology to students.

– A network describes the groups of people with whom you
interact.
– A network can be dense. (The people on your network all
interact with each other.)
– A network can be loose. (The people on your network do not all
interact with each other.)
– A network can be interconnected. (The people are connected in
more than one way.)
– A network can have strong ties or links. (People speak to each
other frequently.)
– A network can have weak ties or links. (People speak to each
other infrequently.)
• Have students list the speech communities which they belong to,
e.g. a sporting team, a youth group, a friendship group.
• Ask students to choose one group and list the people that belong
to the group (including their own name).
• Draw a circle and arrange the names of listed people around the
outside of the circle. The student rules a line from themself to
the other people that they speak to regularly. Choosing another
colour, the student then rules lines to show who other people
speak to. This will show whether the network is dense, with
individuals speaking to many others on a regular basis, or loose,
where only some people are spoken to on a regular basis.
• Students should discuss how a speech network assists members
to communicate, e.g. some experiences are shared and do not have
to be explained, technical terms are well understood and members
develop a kind of shorthand to the things they say to each other.
• Have students record the findings for this activity in a journal,
noting the type of language that is used only for a speech network.

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Figure 9.8 A Network sample

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Organise an afternoon in which students teach another class
about Networks.
• Students could create displays and guide or inform visitors who
visit their displays.
• Consider a multi-modal representation, e.g. PowerPoint presentation
with film footage.
• Encourage students to reflect upon the kinds of value judgements
they are making about people in determining where they fit in
the network.

2 Listening Investigations
Refer to Chapter 9: Proficient Speaking and Listening Phase.

3 Class Meetings
Class meetings are described in detail in Chapter 6 in the Exploratory
phase (see p. 157). They can be adapted for students in the Proficient
phase according to their needs. For example, meetings may take
the form of a committee, e.g. a committee set up to organise a dance
or may take the form of small-group meetings with a specific
responsibility, e.g. a group to organise entertainment for a class camp
and another to organise a menu.

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4 Now and Then

Now and Then is an activity that aims to compare and contrast
the way attitudes, values and beliefs are shaped by and through
language by comparing past and present situations. Prepare
recordings of television situation comedies from the 1950s or 1960s.
Involve students in analysing aspects of the television shows in
order to compare and contrast some of the following ideas:
• Identify the language used that invokes sympathy or antipathy
with the listener.
• Identify the viewpoints of different characters to uncover the
values that are being promoted.
• Identify major themes in the text to compare general values,
beliefs or attitudes.
• Identify the aspirations and expectations of the characters.

5 Communicating in the Community

Communicating in the Community is explained in detail in Chapter 6
in the Exploratory phase (see p. 156). This activity could be extended
for students
in the Proficient phase by using some of the following ideas.
• What are some of the technical words used by hairdressers,
doctors, sports coaches, librarians, surf shop assistants, clothing
store owners and scout leaders?
• What do people say to make others feel comfortable when
entering their homes or businesses?
• How do greetings differ between people who are familiar with
each other and people who are not?

6 Speech Pyramid
Refer to Chapter 7, Consolidating Speaking and Listening Phase,
p. 202. (See Figure 9.9).

7 Graffiti Groups
Refer to Chapter 8, Conventional Speaking and Listening Phase,
p. 243.

8 This Is How They Saw It

This activity is designed to support students in reflecting upon the
way in which people use language to describe from their particular
point of view. A student or teacher collects spoken texts and uses
them to facilitate a discussion about the way in which a particular
situation is interpreted.
• Describe the activity to the students.
• Model the role of the facilitator in the first session. In the next
session, students can work collaboratively to plan and facilitate.
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Speech Pyramid

SPEECH SITUATION
Moving between classes

SPEECH EVENTS
School talk
Social talk
Organising talk

SPEECH ACTS
School talk – telling others what you just did, what homework you’ve done
for the next class, what the teacher said, what happened.
Social talk – saying hello, telling others how you feel about the class, where
you are going to sit, what you plan to do after school.
Organising talk – to find out what room you are in, asking what you need
to take, reminding others of what to take to class, where you might meet
for lunch.

Figure 9.9 Speech pyramid

• Present students with several taped or filmed spoken texts each

constructed by different people who recount, describe, retell or
report the same situation. When collecting the spoken texts,
students should try to collect and record spoken texts from men
and women, people of different ages, cultures or social groups.
Situations for This Is How They Saw It could include:
– everyday informal situations, e.g. the weekly shopping trip, a visit
to the beach, going out to dinner, a bowling trip, having a barbecue,
preparing dinner, reading the same story, watching the same show
on television, attending a show, etc.
– academic formal situations, e.g. news bulletins, current affairs,
attending a lecture, attending a community presentation, meeting,
interview, historical event, etc.
• Facilitate a discussion, focusing on the differences and similarities
in the delivery of the messages, inclusion of the content and the
importance placed on a particular feature of the event. When
students facilitate they need to have some guiding questions or a

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thinking framework prepared for the group, e.g. What does each
speaker include? Does everyone include the same information? Why?
• Have students write their reflections in their journals.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Use radio or television news for the spoken texts, especially talk-
back responses.
• Consider how to support students in collecting their spoken texts.
Consider setting some criteria, e.g. the same people all playing the
same game.
• Introduce this activity to a small group of students using their
stories about school. Each student could bring their recorded
interpretation and compare it. It would need to be pre-recorded so
that it is a personal account.

9 Time Machine
Refer to Chapter 7, Consolidating Speaking and Listening Phase,
p. 203.

10 Presenting My POV (Godhino 2004)

This activity encourages Proficient students to think about and state
their points of view.

Suggest students think about those interests or issues that they feel
strongly about. Provide some examples, e.g. favourite sporting team,
special interest, local issue, etc.

Allow students time to reflect. Explain that they must state their
point of view along with one strong supporting reason that supports
their point of view.
• Model the activity for the class, e.g. My Point of View: I strongly
believe that we should not be allowed to farm kangaroos. My
supporting reason: I believe in animal rights.
• Students can conduct the activity in pairs; at this stage, there is no
time for extended discussion.
• Partners report each other’s statements to the class.
• Record the statements onto a chart to use in extension activities.
• Extension activity: Have students express a point of view and give
at least three supporting reasons for their opinion. Focus on using
persuasive words, e.g. strongly believe, firmly convinced.
• Students can reflect on why it is important to justify their point
of view with a strong reason and to think of the persuasive words
they can use to express their view.

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11 In Other Words
In Other Words is an activity that provides students with the
opportunity to investigate the devices a speaker uses to persuade
an audience. Prepare an audio recording of a persuasive text; this
could be from a political speech or from a television current affairs
program where someone is explaining their particular point of view.
Ask students to record examples of idioms, similes, repetitions,
exaggerations, etc. Ask students to note also how intonation is used
to convey meaning to particular words.
• Students should record examples of devices used and then re-
write what was said in their own words.
• Ask students to work in groups to compare their interpretations.
• Students could discuss the intentions of the speaker when using
these devices.
• Allocate time for students to share their findings with the whole
class. For example, discuss different interpretations of the use
of different devices. Ask students to discuss the reasons behind
different interpretations, e.g. different life experiences, different
expectations.

12 Gender Issues
Gender Issues is designed to assist students in examining the way
that gender is represented through television. Students are asked
to analyse the verbal and non-verbal language used in advertising
in order to make judgements as to how these representations are
interpreted. In this way students develop an understanding of
how stereotypes are constructed in society. Record a television
advertisement that represents one particular gender. Students
should watch the advertisement and record specific information
to include in a discussion. Provide guiding questions to assist note
taking, such as:
• Consider the way the male (or female) is represented in the
advertisement. Ask: Who would this image appeal to? Who would
this image not appeal to?
• How is the image constructed? List the language features used,
e.g. vocabulary, intonation, pace and pausing. List the non-verbal
features used, e.g. stance, gestures and facial expressions.
• Have students use these notes to discuss the way gender has been
represented.
• Students could imitate the advertisement using a reverse role
play, e.g. a female student could represent the male part in the
advertisement (or the other way round).
• Students could discuss the way meaning would be altered if
gender roles were exchanged.
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 Proficient Speaking and Listening Phase

CONVENTIONS
Major Teaching Emphases

■ Support students to take responsibility for expanding,

refining and using new vocabulary.

■ Provide opportunities for students to compose complex

spoken texts for known and unknown audiences.

■ Teach skills needed to sustain and facilitate communication

in unplanned and planned situations, e.g. to interrupt,
intervene, recap or redirect.

■ Teach skills needed to respond appropriately to the

intellectual and emotional demands of different situations.

Teaching Notes
Teaching and learning experiences for students in the Proficient
phase are organised under the following headings:
• Building Vocabulary
• Understanding the Conventions of Spoken Texts
• Conversations
• Understanding the Behaviours Associated with Speaking and
Listening
• Understanding the Conventions of Listening.

Building Vocabulary
Students in the Proficient phase have an extensive vocabulary based
on their experiences at school, at home, in the community and from
the media. Students need to continue to develop subject-specific
vocabulary in order to effectively express their understanding of
concepts. A broad vocabulary is essential in order to manage a
variety of social and community interactions confidently. To further
develop and refine vocabulary, teachers can encourage students to
analyse a variety of spoken texts, discussing vocabulary choice and
the effectiveness of those choices.

Students could analyse texts from:

– political broadcasts
– television interviews
– radio interviews
– radio and television advertisements
– debates
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– excerpts from movies or television programs

– interviews.

• Encourage students to keep lists of interesting words, or words

that they aim to use for a particular purpose.
• Involve students in examining vocabulary. Ask: What effects were
achieved? Is there a sense of balance or bias? What emotive words
were used?
• Encourage students to reflect on their own speaking, noticing the
types of vocabulary chosen for different purposes. Ask: Was the
choice effective in making the meaning clear and precise for the
listener?

Understanding the Conventions of Spoken Texts

At all phases of development it is important that students are
exposed to different examples of spoken texts so that attention can
be drawn to the structures and features of language composed for
different purposes.

The structure of a spoken text refers to the way information is

organised and presented in a text. These could include:
– complimenting another person.
– relating an anecdote within a conversation.
– giving precise directions.

The language features of a spoken text refer to the type of vocabulary,

grammar, tone and pace chosen. For example:
– using colloquial words or sayings when conversing with friends
– emotive language used to persuade in an advertisement
– stressing certain words or altering volume to gain impact.

Students in the Proficient phase can be encouraged to consider the

way language is used in the following ways.
• Involve students in discussions about styles of speech, e.g. research
the way they speak when talking to friends, talking to known adults,
talking to unknown adults, talking to those much younger or older
than themselves.
• Ask students to compare different types of speaking used for
different purposes, e.g. compare a news program to a documentary,
a soap drama to a lifestyle program. Ask: What is Standard Australian
English and who uses it?
• Teach the conventions of formal speaking. Brainstorm and record
purposes for formal speeches. Prepare audio or video segments
that show examples of formal speech. Ask students to analyse
the conventions used, e.g. vocabulary, tone, pace of delivery, use
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of pauses, use of descriptive language or emotive language. Jointly

construct frameworks or checklists to help students prepare their
own formal speeches.
• Discuss the skills needed to extend discussions. For example,
teach:
– ways to extend a discussion by elaborating on the ideas of others.
– how to give and justify an opinion.
– how to offer viewpoints sensitively.
– ways to include all the people in the group.
– ways to interrupt when the discussion takes an unrelated
direction.
– ways to intervene, recap or redirect.

Conversations
Conversations are important in establishing and maintaining
relationships through expressing feelings and sharing experiences.
This type of unplanned speaking and listening not only develops self-
awareness and interpersonal skills; it helps to build topic knowledge
and processes for learning. Teachers can discuss likely issues with
students and negotiate agreed behaviours for interacting during
conversations. The following list of questions may provide a starting
point.
• What are the implications of making ‘personal’ comments?
• How can differing opinions be stated in a respectful manner?
• How can likes and dislikes be expressed sensitively?
• How can confrontation and argument be avoided?
• How can everyone be included in the conversation?

Understanding the Behaviours Associated

with Speaking and Listening
Students need to develop a critical awareness of the behaviours
associated with speaking and listening and how it affects meaningful
communication in a variety of contexts. Teachers can involve
students in choosing appropriate speaking and listening behaviours
through modelling, explicit teaching and discussion. Jointly
constructing Y charts or T charts will provide meaningful reminders.
The following list may provide some useful starting points when
considering effective behaviours.
• Speak clearly and with enough volume so that everyone can hear
and understand.
• Discuss body language when speaking, e.g. appropriate eye contact,
proximity of speaker and listener.
• Discuss body language when listening, e.g. nodding your head,
proximity.
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• Discuss how to interpret body language for emotional cues.

• Provide opportunities for students to observe and reflect on the
body language portrayed, e.g. watch an interview with the sound
turned off.
• Discuss how an audience behaves, e.g. when listening to the
teacher, when listening to another student, at assembly, at the theatre.
• How to take turns in a discussion.

Understanding the Conventions of Listening

Listening is an active, constructive process concerned with
making meaning from verbal and non-verbal cues. By building an
awareness of the conventions of listening, teachers assist students to
develop and refine communication skills. Effective listening depends
on the expectations and predictions about content, language and
genre that the listener brings to the text (Gibbons 2002). The way in
which we listen is also linked to the context of the communication.
We listen differently during unplanned, spontaneous situations, e.g.
in casual conversations, than we do when speaking and listening is
planned and formal, e.g. in the classroom when instructions are being
given. The structures and features of listening can be considered
using the following framework.

Figure 9.10

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Involve students in different types of listening for different purposes

in some of the following ways:
• Provide time for students to engage in conversations.
• Provide opportunities for students to listen and respond to speech
constructed for different purposes.
• Provide opportunities for students to respond to spoken texts
through discussions, questions, journals, artwork.
• Provide opportunities for students to explore and analyse different
types of listening. Use students’ findings to clarify the conventions
of listening needed for different purposes.
– When is listening easy or difficult?
– When do I change the way I listen?
– How do I know when I should respond to a speaker? When
should I stay quiet?

Involving Students
1 Workplace Talk
Workplace Talk focuses on the spoken language that is used in the
workplace. Prepare students by discussing the types of part-time
jobs they have or occupations that interest them. Generate a list
of people that could be approached to visit the class. Alternatively,
generate a list of people that students could arrange an appointment
with in order to conduct an interview.

Students could work in pairs or small groups to compile a list of

suitable questions. For example, students could seek information on:
• specific vocabulary needed.
• the different audiences expected, e.g. customers, clients, sales
representatives, co-workers, senior managers, etc.
• how much speaking is one-to-one, in groups, or over the phone.
• specific phrases or patterns of language that need to be repeated,
e.g. ‘How may I help you?’ or a particular phrase to be used answering
the phone.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

Students could brainstorm ways to share the information they
gather. They could write a manual, a booklet, create a PowerPoint
presentation or hold an information seminar.

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2 Listening Investigations
Listening Investigations helps students to understand the different
types of listening. Students become critically aware of the listening
skills they need to access for different purposes. Ask students to
form small groups to discuss the way listening changes in different
situations.

Some guiding questions to help in responses could be:

• Think of a time when you needed someone to listen to you.
• Why was it important for someone to listen to you?
• How did you know that they were truly listening?
• How was that type of listening different to other types of listening?
• How did that type of listening help you?

Students could record ideas from the discussion in a reflection

book. (See the Speaking and Listening CD-ROM, Proficient Phase
— Conventions for an example of a recording idea.)

This activity is also suitable for the Conventional and Advanced phases.

How Might This Activity Be Used in Your Class?

• Students develop a format for sharing information about the
importance of listening, e.g. create a brochure or poster.
• Students could role play writing an article for an ‘advice’ column
in a magazine.

3 Radio DJ
Radio DJ provides Proficient students with an opportunity to
examine the conventions used in broadcasting. Students investigate
the role of a radio DJ and record the text types and conventions
used in a broadcast.
• Have students (working in groups) listen to pre-recorded segments
of a radio show (pre-recording allows a teacher to assess the
suitability of the content). Choose different shows, e.g. from a
variety of commercial stations, government-operated stations such as
the ABC and Radio National and community radio.
• Ask students to record text types used, e.g. introductions, interviews,
jokes, commentary, expressing point of view, explanations, etc.
• Ask students to choose one of the text types to investigate further
to identify the conventions used; for example, some students may
focus on the structures and features of an interview in order to
make note of vocabulary used, types of questions asked, type of
listening used, use of descriptive language or linguistic devices,

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the use of colloquialisms, how the subject is changed, the use of

volume and intonation, etc.
• Ask students to evaluate the segment using guiding questions such
as: What type of audience is this show aimed at? What is your
opinion of the DJ from the words and tone used in this segment?
Can you see where this DJ might improve skills in ... (interviewing,
introductions or farewells, telling anecdotes, etc.).
• Extend this activity by asking students to plan their own radio
segment.

4 Barrier Games
Refer to Chapter 5, Early Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 123.

5 Jargon
Jargon develops the understanding of the use of jargon in spoken
texts and how it can exclude many people. This activity encourages
students to consider choosing words that communicate ideas clearly.
It also encourages students to consider the needs of an audience
when composing speech so that all members of a group are included.
• Prepare a recording of a spoken text that contains examples of
jargon. This could be from a parliamentary broadcast, a political
interview, a speech to shareholders, etc.
• Ask students to list words or phrases that could be considered
jargon as they are listening. Compare and discuss these lists,
asking students to consider factors such as:
– Who is the intended audience?
– Who is included in this spoken text?
– Who is excluded in this spoken text?
• Students could make lists of words or phrases that could be more
effective and inclusive of all members of an audience.

6 Pitch Variety
This activity develops understanding of the use of pitch and
intonation and how it affects the meaning of spoken texts.
• Prepare sentences that can be said in ways where the pitch alters
the meaning, for example, ‘What time did you get home?’ can be
said crossly, kindly or suspiciously.
• Have students draw a line diagram to illustrate when the voice
goes up, down, remains the same, or goes up and down. Students
should label each diagram and compare their interpretations with
others.

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• Ask students to make a list of words, e.g. names, greetings. Work

with a partner saying the words in different ways. Discuss what
meaning is implied. Repeat the process with phrases or short
sentences.

7 Active Listening — Group of Three

Active listening is an important skill to draw upon when someone
needs to discuss a problem or a difficulty. The speaker is not
necessarily seeking a solution but is hoping to develop a deeper
understanding of an existing situation. This activity helps to develop
an understanding of active listening. It allows students to practise
the conventions and to receive feedback on their skills.

Discuss the purposes and behaviours associated with active

listening. It may be useful to record the students’ responses onto a
chart or students could make personal records in a journal.

Students should consider the following elements of active listening:

• Purpose: active listening is listening with the intent to fully
understand and to communicate understanding of both the
content and the feeling being expressed.
• Verbal behaviours needed: ask clarifying questions, paraphrase to
indicate understanding when needed.
• Non-verbal behaviours: attentive body language, appropriate eye
contact.

A jointly constructed checklist could help to focus students’

observations during this activity. Students will need to brainstorm
suitable topics of conversation, e.g. a difficult assignment, a difficult
customer encountered in a workplace, preparing for a job interview.

Students should form groups of three. One student is the speaker.

This student should speak on a topic that is unfamiliar to the listener.
Another student is the listener. The listener will practise the skills of
attentive listening. The other student is the observer. This student
will make notes in order to provide feedback.

Allow time for feedback to be given and for students to reflect,

discuss and set goals for future improvement.

8 Inside/Outside Circle
Refer to Chapter 5, Early Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 122.

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 Proficient Speaking and Listening Phase

9 Telephone Talk
Refer to Chapter 5, Early Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 119.

10 Analyse a Video
Refer to Chapter 5, Early Speaking and Listening Phase, p. 127.

11 Radio Ratings
Refer to Chapter 8, Conventional Speaking and Listening Phase,
p. 259.

12 Impromptu Speaking
Refer to Chapter 8, Conventional Speaking and Listening Phase,
p. 257.

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 Teaching and Learning Experiences: Processes and Strategies

PROCESSES AND STRATEGIES

Major Teaching Emphases

■ Teach students to select appropriate thinking strategies to

explore complex concepts and ideas.

■ Provide opportunities for students to engage in sustained

conversations and discussions.

■ Provide opportunities for students to adapt a range

of processes and strategies to compose complex and
challenging texts.

■ Provide opportunities for students to interact responsively

in contexts where they are required to facilitate discussion.

■ Provide opportunities for students to identify and use

prompts that anticipate and manage likely disagreements.

Organisation of the Processes and Strategies Aspect

There are several differences in the organisation of the Processes
and Strategies aspect. Both the Teaching Notes and the Teaching
and Learning Experiences (Involving Students) are in the Speaking
and Listening Resource Book Chapter 4: Processes and Strategies.

The rationale for this difference in organisation is that the processes

and strategies of speaking and listening are not conceptually
hierarchical and therefore not phase-specific. In all phases, a
variety of speaking and listening processes and strategies need to be
introduced, developed and consolidated.

What varies from one phase to the next is the growth in:
• the number and integration of strategies used throughout the
processes of speaking and listening.
• the awareness and monitoring of speaking and listening processes.
• the efficiency in the uses of the speaking and listening processes.
• the ability to articulate the use of the strategies used in the process
of speaking and listening.
• the awareness of how the use of processes helps with composing
and comprehending texts.

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 Proficient Speaking and Listening Phase

Supporting Parents of
Proficient Speakers and
Listeners
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Proficient Speakers and Listeners have a controlled use of Standard
Australian English. They understand that the language needed to
create certain spoken texts can be manipulated to achieve different
purposes and effects. They assess whether certain kinds of speaking
and listening are suitable for different audiences, purposes and
situations. They draw upon a varied and complex knowledge of
language in order to improve their communication.

Supporting Proficient Speakers and Listeners

in the Home
Proficient Speakers and Listeners will benefit from a range of
experiences in the home setting. Ideas for providing appropriate
experiences are available on Parent Cards located on the First Steps
Speaking and Listening CD-ROM. Teachers can select appropriate
cards for each Proficient Speaker and Listener and copy them for
parent use.

Parent Cards
1 General Description of Proficient Speakers and Listeners
2 Developing an Understanding About Different Types of
Speaking and Listening
3 Developing an Understanding About Contexts
4 Developing Vocabulary
5 Listening
6 Family Meetings

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 CHAPTER 10

Advanced Speaking
and Listening Phase
Unplanned Planned

(Philippa’s planned speaking – extract from a description of ‘How to

edit a radio package’)
Philippa: You hit the record button on that. You then go over
to your audio deck or your mini-disk player, and
Teacher: What’s happening with your job? select play, and as you’re playing the sound through
Philippa: Oh well, the job I had at [retail outlet] finished the mini disk, the computer will slowly be collecting
because that was really just for Christmas. I got all the information, and capturing all the sound, um,
to stay on a bit longer so that was good ‘cos I on a wave bar, so you will get louder sounds, and
really liked the people there, hmm. So now I’ve higher frequencies will make the bigger waves, and
got to find another one. (groans, laughter) all that sort of thing. So you’ll be able to see where
Teacher: Any, any ideas ... speech and sound actually occurs along the audio
Philippa: My friend works at [retail outlet] and she said bar. So if you allow, um, your, um, sound studio file
that they were looking for people so I’m gonna to capture all the sound on the mini disk, depending
try there. I’ll look them up on the Internet, on how much you’ve got. If you’ve got … if you’re
yeah, and find out some facts about their creating a piece, that’s only five minutes and you’ve
company. She said, my friend said, ‘Oh go and got twenty minutes worth of raw sound, just let it
buy a necklace or something and then you can keep going, or you can always edit as you go, and
say, oh yes, I’m ALWAYS buying things from only select the interview or the interview answers
here!’ Have to get an interview first. (laughs) that you wish straight away. But if it is a shorter
piece you can let it run out, and you can mark on
the wave bar, with a special cursor, as to where one
interview starts and ends.

Figure 10.1 Figure 10.2

Global Statement
In this phase, students show a sophisticated control of Standard
Australian English in a range of contexts. They understand the power
and effect of spoken language, critically analysing factors that influence
the interpretation of spoken texts. They use complex devices to modify
and manipulate their communication for a range of purposes.

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 Advanced Speaking and Listening Phase

Advanced Speaking and Listening

Indicators
Use of Texts Conventions
◆ Makes sense of a range of spoken texts, ◆ Draws upon a wide vocabulary to achieve
including specialised topics. planned effect.
◆ Offers advice, extends views and presents ◆ Controls and analyses language structures
ideas effectively in discussions with a wide in formal and informal contexts.
range of audiences. ◆ Uses speaking and listening behaviours
◆ Uses a wide range of unplanned and to facilitate and maintain effective
planned texts that achieve a variety communication, e.g. intervenes sensitively,
of purposes. redirects.
◆ Analyses sophisticated and challenging ◆ Selects listening conventions to suit a
information in a wide range of spoken range of purposes.
texts. • Uses language powerfully and effectively.
◆ Uses Standard Australian English in • Negotiates in groups where there are
sophisticated ways. disagreements or conflicting personalities,
• Analyses and manipulates spoken language to managing the situation sensitively.
suit a range of contexts. • When listening, identifies structures and
• Engages effectively in a range of complex topics features that implicitly and explicitly signal bias,
and specialised areas. attitude and opinion in complex texts across a
• Analyses and substantiates different opinions. range of purposes.
• Evaluates and modifies the effect of own
communication in relation to purpose, audience
and text selection.
Processes and Strategies
• Responds effectively to a range of spoken texts ◆ Draws upon an extensive repertoire
with critical awareness. of strategies to interpret and compose
complex speech.
◆ Adapts processes and strategies to interact
Contextual Understanding responsively and critically, e.g. monitors
◆ Makes deliberate adjustments in speaking group to facilitate discussion.
and listening to suit a wide range of ◆ Adapts a range of processes and strategies
purposes and audiences. to compose and improve complex and
◆ Interacts inclusively with a wide audience. challenging texts.
◆ Can critically evaluate spoken texts • Students draw upon strategies to improve
that represent differing perspectives on communication or repair miscommunication
complex themes and issues. with audiences in formal and informal
◆ Selects and manipulates devices designed situations.
to establish a rapport, engage, persuade or
influence an audience, e.g. anecdote, analogy,
nominating others to hold the floor.
• Critically analyses the relationship between
texts, contexts, speakers and listeners in a range
of situations.

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 Major Teaching Emphases

Major Teaching Emphases

Environment and Attitude ■ Support students to take responsibility for
developing critical awareness of spoken
■ Provide opportunities for relevant, language.
challenging and purposeful ■ Provide opportunities for students to
communication. analyse a range of spoken texts.
■ Create a supportive environment which ■ Provide opportunities for students to
values the diversity of students’ speaking reflect upon and refine their use of
and listening. speaking and listening devices.
■ Encourage students to see the value
of effective listening and speaking for
community, school and family life. Conventions
■ Support students in taking responsibility
Use of Texts for extending and developing their
vocabulary.
■ Discuss and analyse a range of functional ■ Support students to compose spoken
spoken texts. texts to meet the needs of a variety of
■ Provide opportunities for students to audiences, e.g. formal presentations.
participate in authentic unplanned and ■ Encourage students to select speaking and
planned speaking and listening. listening behaviours that convey meaning
■ Support students to reflect upon and and intentions with clarity.
analyse their own use of text features and ■ Involve students in a variety of situations
structures to suit a range of purposes. that require sophisticated manipulation
■ Support students to take responsibility for of conventions, e.g. job interviews, giving
their own development in speaking and impromptu speeches.
listening.
■ Encourage students to use the
metalanguage associated with speaking Processes and Strategies
and listening independently, analyse, ■ Provide opportunities for students to
socio-cultural, ideology, world view, compose spoken texts to meet the needs
reiterating, deconstruct, regulate, critique, of a variety of audiences, e.g. formal
values, intertextual. presentations.
■ Encourage students to take responsibility
Contextual Understanding for choosing processes and strategies to
compose a variety of spoken texts.
■ Provide opportunities that challenge ■ Support students in taking responsibility
students to carefully consider their choices for interacting responsively in a variety of
when speaking and listening. situations.
■ Provide opportunities for students to ■ Support students in taking responsibility
reflect upon the way in which they for adjusting communication in a range of
interact with particular audiences. contexts.
■ Support students to design their own
speaking and listening opportunities.
■ Provide support for students to contribute
to discussions about matters of social
interest or concern.

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 Advanced Speaking and Listening Phase

Teaching and Learning

Experiences
Teaching Notes
Teaching and Learning experiences are not provided at this phase,
as Advanced Speakers and Listeners are, on the whole, able to take
responsibility for their own speaking and listening.

However, there will be occasions when students in this phase are

faced with speaking and listening situations that are very unfamiliar,
or which place high demands on their existing speaking and listening
skills, e.g. job interviews, court and legal proceedings, workplace
negotiations, financial transactions, buying expensive consumer goods,
managing personal relationships, etc. To support students we have
provided the major teaching emphases; the teaching and learning
experiences can be obtained from the previous Proficient phase and
adjusted accordingly.

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 APPENDIX

Emergent Speaking
and Listening Phase

Figure 11.1 Figure 11.2

Global Statement
In this phase, children use the sounds and patterns of language in
which they are immersed. They verbalise and gesture to express their
feelings, convey their needs and interact with others. Children may
require adult support and interpretation to convey meaning.

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 Emergent Speaking and Listening Phase

Emergent Speaking and Listening

Indicators
Use of Texts Conventions
◆ Responds to spoken language in own ◆ Explores the sounds of home language.
personal way, e.g. responds to familiar voices. ◆ Uses favourite words, e.g. ‘no’, ‘mine’, ‘cos’.
◆ Produces first real words and begins to ◆ Uses voice to attract attention.
combine words. ◆ Responds to language games based on
◆ Understands simple and familiar questions, rhyme and repetition.
e.g. Where’s Daddy? ◆ Begins to follow rules of conversation,
◆ Imitates models of speaking, e.g. babbles into e.g. uses name of person to attract attention
the telephone or while turning the pages of a book. before talking.
◆ Is beginning to use social behaviours,
Contextual Understanding e.g. greetings, farewells, ‘please’ and ‘thank you’ in
response to prompts.
◆ Recognises meaning from familiar phrases
◆ Can follow simple directions.
and tones.
• Overgeneralises words to represent many ideas,
◆ Recognises verbal and non-verbal
e.g. ‘dog ’ may mean any animal with four legs.
behaviours in familiar contexts, e.g. responds
• Uses some directional language, e.g. ‘up ’.
to a smile.
• Uses single words and two-word phrases,
◆ Communicates to meet own needs.
e.g. ‘go way ’ – go away.
◆ Gestures, sounds and attempts at words
are understood by familiar adults in
supportive or predictable contexts, e.g. Processes and Strategies
pointing or saying ‘dink ’ indicates that the child ◆ Relies on copying and approximating to
wants a drink. compose spoken language.
◆ Supports spoken texts with non-verbal
behaviours, e.g. says ‘Bye’ and waves goodbye.
◆ Conveys lack of understanding through
facial expression or body language.

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 Major Teaching Emphases

Major Teaching Emphases

Use of Texts
■ Immerse children in a wide variety of Conventions
speaking and listening for everyday ■ Exploit daily routines, e.g. bath time,
purposes. preparing meals to develop vocabulary.
■ Immerse children in songs, rhymes and ■ Model language needed to describe
games. emotions, interests and attitudes.
■ Talk to children often, responding to and ■ Model simple descriptive language.
encouraging attempts to communicate. ■ Teach rhymes and finger plays, songs and
■ Model behaviours appropriate to speaking chants to help children hear the sounds
and listening for different purposes. and patterns in language.
■ Interact with audio recordings. ■ Model behaviours of greetings, farewells.
■ Interact with video and television. ■ Discuss meanings of words and give
■ Allow children to participate in extended definitions during discussions.
talk without constant adult supervision.
Processes and Strategies
Contextual Understanding ■ Model question/response.
■ Model how speech is modified for ■ Extend simple responses and model
different purposes. alternatives.
■ Encourage children to practise speaking ■ Use toys to describe and explore the words
skills with other familiar adults and for shape, colour and movement.
children. ■ Model strategies to adjust speaking, e.g.
■ Read aloud often, discuss pictures, repeat volume, repetition.
favourite parts.
■ Provide opportunities for children to
use speaking and listening for different
purposes, e.g. play, problem solving, socialising,
entertaining.

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 Glossary
analogy a comparison made to show a similarity in some way

appropriate the suitable, fitting or right verbal or non-verbal language for

a particular context

aspects specific facets of speaking and listening that are categorised

as Use of Texts, Contextual Understanding, Conventions and
Processes and Strategies

clause a group of words consisting of a subject and a verb that may

or may not make a sentence

code-mixing changing from one language or dialect to another during

a spoken communication

code-switching judging which dialect will best serve a speaker’s needs in a

given context

colloquial everyday spoken language that may contain slang or

idiomatic terms

conjunction any word or group of words that join words, phrases or

clauses, e.g. and, but, because, however

context the particular audience, purpose and situation involved in a

spoken situation

critical awareness the ability to analyse and question spoken texts in order to
detect bias, values or beliefs held by a speaker

culture the ideas, beliefs, values and attitudes, values and beliefs that
make up the shared basis of a group/s of people

deconstruct a method of critiquing and dismantling a spoken text in

order to locate various structures, features, cultural codes
and ideologies in the text

device a verbal and non-verbal feature such as making eye contact

with individuals in an audience, using expressive speech, etc.

dialogic interactive dialogue with participants having more or less

equal input

dialogue conversation, exchange of ideas, discussion, chats, etc.

discourse the ‘style’ of language used to create an overall ideology or

meaning of a spoken text

ESD English as a Second Dialect

ESL English as a second EAL Language

graphic organiser a visual representation of concepts that enable a learner to

visualise, record and retrieve information from a text, e.g.
a table is a graphic organiser.

ideology the values and beliefs held by an individual or an institution

interaction spoken communication including non-verbal elements such

as body language
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 Glossary

interpersonal interactions with other people

intertextuality refers to the way in which a spoken text creates meaning

through its relationship to other spoken or written texts

intrapersonal understanding of self; knowing who you are and what you
can do

language type the language or dialect spoken

literary fictional text, e.g. mythical, legendary, story or poetry

metalanguage language used to describe and analyse language: language

about language

monologic a less interactive form of spoken language as one participant

speaks while the other participants listen and construct
meanings

PA a public address system

presentations the act of producing or performing formal or informal

planned spoken texts

reconcile using spoken language to repair miscommunication or

misunderstanding

register the type of vocabulary that we use in different contexts, e.g.

formal speech, occupational words, casual words, family words

reiterate to restate or repeat

socio-cultural a combination of social and cultural factors such as economic

status, geographical location, beliefs and values that exist in
a group/s of people

spontaneous unstructured, unplanned, spur of the moment

the Standard the dialect that predominates in government, business, law,

Australian media and public life. It is predominant dialect of instruction
English used in Australian schools and tertiary institutions. Standard
Australian English is often described as the ‘dialect of power’
in Australia today.

variety of English the different ways that spoken English is used

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