Data and information visualization

Data and information visualization (data viz

or info viz)[2] is the practice of designing and
creating easy-to-communicate and easy-to-
understand graphic or visual representations of a
large amount[3] of complex quantitative and
qualitative data and information with the help of
static, dynamic or interactive visual items.
Typically based on data and information collected
from a certain domain of expertise, these
visualizations are intended for a broader audience
to help them visually explore and discover,
quickly understand, interpret and gain important Statistician professor Edward Tufte described Charles Joseph Minard's
insights into otherwise difficult-to-identify 1869 graphic of Napoleonic France's invasion of Russia as what "may well
structures, relationships, correlations, local and be the best statistical graphic ever drawn", noting that it captures six
global patterns, trends, variations, constancy, variables in two dimensions.[1]
clusters, outliers and unusual groupings within
data (exploratory visualization).[4][5][6] When
intended for the general public (mass communication) to convey a concise version of known, specific information in a clear
and engaging manner (presentational or explanatory visualization),[4] it is typically called information graphics.

Data visualization is concerned with visually presenting sets of primarily quantitative raw data in a schematic form. The
visual formats used in data visualization include tables, charts and graphs (e.g. pie charts, bar charts, line charts, area charts,
cone charts, pyramid charts, donut charts, histograms, spectrograms, cohort charts, waterfall charts, funnel charts, bullet
graphs, etc.), diagrams, plots (e.g. scatter plots, distribution plots, box-and-whisker plots), geospatial maps (such as
proportional symbol maps, choropleth maps, isopleth maps and heat maps), figures, correlation matrices, percentage gauges,
etc., which sometimes can be combined in a dashboard.

Information visualization, on the other hand, deals with multiple, large-scale and complicated datasets which contain
quantitative (numerical) data as well as qualitative (non-numerical, i.e. verbal or graphical) and primarily abstract
information and its goal is to add value to raw data, improve the viewers' comprehension, reinforce their cognition and help
them derive insights and make decisions as they navigate and interact with the computer-supported graphical display. Visual
tools used in information visualization include maps (such as tree maps), animations, infographics, Sankey diagrams, flow
charts, network diagrams, semantic networks, entity-relationship diagrams, venn diagrams, timelines, mind maps, etc.

Emerging technologies like virtual, augmented and mixed reality have the potential to make information visualization more
immersive, intuitive, interactive and easily manipulable and thus enhance the user's visual perception and cognition.[7] In
data and information visualization, the goal is to graphically present and explore abstract, non-physical and non-spatial data
collected from databases, information systems, file systems, documents, business information, financial data, etc.
(presentational and exploratory visualization) which is different from the field of scientific visualization, where the goal is to
render realistic images based on physical and spatial scientific data to confirm or reject hypotheses (confirmatory
visualization).[8]

Effective data visualization is properly sourced, contextualized, simple and uncluttered. The underlying data is accurate and
up-to-date to make sure that insights are reliable. Graphical items are well-chosen for the given datasets and aesthetically
appealing, with shapes, colors and other visual elements used deliberately in a meaningful and non-distracting manner. The
visuals are accompanied by supporting texts (labels and titles). These verbal and graphical components complement each
other to ensure clear, quick and memorable understanding. Effective information visualization is aware of the needs and
concerns and the level of expertise of the target audience, deliberately guiding them to the intended conclusion.[9][3] Such
effective visualization can be used not only for conveying specialized, complex, big data-driven ideas to a wider group of
non-technical audience in a visually appealing, engaging and accessible manner, but also to domain experts and executives
for making decisions, monitoring performance, generating new ideas and stimulating research.[9][4] In addition, data
scientists, data analysts and data mining specialists use data visualization to check the quality of data, find errors, unusual
gaps and missing values in data, clean data, explore the structures and features of data and assess outputs of data-driven
models.[4] In business, data and information visualization can constitute a part of data storytelling, where they are paired
with a coherent narrative structure or storyline to contextualize the analyzed data and communicate the insights gained from
analyzing the data clearly and memorably with the goal of convincing the audience into making a decision or taking an
action in order to create business value.[3][10] This can be contrasted with the field of statistical graphics, where complex
statistical data are communicated graphically in an accurate and precise manner among researchers and analysts with
statistical expertise to help them perform exploratory data analysis or to convey the results of such analyses, where visual
appeal, capturing attention to a certain issue and storytelling are not as important.[11]

The field of data and information visualization is of interdisciplinary nature as it incorporates principles found in the
disciplines of descriptive statistics (as early as the 18th century),[12] visual communication, graphic design, cognitive science
and, more recently, interactive computer graphics and human-computer interaction.[13] Since effective visualization requires
design skills, statistical skills and computing skills, it is argued by authors such as Gershon and Page that it is both an art and
a science.[14] The neighboring field of visual analytics marries statistical data analysis, data and information visualization
and human analytical reasoning through interactive visual interfaces to help human users reach conclusions, gain actionable
insights and make informed decisions which are otherwise difficult for computers to do.

Research into how people read and misread various types of visualizations is helping to determine what types and features
of visualizations are most understandable and effective in conveying information.[15][16] On the other hand, unintentionally
poor or intentionally misleading and deceptive visualizations (misinformative visualiztion) can function as powerful tools
which disseminate misinformation, manipulate public perception and divert public opinion toward a certain agenda.[17]
Thus data visualization literacy has become an important component of data and information literacy in the information age
akin to the roles played by textual, mathematical and visual literacy in the past.

Overview
The field of data and information visualization has emerged "from
research in human–computer interaction, computer science,
graphics, visual design, psychology, and business methods. It is
increasingly applied as a critical component in scientific research,
digital libraries, data mining, financial data analysis, market studies,
manufacturing production control, and drug discovery".[18]

Data and information visualization presumes that "visual

representations and interaction techniques take advantage of the
human eye's broad bandwidth pathway into the mind to allow
users to see, explore, and understand large amounts of information
at once. Information visualization focused on the creation of
approaches for conveying abstract information in intuitive
ways."[19] Data visualization is one of the steps in analyzing data
and presenting it to users.
Data analysis is an indispensable part of all applied research and
problem solving in industry. The most fundamental data analysis
approaches are visualization (histograms, scatter plots, surface plots, tree maps,
parallel coordinate plots, etc.), statistics (hypothesis test, regression, PCA, etc.),
data mining (association mining, etc.), and machine learning methods (clustering,
classification, decision trees, etc.). Among these approaches, information
visualization, or visual data analysis, is the most reliant on the cognitive skills of
human analysts, and allows the discovery of unstructured actionable insights that
are limited only by human imagination and creativity. The analyst does not have
to learn any sophisticated methods to be able to interpret the visualizations of the
data. Information visualization is also a hypothesis generation scheme, which can
be, and is typically followed by more analytical or formal analysis, such as
statistical hypothesis testing.

To communicate information clearly and efficiently, data visualization uses

statistical graphics, plots, information graphics and other tools. Numerical data Partial map of the Internet early 2005
may be encoded using dots, lines, or bars, to visually communicate a quantitative represented as a graph, each line
message.[20] Effective visualization helps users analyze and reason about data represents two IP addresses, and some
and evidence.[21] It makes complex data more accessible, understandable, and delay between those two nodes.
usable, but can also be reductive.[22] Users may have particular analytical tasks,
such as making comparisons or understanding causality, and the design principle of the graphic (i.e., showing comparisons
or showing causality) follows the task. Tables are generally used where users will look up a specific measurement, while
charts of various types are used to show patterns or relationships in the data for one or more variables.

Data visualization refers to the techniques used to communicate data or information by encoding it as visual objects (e.g.,
points, lines, or bars) contained in graphics. The goal is to communicate information clearly and efficiently to users. It is one
of the steps in data analysis or data science. According to Vitaly Friedman (2008) the "main goal of data visualization is to
communicate information clearly and effectively through graphical means. It doesn't mean that data visualization needs to
look boring to be functional or extremely sophisticated to look beautiful. To convey ideas effectively, both aesthetic form
and functionality need to go hand in hand, providing insights into a rather sparse and complex data set by communicating its
key aspects in a more intuitive way. Yet designers often fail to achieve a balance between form and function, creating
gorgeous data visualizations which fail to serve their main purpose — to communicate information".[23]

Indeed, Fernanda Viegas and Martin M. Wattenberg suggested that an ideal visualization should not only communicate
clearly, but stimulate viewer engagement and attention.[24]

Data visualization is closely related to information graphics, information visualization, scientific visualization, exploratory
data analysis and statistical graphics. In the new millennium, data visualization has become an active area of research,
teaching and development. According to Post et al. (2002), it has united scientific and information visualization.[25]

In the commercial environment data visualization is often referred to as dashboards. Infographics are another very common
form of data visualization.

Principles

Characteristics of effective graphical displays

Edward Tufte has explained that users of information displays are The greatest value of a picture is when it
executing particular analytical tasks such as making comparisons. The forces us to notice what we never expected
design principle of the information graphic should support the analytical to see.
task.[27] As William Cleveland and Robert McGill show, different
graphical elements accomplish this more or less effectively. For example,
dot plots and bar charts outperform pie charts.[28] John Tukey[26]

In his 1983 book The Visual Display of Quantitative Information,[29]

Edward Tufte defines 'graphical displays' and principles for effective graphical display in the following passage:
"Excellence in statistical graphics consists of complex ideas communicated with clarity, precision, and efficiency. Graphical
displays should:

show the data

induce the viewer to think about the substance rather than about methodology, graphic design, the
technology of graphic production, or something else
avoid distorting what the data has to say
present many numbers in a small space
make large data sets coherent
encourage the eye to compare different pieces of data
reveal the data at several levels of detail, from a broad overview to the fine structure
serve a reasonably clear purpose: description, exploration, tabulation, or decoration
be closely integrated with the statistical and verbal descriptions of a data set.

Graphics reveal data. Indeed graphics can be more precise and revealing than conventional statistical computations."[30]

For example, the Minard diagram shows the losses suffered by Napoleon's army in the 1812–1813 period. Six variables are
plotted: the size of the army, its location on a two-dimensional surface (x and y), time, the direction of movement, and
temperature. The line width illustrates a comparison (size of the army at points in time), while the temperature axis suggests
a cause of the change in army size. This multivariate display on a two-dimensional surface tells a story that can be grasped
immediately while identifying the source data to build credibility. Tufte wrote in 1983 that: "It may well be the best statistical
graphic ever drawn."[30]
Not applying these principles may result in misleading graphs, distorting the message, or supporting an erroneous
conclusion. According to Tufte, chartjunk refers to the extraneous interior decoration of the graphic that does not enhance
the message or gratuitous three-dimensional or perspective effects. Needlessly separating the explanatory key from the
image itself, requiring the eye to travel back and forth from the image to the key, is a form of "administrative debris." The
ratio of "data to ink" should be maximized, erasing non-data ink where feasible.[30]

The Congressional Budget Office summarized several best practices for graphical displays in a June 2014 presentation.
These included: a) Knowing your audience; b) Designing graphics that can stand alone outside the report's context; and c)
Designing graphics that communicate the key messages in the report.[31]

Quantitative messages

Author Stephen Few described eight types of quantitative messages that users may
attempt to understand or communicate from a set of data and the associated graphs
used to help communicate the message:

1. Time-series: A single variable is captured over a period of time, such as

the unemployment rate or temperature measures over a 10-year period.
A line chart may be used to demonstrate the trend over time.
2. Ranking: Categorical subdivisions are ranked in ascending or
descending order, such as a ranking of sales performance (the
measure) by sales persons (the category, with each sales person a
categorical subdivision) during a single period. A bar chart may be used
to show the comparison across the sales persons.
3. Part-to-whole: Categorical subdivisions are measured as a ratio to the
whole (i.e., a percentage out of 100%). A pie chart or bar chart can show
the comparison of ratios, such as the market share represented by
competitors in a market.
4. Deviation: Categorical subdivisions are compared against a reference,
such as a comparison of actual vs. budget expenses for several
departments of a business for a given time period. A bar chart can show
comparison of the actual versus the reference amount.
5. Frequency distribution: Shows the number of observations of a
particular variable for given interval, such as the number of years in One dataset; three charts: Top
which the stock market return is between intervals such as 0–10%, 11– panel is a bar chart depicting the
20%, etc. A histogram, a type of bar chart, may be used for this analysis. flow of occurrences over time
A boxplot helps visualize key statistics about the distribution, such as (resembles the Sankey diagram in
median, quartiles, outliers, etc. the New York Times original[32]).
6. Correlation: Comparison between observations represented by two Middle panel is a bubble chart that
variables (X,Y) to determine if they tend to move in the same or opposite separately quantifies discrete
directions. For example, plotting unemployment (X) and inflation (Y) for outcomes. Bottom panel is an
a sample of months. A scatter plot is typically used for this message. exploded pie chart showing relative
7. Nominal comparison: Comparing categorical subdivisions in no shares of categories, and shares
particular order, such as the sales volume by product code. A bar chart within categories.
may be used for this comparison.
8. Geographic or geospatial: Comparison of a variable across a map or
layout, such as the unemployment rate by state or the number of persons on the various floors of a building.
A cartogram is a typical graphic used.[20][33]

Analysts reviewing a set of data may consider whether some or all of the messages and graphic types above are applicable
to their task and audience. The process of trial and error to identify meaningful relationships and messages in the data is part
of exploratory data analysis.

Visual perception and data visualization

A human can distinguish differences in line length, shape, orientation, distances, and color (hue) readily without significant
processing effort; these are referred to as "pre-attentive attributes". For example, it may require significant time and effort
("attentive processing") to identify the number of times the digit "5" appears in a series of numbers; but if that digit is
different in size, orientation, or color, instances of the digit can be noted quickly through pre-attentive processing.[34]
Compelling graphics take advantage of pre-attentive processing and attributes and the relative strength of these attributes.
For example, since humans can more easily process differences in line length than surface area, it may be more effective to
use a bar chart (which takes advantage of line length to show comparison) rather than pie charts (which use surface area to
show comparison).[34]

Human perception/cognition and data visualization

Almost all data visualizations are created for human consumption. Knowledge of human perception and cognition is
necessary when designing intuitive visualizations.[35] Cognition refers to processes in human beings like perception,
attention, learning, memory, thought, concept formation, reading, and problem solving.[36] Human visual processing is
efficient in detecting changes and making comparisons between quantities, sizes, shapes and variations in lightness. When
properties of symbolic data are mapped to visual properties, humans can browse through large amounts of data efficiently. It
is estimated that 2/3 of the brain's neurons can be involved in visual processing. Proper visualization provides a different
approach to show potential connections, relationships, etc. which are not as obvious in non-visualized quantitative data.
Visualization can become a means of data exploration.

Studies have shown individuals used on average 19% less cognitive resources, and 4.5% better able to recall details when
comparing data visualization with text.[37]

History
The modern study of visualization started with computer graphics, which "has from
its beginning been used to study scientific problems. However, in its early days the
lack of graphics power often limited its usefulness. The recent emphasis on
visualization started in 1987 with the special issue of Computer Graphics on
Visualization in Scientific Computing. Since then there have been several
Selected milestones and inventions
conferences and workshops, co-sponsored by the IEEE Computer Society and
[38] They have been devoted to the general topics of
ACM SIGGRAPH". data
visualization, information visualization and scientific visualization, and more specific areas such as volume visualization. In
1786, William Playfair published the first presentation graphics.

There is no comprehensive 'history' of data visualization. There are no accounts that

span the entire development of visual thinking and the visual representation of data,
and which collate the contributions of disparate disciplines.[39] Michael Friendly and
Daniel J Denis of York University are engaged in a project that attempts to provide a
comprehensive history of visualization. Contrary to general belief, data visualization
is not a modern development. Since prehistory, stellar data, or information such as
location of stars were visualized on the walls of caves (such as those found in
Lascaux Cave in Southern France) since the Pleistocene era.[40] Physical artefacts
such as Mesopotamian clay tokens (5500 BC), Inca quipus (2600 BC) and Marshall
Islands stick charts (n.d.) can also be considered as visualizing quantitative
information.[41][42]

The first documented data visualization can be tracked back to 1160 B.C. with Turin
Papyrus Map which accurately illustrates the distribution of geological resources and
provides information about quarrying of those resources.[43] Such maps can be
categorized as thematic cartography, which is a type of data visualization that Product Space Localization,
presents and communicates specific data and information through a geographical intended to show the Economic
illustration designed to show a particular theme connected with a specific geographic Complexity of a given economy
area. Earliest documented forms of data visualization were various thematic maps
from different cultures and ideograms and hieroglyphs that provided and allowed
interpretation of information illustrated. For example, Linear B tablets of Mycenae provided a visualization of information
regarding Late Bronze Age era trades in the Mediterranean. The idea of coordinates was used by ancient Egyptian
surveyors in laying out towns, earthly and heavenly positions were located by something akin to latitude and longitude at
least by 200 BC, and the map projection of a spherical earth into latitude and longitude by Claudius Ptolemy [c. 85–c. 165]
in Alexandria would serve as reference standards until the 14th century.[43]
The invention of paper and parchment allowed further development of
visualizations throughout history. Figure shows a graph from the 10th or
possibly 11th century that is intended to be an illustration of the planetary
movement, used in an appendix of a textbook in monastery schools.[44] The
graph apparently was meant to represent a plot of the inclinations of the
planetary orbits as a function of the time. For this purpose, the zone of the
zodiac was represented on a plane with a horizontal line divided into thirty parts
as the time or longitudinal axis. The vertical axis designates the width of the
zodiac. The horizontal scale appears to have been chosen for each planet
individually for the periods cannot be reconciled. The accompanying text refers
only to the amplitudes. The curves are apparently not related in time.

By the 16th century, techniques and instruments for precise observation and Tree Map of Benin Exports (2009) by
measurement of physical quantities, and geographic and celestial position were product category. The Product Exports
Treemaps are one of the most recent
well-developed (for example, a "wall quadrant" constructed by Tycho Brahe
applications of these kind of
[1546–1601], covering an entire wall in his observatory). Particularly important
visualizations, developed by the Harvard-
were the development of triangulation and other methods to determine mapping
MIT Observatory of Economic Complexity
locations accurately.[39] Very early, the measure of time led scholars to develop
innovative way of visualizing the data (e.g. Lorenz Codomann in
1596, Johannes Temporarius in 1596[45]).

French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes and Pierre

de Fermat developed analytic geometry and two-dimensional
coordinate system which heavily influenced the practical methods
of displaying and calculating values. Fermat and Blaise Pascal's
work on statistics and probability theory laid the groundwork for
what we now conceptualize as data.[39] According to the
Interaction Design Foundation, these developments allowed and
helped William Playfair, who saw potential for graphical
communication of quantitative data, to generate and develop Planetary movements
graphical methods of statistics.[35]

In the second half of the 20th century, Jacques Bertin used

quantitative graphs to represent information "intuitively, clearly,
accurately, and efficiently".[35]

John Tukey and Edward Tufte pushed the bounds of data

visualization; Tukey with his new statistical approach of
exploratory data analysis and Tufte with his book "The Visual
Display of Quantitative Information" paved the way for refining
data visualization techniques for more than statisticians. With the
progression of technology came the progression of data
visualization; starting with hand-drawn visualizations and evolving
into more technical applications – including interactive designs
leading to software visualization.[46]
Playfair TimeSeries
Programs like SAS, SOFA, R, Minitab, Cornerstone and more
allow for data visualization in the field of statistics. Other data
visualization applications, more focused and unique to individuals,
programming languages such as D3, Python and JavaScript help to make the visualization of quantitative data a possibility.
Private schools have also developed programs to meet the demand for learning data visualization and associated
programming libraries, including free programs like The Data Incubator or paid programs like General Assembly.[47]

Beginning with the symposium "Data to Discovery" in 2013, ArtCenter College of Design, Caltech and JPL in Pasadena
have run an annual program on interactive data visualization.[48] The program asks: How can interactive data visualization
help scientists and engineers explore their data more effectively? How can computing, design, and design thinking help
maximize research results? What methodologies are most effective for leveraging knowledge from these fields? By
encoding relational information with appropriate visual and interactive characteristics to help interrogate, and ultimately gain
new insight into data, the program develops new interdisciplinary approaches to complex science problems, combining
design thinking and the latest methods from computing, user-centered design, interaction design and 3D graphics.

Terminology
Data visualization involves specific terminology, some of which is derived from statistics. For example, author Stephen Few
defines two types of data, which are used in combination to support a meaningful analysis or visualization:

Categorical: Represent groups of objects with a particular characteristic. Categorical variables can either
be nominal or ordinal. Nominal variables for example gender have no order between them and are thus
nominal. Ordinal variables are categories with an order, for sample recording the age group someone falls
into.[49]
Quantitative: Represent measurements, such as the height of a person or the temperature of an
environment. Quantitative variables can either be continuous or discrete. Continuous variables capture the
idea that measurements can always be made more precisely. While discrete variables have only a finite
number of possibilities, such as a count of some outcomes or an age measured in whole years.[49]

The distinction between quantitative and categorical variables is important because the two types require different methods
of visualization.

Two primary types of information displays are tables and graphs.

A table contains quantitative data organized into rows and columns with categorical labels. It is primarily
used to look up specific values. In the example above, the table might have categorical column labels
representing the name (a qualitative variable) and age (a quantitative variable), with each row of data
representing one person (the sampled experimental unit or category subdivision).
A graph is primarily used to show relationships among data and portrays values encoded as visual objects
(e.g., lines, bars, or points). Numerical values are displayed within an area delineated by one or more axes.
These axes provide scales (quantitative and categorical) used to label and assign values to the visual
objects. Many graphs are also referred to as charts.[50]

Eppler and Lengler have developed the "Periodic Table of Visualization Methods," an interactive chart displaying various
data visualization methods. It includes six types of data visualization methods: data, information, concept, strategy, metaphor
and compound.[51]

Techniques
Description /
Name Visual dimensions
Example usages

Bar chart
length/count Presents
category categorical data
color with rectangular
bars with
heights or
lengths
proportional to
the values that
they represent.
Bar chart of tips by day of week The bars can be
plotted vertically
or horizontally.
A bar graph
shows
comparisons
among discrete
categories. One
axis of the chart
 shows the
specific
categories being
compared, and
the other axis
represents a
measured value.
Some bar
graphs present
bars clustered in
groups of more
than one,
showing the
values of more
than one
measured
variable. These
clustered groups
can be
differentiated
using color.
For example;
comparison of
values, such as
sales
performance for
several persons
or businesses in
a single time
period.

Includes most
features of basic
bar chart, above
Areas of non-
uniform-width
bars represent
quantities with
areas A that are
respective
category products of
(size/count/extent related pairs of
Variable-width in first
("variwide") bar chart dimension)
vertical-axis
(https://commons.wiki size/count/extent quantities
Variable-width bar chart relating media.org/wiki/Catego in second (A/X) and
population (along x axis), per-person ry:Variable-width_bar_ dimension horizontal-axis
greenhouse gas emissions (along y charts) size/count/extent quantities (X).
axis), and total greenhouse gas as area of bar
emissions (area as x*y product of Arithmetically:
color
values)
(A/X)*X=A for
each bar

Instances:
Mosaic plots
(also known as
Marimekko, or
Mekko, charts)
 numerical value
of first variable
Includes most
(extent in first
features of basic
dimension;
bar chart, above
superimposed
horizontal bars) Pairs of numeric
variables,
numerical value
Orthogonal usually color-
of second
Projected (1) frequency and (2) (orthogonal coded, rendered
variable (extent
intensity of extreme "10-year heat composite) bar chart by category
in second
waves" are connected in pairs of dimension; like Variables need
horizontal and vertical bars, conventional not be directly
respectively. Bars are distinguished vertical bar chart) related in the
by (3) color-coded primary category way they are in
category for first
(degree of global warming). "variwide"
and second
charts
variables (e.g.,
color-coded)

Histogram
bin limits An approximate
count/length representation
color of the
distribution of
numerical data.
Divide the entire
range of values
into a series of
intervals and
then count how
Histogram of housing prices many values fall
into each
interval this is
called binning.
The bins are
usually
specified as
consecutive,
non-overlapping
intervals of a
variable. The
bins (intervals)
must be
adjacent, and
are often (but
not required to
be) of equal
size.
For example,
determining
frequency of
annual stock
market
percentage
returns within
particular
ranges (bins)
such as 0–10%,
11–20%, etc.
The height of
the bar
represents the
number of
 observations
(years) with a
return % in the
range
represented by
the respective
bin.

Uses Cartesian
coordinates to
display values
for typically two
variables for a
set of data.
Points can be
coded via color,
shape and/or
size to display
x position additional
y position variables.
Scatter plot symbol/glyph Each point on
the plot has an
color associated x
size and y term that
A scatterplot showing negative determines its
correlation between two variables location on the
cartesian plane.
Scatter plots are
often used to
highlight the
correlation
between
variables (x and
y).

Similar to the 2-
dimensional
scatter plot
above, the 3-
dimensional
scatter plot
position x visualizes the
position y relationship
between
Scatter plot (3D) position z
typically 3
color variables from a
symbol set of data.
size Again point can
be coded via
Scatter plot color, shape
and/or size to
display
additional
variables

Network
nodes size Finding clusters
nodes color in the network
ties thickness (e.g. grouping
Facebook
ties color friends into
 spatialization different
clusters).
Discovering
bridges
(information
brokers or
boundary
spanners)
between
clusters in the
Network analysis
network
Determining the
most influential
nodes in the
network (e.g. A
company wants
to target a small
group of people
on Twitter for a
marketing
campaign).
Finding outlier
actors who do
not fit into any
cluster or are in
the periphery of
a network.

Represents one
categorical
variable which
is divided into
slices to
illustrate
numerical
proportion. In a
pie chart, the arc
length of each
slice (and
consequently its
Pie chart color central angle
and area), is
proportional to
the quantity it
represents.
Pie chart For example, as
shown in the
graph to the
right, the
proportion of
English native
speakers
worldwide

Line chart
x position Represents
y position information as a
series of data
symbol/glyph
points called
color 'markers'
size connected by
 straight line
segments.
Similar to a
scatter plot
except that the
measurement
points are
ordered
(typically by
their x-axis
Line chart
value) and
joined with
straight line
segments.
Often used to
visualize a trend
in data over
intervals of time
– a time series –
thus the line is
often drawn
chronologically.

A type of
stacked area
graph which is
displaced
around a central
axis, resulting in
a flowing shape.
Unlike a
traditional
stacked area
graph in which
the layers are
stacked on top
of an axis, in a
streamgraph the
layers are
width positioned to
Streamgraph color minimize their
time (flow) "wiggle".
Streamgraphs
display data
with only
Streamgraph positive values,
and are not able
to represent
both negative
and positive
values.
For example,
the right visual
shows the music
listened to by a
user over the
start of the year
2012
 Is a method for
displaying
hierarchical data
using nested
Treemap size figures, usually
color rectangles.
For example,
disk space by
location / file
type
Treemap

Type of bar chart

that illustrates a
project schedule
Modern Gantt
charts also
show the
color dependency
Gantt chart relationships
time (flow) between
activities and
Gantt chart
current schedule
status.
For example,
used in project
planning

Heat map
color Represents the
categorical magnitude of a
variable phenomenon as
color in two
dimensions.
There are two
categories of
heat maps:
cluster heat
map: where
magnitudes
Heat map
are laid out
into a matrix
of fixed cell
size whose
rows and
columns are
categorical
data. For
example, the
graph to the
right.
spatial heat
map: where
no matrix of
fixed cell
 size for
example a
heat-map.
For example,
a heat map
showing
population
densities
displayed on
a
geographical
map

A sequence of
colored stripes
visually portrays
trend of a data
series.
Portrays a
single variable
—prototypically
temperature
over time to
portray global
Stripe graphic x position warming
color Deliberately
minimalist—with
Stripe graphic no technical
indicia—to
communicate
intuitively with
non-
scientists[52]
Can be
"stacked" to
represent plural
series (example)

Animated spiral
graphic radial distance Portrays a
(dependent single
variable) dependent
rotating angle variable—
(cycling through prototypically
months) temperature
over time to
color (passing
portray global
years)
warming
Dependent
variable is
progressively
plotted along a
Animated spiral graphic continuous
"spiral"
determined as a
function of (a)
constantly
rotating angle
(twelve months
per revolution)
and (b) evolving
 color (color
changes over
passing
years)[53]

Box and Whisker Plot

x axis A method for
y axis graphically
depicting groups
of numerical
data through
their quartiles.
Box plots may
also have lines
extending from
the boxes
(whiskers)
indicating
Box and whisker plot variability
outside the
upper and lower
quartiles.
Outliers may be
plotted as
individual
points.
The two boxes
graphed on top
of each other
represent the
middle 50% of
the data, with
the line
separating the
two boxes
identifying the
median data
value and the
top and bottom
edges of the
boxes represent
the 75th and
25th percentile
data points
respectively.
Box plots are
non-parametric:
they display
variation in
samples of a
statistical
population
without making
any
assumptions of
the underlying
statistical
distribution, thus
are useful for
getting an initial
understanding
of a data set. For
example,
 comparing the
distribution of
ages between a
group of people
(e.g., male and
females).

Represents a
workflow,
process or a
step-by-step
approach to
solving a task.
The flowchart
shows the steps
as boxes of
various kinds,
and their order
Flowchart workflow or
by connecting
process
the boxes with
arrows.
For example,
outlying the
actions to
undertake if a
Flowchart
lamp is not
working, as
shown in the
diagram to the
right.

Radar chart
attributes Displays
value assigned multivariate data
to attributes in the form of a
two-dimensional
chart of three or
more
quantitative
variables
represented on
axes starting
Radar chart
from the same
point.
The relative
position and
angle of the
axes is typically
uninformative,
but various
heuristics, such
as algorithms
that plot data as
the maximal
total area, can
be applied to
sort the
variables (axes)
into relative
positions that
reveal distinct
correlations,
 trade-offs, and a
multitude of
other
comparative
measures.
For example,
comparing
attributes/skills
(e.g.,
communication,
analytical, IT
skills) learnt
across different
university
degrees (e.g.,
mathematics,
economics,
psychology)

Venn diagram
all possible Shows all
logical relations possible logical
between a finite relations
collection of between a finite
different sets. collection of
different sets.
These diagrams
depict elements
as points in the
plane, and sets
as regions
inside closed
Venn diagram
curves.
A Venn diagram
consists of
multiple
overlapping
closed curves,
usually circles,
each
representing a
set.
The points
inside a curve
labelled S
represent
elements of the
set S, while
points outside
the boundary
represent
elements not in
the set S. This
lends itself to
intuitive
visualizations;
for example, the
set of all
elements that
are members of
both sets S and
T, denoted S ∩
T and read "the
 intersection of S
and T", is
represented
visually by the
area of overlap
of the regions S
and T. In Venn
diagrams, the
curves are
overlapped in
every possible
way, showing all
possible
relations
between the
sets.

Exploratory data
analysis.
Replace a
correlation
matrix by a
diagram where
No axis the "remarkable"
Iconography of Solid line correlations are
correlations represented by
dotted line a solid line
color (positive
correlation), or a
dotted line
Iconography of correlations (negative
correlation).
Points can be
coded via color.

Other techniques
Cartogram
Cladogram (phylogeny)
Concept Mapping
Dendrogram (classification)
Information visualization reference model
Grand tour
Graph drawing
Heatmap
HyperbolicTree
Multidimensional scaling
Parallel coordinates
Problem solving environment
Treemapping

Interactivity
Interactive data visualization enables direct actions on a graphical plot to change elements and link between multiple
plots.[54]
Interactive data visualization has been a pursuit of statisticians since the late 1960s. Examples of the developments can be
found on the American Statistical Association video lending library.[55]

Common interactions include:

Brushing: works by using the mouse to control a paintbrush, directly changing the color or glyph of
elements of a plot. The paintbrush is sometimes a pointer and sometimes works by drawing an outline of
sorts around points; the outline is sometimes irregularly shaped, like a lasso. Brushing is most commonly
used when multiple plots are visible and some linking mechanism exists between the plots. There are
several different conceptual models for brushing and a number of common linking mechanisms. Brushing
scatterplots can be a transient operation in which points in the active plot only retain their new
characteristics. At the same time, they are enclosed or intersected by the brush, or it can be a persistent
operation, so that points retain their new appearance after the brush has been moved away. Transient
brushing is usually chosen for linked brushing, as we have just described.
Painting: Persistent brushing is useful when we want to group the points into clusters and then proceed to
use other operations, such as the tour, to compare the groups. It is becoming common terminology to call
the persistent operation painting,
Identification: which could also be called labeling or label brushing, is another plot manipulation that can
be linked. Bringing the cursor near a point or edge in a scatterplot, or a bar in a barchart, causes a label to
appear that identifies the plot element. It is widely available in many interactive graphics, and is sometimes
called mouseover.
Scaling: maps the data onto the window, and changes in the area of the. mapping function help us learn
different things from the same plot. Scaling is commonly used to zoom in on crowded regions of a
scatterplot, and it can also be used to change the aspect ratio of a plot, to reveal different features of the
data.
Linking: connects elements selected in one plot with elements in another plot. The simplest kind of linking,
one-to-one, where both plots show different projections of the same data, and a point in one plot
corresponds to exactly one point in the other. When using area plots, brushing any part of an area has the
same effect as brushing it all and is equivalent to selecting all cases in the corresponding category. Even
when some plot elements represent more than one case, the underlying linking rule still links one case in
one plot to the same case in other plots. Linking can also be by categorical variable, such as by a subject
id, so that all data values corresponding to that subject are highlighted, in all the visible plots.

Other perspectives
There are different approaches on the scope of data visualization. One common focus is on information presentation, such as
Friedman (2008). Friendly (2008) presumes two main parts of data visualization: statistical graphics, and thematic
cartography.[56] In this line the "Data Visualization: Modern Approaches" (2007) article gives an overview of seven subjects
of data visualization:[57]

Articles & resources

Displaying connections
Displaying data
Displaying news
Displaying websites
Mind maps
Tools and services

All these subjects are closely related to graphic design and information representation.

On the other hand, from a computer science perspective, Frits H. Post in 2002 categorized the field into sub-fields:[25][58]

Information visualization
Interaction techniques and architectures
Modelling techniques
Multiresolution methods
Visualization algorithms and techniques
Volume visualization
Within The Harvard Business Review, Scott Berinato developed a framework to approach data visualisation.[59] To start
thinking visually, users must consider two questions; 1) What you have and 2) what you're doing. The first step is
identifying what data you want visualised. It is data-driven like profit over the past ten years or a conceptual idea like how a
specific organisation is structured. Once this question is answered one can then focus on whether they are trying to
communicate information (declarative visualisation) or trying to figure something out (exploratory visualisation). Scott
Berinato combines these questions to give four types of visual communication that each have their own goals.[59]

These four types of visual communication are as follows;

idea illustration (conceptual & declarative).[59]

Used to teach, explain and/or simply concepts. For example, organisation charts and decision trees.
idea generation (conceptual & exploratory).[59]
Used to discover, innovate and solve problems. For example, a whiteboard after a brainstorming
session.
visual discovery (data-driven & exploratory).[59]
Used to spot trends and make sense of data. This type of visual is more common with large and
complex data where the dataset is somewhat unknown and the task is open-ended.
everyday data-visualisation (data-driven & declarative).[59]
The most common and simple type of visualisation used for affirming and setting context. For example,
a line graph of GDP over time.

Applications
Data and information visualization insights are being applied in areas such as:[18]

Scientific research
Digital libraries
Data mining
Information graphics
Financial data analysis
Health care[60]
Market studies
Manufacturing production control
Crime mapping
eGovernance and Policy Modeling

Organization
Notable academic and industry laboratories in the field are:

Adobe Research
IBM Research
Google Research
Microsoft Research
Panopticon Software
Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute
Tableau Software
University of Maryland Human-Computer Interaction Lab
Vvi

Conferences in this field, ranked by significance in data visualization research,[61] are:

 IEEE Visualization: An annual international conference on scientific visualization, information visualization,
and visual analytics. Conference is held in October.
ACM SIGGRAPH: An annual international conference on computer graphics, convened by the ACM
SIGGRAPH organization. Conference dates vary.
EuroVis: An annual Europe-wide conference on data visualization, organized by the Eurographics Working
Group on Data Visualization and supported by the IEEE Visualization and Graphics Technical Committee
(IEEE VGTC). Conference is usually held in June.
Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI): An annual international conference on
human–computer interaction, hosted by ACM SIGCHI. Conference is usually held in April or May.
Eurographics: An annual Europe-wide computer graphics conference, held by the European Association for
Computer Graphics. Conference is usually held in April or May.
PacificVis: An annual visualization symposium held in the Asia-Pacific region, sponsored by the IEEE
Visualization and Graphics Technical Committee (IEEE VGTC). Conference is usually held in March or
April.

For further examples, see: Category:Computer graphics organizations

Data presentation architecture

Data presentation architecture (DPA) is a skill-set that seeks to identify, locate,
manipulate, format and present data in such a way as to optimally communicate
meaning and proper knowledge.

Historically, the term data presentation architecture is attributed to Kelly Lautt:[a]

"Data Presentation Architecture (DPA) is a rarely applied skill set critical for the
success and value of Business Intelligence. Data presentation architecture weds the
science of numbers, data and statistics in discovering valuable information from data
and making it usable, relevant and actionable with the arts of data visualization,
communications, organizational psychology and change management in order to
provide business intelligence solutions with the data scope, delivery timing, format
and visualizations that will most effectively support and drive operational, tactical
and strategic behaviour toward understood business (or organizational) goals. DPA A data visualization from social
media
is neither an IT nor a business skill set but exists as a separate field of expertise.
Often confused with data visualization, data presentation architecture is a much
broader skill set that includes determining what data on what schedule and in what
exact format is to be presented, not just the best way to present data that has already been chosen. Data visualization skills
are one element of DPA."

Objectives

DPA has two main objectives:

To use data to provide knowledge in the most efficient manner possible (minimize noise, complexity, and
unnecessary data or detail given each audience's needs and roles)
To use data to provide knowledge in the most effective manner possible (provide relevant, timely and
complete data to each audience member in a clear and understandable manner that conveys important
meaning, is actionable and can affect understanding, behavior and decisions)

Scope

With the above objectives in mind, the actual work of data presentation architecture consists of:

Creating effective delivery mechanisms for each audience member depending on their role, tasks, locations
and access to technology
Defining important meaning (relevant knowledge) that is needed by each audience member in each context
Determining the required periodicity of data updates (the currency of the data)
Determining the right timing for data presentation (when and how often the user needs to see the data)
 Finding the right data (subject area, historical reach, breadth, level of detail, etc.)
Utilizing appropriate analysis, grouping, visualization, and other presentation formats

Related fields

DPA work shares commonalities with several other fields, including:

Business analysis in determining business goals, collecting requirements, mapping processes.

Business process improvement in that its goal is to improve and streamline actions and decisions in
furtherance of business goals
Data visualization in that it uses well-established theories of visualization to add or highlight meaning or
importance in data presentation.
Digital humanities explores more nuanced ways of visualising complex data.
Information architecture, but information architecture's focus is on unstructured data and therefore excludes
both analysis (in the statistical/data sense) and direct transformation of the actual content (data, for DPA)
into new entities and combinations.
HCI and interaction design, since many of the principles in how to design interactive data visualisation
have been developed cross-disciplinary with HCI.
Visual journalism and data-driven journalism or data journalism: Visual journalism is concerned with all
types of graphic facilitation of the telling of news stories, and data-driven and data journalism are not
necessarily told with data visualisation. Nevertheless, the field of journalism is at the forefront in developing
new data visualisations to communicate data.
Graphic design, conveying information through styling, typography, position, and other aesthetic concerns.

See also
Analytics imc FAMOS (1987), graphical data analysis
Big data Infographics
Climate change art Information design
Color coding in data visualization Information management
Computational visualistics List of information graphics software
Information art List of countries by economic complexity, example
Data management of Treemapping
Data Presentation Architecture Patent visualisation
Data profiling Software visualization
Data warehouse Statistical analysis
Geovisualization Visual analytics
Grand Tour (data visualisation) Warming stripes

Notes
a. The first formal, recorded, public usages of the term data presentation architecture were at the three formal
Microsoft Office 2007 Launch events in Dec, Jan and Feb of 2007–08 in Edmonton, Calgary and
Vancouver (Canada) in a presentation by Kelly Lautt describing a business intelligence system designed to
improve service quality in a pulp and paper company. The term was further used and recorded in public
usage on December 16, 2009 in a Microsoft Canada presentation on the value of merging Business
Intelligence with corporate collaboration processes.

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Further reading
Cleveland, William S. (1993). Visualizing Data (https://archive.org/details/visualizingdata00will). Hobart
Press. ISBN 0-9634884-0-6.
Evergreen, Stephanie (2016). Effective Data Visualization: The Right Chart for the Right Data. Sage.
ISBN 978-1-5063-0305-5.
Healy, Kieran (2019). Data Visualization: A Practical Introduction. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
ISBN 978-0-691-18161-5.
Post, Frits H.; Nielson, Gregory M.; Bonneau, Georges-Pierre (2003). Data Visualization: The State of the
Art. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-1-4613-5430-7.
Wilke, Claus O. (2018). Fundamentals of Data Visualization (https://serialmentor.com/dataviz/). O'Reilly.
ISBN 978-1-4920-3108-6.
Wilkinson, Leland (2012). Grammar of Graphics. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-1-4419-2033-1.
Ben Bederson and Ben Shneiderman (2003). The Craft of Information Visualization: Readings and
Reflections (https://books.google.com/books?id=TrZZQ5I76BcC&psp=1&cad=0). Morgan Kaufmann.
Stuart K. Card, Jock D. Mackinlay and Ben Shneiderman (1999). Readings in Information Visualization:
Using Vision to Think (https://books.google.com/books?id=wdh2gqWfQmgC&psp=1&cad=0), Morgan
Kaufmann Publishers.
Jeffrey Heer, Stuart K. Card, James Landay (2005). "Prefuse: a toolkit for interactive information
visualization" (http://bid.berkeley.edu/files/papers/2005-prefuse-CHI.pdf). In: ACM Human Factors in
Computing Systems CHI 2005.
 Andreas Kerren, John T. Stasko, Jean-Daniel Fekete, and Chris North (2008). Information Visualization –
Human-Centered Issues and Perspectives (https://www.springer.com/computer/user+interfaces/book/978-3
-540-70955-8). Volume 4950 of LNCS State-of-the-Art Survey, Springer.
Riccardo Mazza (2009). Introduction to Information Visualization (https://www.amazon.com/Introduction-Info
rmation-Visualization-Riccardo-Mazza/dp/1848002181), Springer.
Spence, Robert Information Visualization: Design for Interaction (2nd Edition), Prentice Hall, 2007, ISBN 0-
13-206550-9.
Colin Ware (2000). Information Visualization: Perception for design (https://www.amazon.com/dp/38350601
55). San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann.
Kawa Nazemi (2014). Adaptive Semantics Visualization (https://diglib.eg.org/handle/10.2312/12076)
Eurographics Association.

External links
Milestones in the History of Thematic Cartography, Statistical Graphics, and Data Visualization (http://www.
math.yorku.ca/SCS/Gallery/), An illustrated chronology of innovations by Michael Friendly and Daniel J.
Denis.
Duke University-Christa Kelleher Presentation-Communicating through infographics-visualizing scientific &
engineering information-March 6, 2015 (http://compsci.capture.duke.edu/Panopto/Pages/Viewer.aspx?id=e
e45ebd7-da62-4d27-8d16-5647aa167946)

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