REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

CITY GOVERNMENT OF ZAMBOANGA

COLEGIO DE LA CIUDAD DE ZAMBOANGA

Agricultural Crops Production

(ACP NC II)
Self-Learning Module 1
OMAR P. DELA MERCED
Instructor
COURSE DESCRIPTION:
This course consists of competencies that a student must achieve to produce various
agricultural crops which include performing nursery operations, planting, caring and
maintaining of crops and carrying-out harvest and postharvest operations, and a broad
overview of the principles of soil fertility, plant nutrition, and nutrient management in
crop production.

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the course the students will be able to:
1. perform nursery operations for agricultural crops including establishing nursery
shed, preparation and handling of planting materials, preparation of growing
media, transplanting germinated seedlings and handling of nursery tools and
equipment;
2. conduct activities related to land preparation and planting of agricultural crops;
3. understand different functions during forage area preparation, planting and
maintenance activities of forage area, production of silage and completion of
work;
4. apply harvest and postharvest operations of major agricultural crops including
maintaining quality of produce for distribution; and
5. understand the principles and practices of nutrient management for crop
production.

COURSE OUTLINE:

1. Performing Nursery Operations

2. Care and Maintaining Crops
3. Planting Crops
4. Carrying-out Harvest and Post- Harvest Operations
5. Soil and Fertility Management

EVALUATION

To pass the course, you must:

1. Read all course readings and answer all the formative questions given after every
lesson.
2. Answer the print-based formative questions
3. Submit 5 answer sheets for formative examinations and 1 summative examination for
midterm on ___________.

Evaluative Assessment Activities

A. Summative Examination and Formative Examinations

Instruction: The 5 formative examinations and 1 summative examinations which are

embedded in your module must be answered. You can reach me via 09270483455
(cellular phone) and message me thru messenger @ Omar Perez Dela Merced, if you
need help or assistance for purposes of further validation and verification.

B. Actual Demonstration, Return Demonstration and Project Making

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Instruction: There will be 4 actual demonstration as scheduled to comprise the whole
course to pass the course. In certain lesson where return demonstration is not
applicable a project will be given.The evaluation tools to these projects is as follows:

Rubric for the Project Making

Content - 15
Appropriateness - 15
Workability - 20
50 pts.

GRADING SYSTEM

NO. CRITERIA PERCENTAGE (%)

1 Submission of Formative and Summative Test 40
2 Performance (Return Demonstration and 60
Project)
100%
Total

A. PERFORMING NURSERY OPERATIONS

I. Prepare nursery tools, farm implements, and simple equipment

Farm tools and equipment play a very important role in every farm practice and
operation. Hence, as a learner you should be able to know, identify, and learn their
uses to become a successful farmer someday.

Hand Tools - are the simplest tools since they are used with your bare hands in
performing farm operation and practices in a small farm or vegetable garden in the
backyard or in school

Farm Implements - These are accessories which are pulled by working animals or
mounted machineries (hand tractor, tractor) and which are usually used in the
preparation of land. These are usually made of a special kind of metal.

Hand Tools

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B. Farm Implements

C. Farm Machinery

II. Maintain nursery facilities

The importance of the best quality planting material as an initial investment is a well
realized factor for persons engaged in Agriculturefield. So nurseries have great demand
for the production of plants, bulbs, rhizomes, suckers & grafts. But in general good
quality & assured planting material at reasonable price is not available. So persons
having a skill of propagation of plants can go for this avenue as an agro-business of
future.

Definition of nursery
Nursery is a place where planting material, such as seedlings, saplings, cuttings, etc., are
raised, propagated and multiplied under favourable conditions for transplanting in
prepared beds.

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Management of nursery
Nursery plants require due care and attention after having either emerged from the
seeds or have been raised from other sources like rootstock or through tissue culture
technique. Generally they are grown in the open field under the protection of mother
nature where, they should be able to face the local environment. It is the duty & main
objective of a commercial nursery grower to supply the nursery plants with suitable
conditions necessary for their development & growth. This is the major work of
management in the nursery which includes all such operations right from the emergence
of young plantlet till they are fully grown-up or are ready for uprooting &
transplanting in the main fields.
1. Potting the seedling
Before planting of sapling in the pots, the pots should be filled up with proper potting
mixture. Now a days different size of earthen pots or plastic containers are used for
propagation. For filling of pots loamy soil, sand and compost can be used in 1:1:1
proportion. Sprouted cuttings, bulbs, corms or polythene bag grown plants can be
transferred in earthen pots for further growth. All the necessary precautions are taken
before filling the pots and planting of sapling in it.
2. Manuring & Irrigation
Generally sufficient quantity of nutrients is not available in the soil used for seedbed.
Hence, well rotten F.Y.M / compost and leaf mould is added to soil. Rooted cuttings,
layers or grafted plants till they are transferred to the permanent location, require
fertilizers. Addition of fertilizers will give healthy & vigorous plants with good root &
shoot system. It is recommended that each nursery bed of 10 X 10m area should be
given 300 gm of ammonium sulphate, 500 gm of Single super phosphate and 100 gm
of Muriate of potash. Irrigation either in the nursery beds or watering the pots is an
important operation. For potted plants hand watering is done & for beds low pressure
irrigation by hose pipe is usually given. Heavy irrigation should be avoided.
3. Plant protection measures
Adoption of plant protection measures, well in advance and in a planned manner is
necessary for the efficient raising of nursery plants. For better protection from pest and
diseases regular observation is essential. Disease control in seedbed:- The major disease
of nursery stage plant is ―damping off‖. For its control good sanitation conditions are
necessary. Preventive measures like treatment with 50% ethyl alcohol, 0.2% calcium
hypo chloride and 0.01% mercury chloride is done. These treatments are given for 5 to
30 minutes. Some of the seed treatment are as follows:
i) Disinfection – The infection within the seed is eliminated by use of
formaldehyde, hot water or mercuric chloride.
ii) Hot water treatment – Dry seeds are placed in hot water having a
temperature of 480C – 550C for 10-30 minutes.
iii) Protection – In dry seed treatment organo mercuric and non-mercuric
compounds like agallal, aretan –6, and tafasan-6. For this the seeds are
shaken within the seed container. While in wet method, the seeds are
immersed for certain period in liquid suspension.
iv) Soil treatment – Soil contains harmful fungi, bacteria, nematodes and even
weeds seeds, which affect the growth and further development of plant.
These can be eliminated by heat, chemical treatment. For that soil is
disinfected by heating to the temperature of about 600C for 30 minutes.
v) Chemical treatment – the chemicals like formaldehyde, methyl bromide,
chloropicrin, vapam are used. Other diseases like rust, powdery mildew, leaf
spot, bacterial blight, yellow vein mosaic are also observed. For control of
these diseases Bordeaux mixture, Carbendazime, Redomil can be used.
Tricodermaviridi a bio-fungicide can also be tried out.
4. Weed control
Weeds compete with plants for food, space and other essentials. So timely control of
weeds is necessary. For weed control weeding, use of cover crops, mulching, use of
chemicals (weedicides) are practiced. Pre-emergence weedicides like Basaline or post-
emergence weedicide like 2; 4-D and Roundup are useful.
5. Measures against heat and cold
The younger seedling is susceptible to strong sun and low temperature. For protection
from strong sun, shading with the help of timber framework of 1 meter height may be
used. Net house and green house structures can also be used.

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 6. Packing of nursery plants
Packing is the method or way in which the young plants are tied or kept together till
they are transplanted. So they have to be packed in such a way that they do not lose
their turgidity and are able to establish themselves on the new site. At the same time,
good packing ensures their success on transplanting. For packing baskets, wooden
boxes, plastic bags are used. In some parts of the country banana leaves are also used
for packing the plants with their earth ball. This is useful for local transportation.

III. Handle seeds/planting materials

The high level of crop productivity can be achieved through availability of good
varieties and quality of planting materials. Great advances in agricultural research
produced superior variety that are more efficient and productive.

Common Types of planting materials:

1. Seed: Seed defines as the ripened ovule as a

result of fertilization and capable of
germination to produce a new plant.
 Example: all grain crops; forage
grasses and legumes; grain legumes;
fiber crops

2. Vegetative materials:
a. Stem cuttings – propagation involving
regeneration of structural parts in
detached vegetative stem parts under
favorable conditions. Example:
sugarcane, sweet potato, cassava, forage
grasses.

b. Tubers – refers to a swollen portion of

an underground stem that store food
that sometimes has an axillary bud
known as ―eye‖ form over the surface
of the tuber and produce shoots that
grow into a new plant. Example: White
potato

c. Bulbs – bulb contain several buds near

the node that eventually develop into
new plant. Example: Onion, garlic

d. Corms – underground enlarge bulb-like

stem that can propagated by digging
out from the ground and cutting it into

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 individual section and replanting. Example: Gabi, Banana

e. Rhizomes – root-like stems that grow

horizontally under the ground. New
roots and shoots form at the nodes with
shoots growing upwards to form new
plantlets. Lateral buds grow out to form
new rhizomes. Examples: ramie, ginger.

Some Recommended Varieties of Vegetable

 Cassava: Sultan, Vassourinha; Lakan
 Sweet potato: Kinabakab; Tinipay; Cambel
 Mungbean: Pagasa 1, 3, 5, and 11; Taiwan green
 Peanut: Mekong; Biyaya 8, 10, and 12
 Soybeans: Tiwala 4, 6, 8, and 10
 White potato: Banahaw; Akra; Siro; kennebec; Conchita; Cosima.
 Tomato: Marikit; Marilag; Maigaya; and Imrpoved Pope
 Eggplant: Dumaguete long purple; Dingras Multiple Purple; and Long
Purple.
 Onion: Red Globe; Yellow Granex
 Cucumber: Pilipina; Pilmaria; Pinagpala; Explorer; and Panorama
 Garlic: Illocos Purple Shank; Illocos White Shank; Batangas Strain Some
Recommended Varieties of Fruit Crop
 Banana: Lakatan; Latundan; Saba; Señorita; Cavendish, Grand Naine,
Umalag
 Pineapple: Smooth cayenne; Queen, Red Spanish
 Mango: Carabao; Piko; Katchamita
 Papaya: Cavity Special, Solo Sunrise Strain; Solo Line 8 Strain
 Mandarin: Szinkom; Ladu; Ponkan; Batangas; King
 Pummelo: Amoy; sunwuiluk; Siamese; Magallanes
 Sweet orange: Hamlin; Pineapple; Valencia; Perante
 Chico: Native; Ponderosa; Pineras; Gonzales
 Pili: Katutubo; Oas; Mayon
 Lanzones: Paete, Duku
 Rambutan: Seenjonja; Seematjan; Majarlika; Rongrean
 Santol: Native; Tab tim; Kan taong
 Durian: Chanee; Umali; Montong
 Cashew: Makiling; Guevara; Nagbayto
 Avocado: CalmaLopena
 Coconut: Javanica (Tambulilib, Bilaka, Marinduque, Green dwarf); Typica
(Laguna, San Ramon, Baybay, etc.); Nana (Coconiño, mangipod);
Hybrids (Catlag, Mawa)
 Coffee: Robusta, Arabica; Excelsa, Liberica
 Cacao: Amelonado; Trinitario; Forastero
 Abaca: Tangon; Tinawaganputi; Tinawagan pula; Lausigon, Linawaan;
and Bongolanon.

Some Recommended Varieties of Fruit Crop

 Banana: Lakatan; Latundan; Saba; Señorita; Cavendish, Grand Naine,
Umalag
 Pineapple: Smooth cayenne; Queen, Red Spanish
 Mango: Carabao; Piko; Katchamita
 Papaya: Cavity Special, Solo Sunrise Strain; Solo Line 8 Strain
 Mandarin: Szinkom; Ladu; Ponkan; Batangas; King
 Pummelo: Amoy; sunwuiluk; Siamese; Magallanes
 Sweet orange: Hamlin; Pineapple; Valencia; Perante
 Chico: Native; Ponderosa; Pineras; Gonzales
 Pili: Katutubo; Oas; Mayon
 Lanzones: Paete, Duku
 Rambutan: Seenjonja; Seematjan; Majarlika; Rongrean

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  Santol: Native; Tab tim; Kan taong
 Durian: Chanee; Umali; Montong
 Cashew: Makiling; Guevara; Nagbayto
 Avocado: CalmaLopena
 Coconut: Javanica (Tambulilib, Bilaka, Marinduque, Green dwarf); Typica
(Laguna, San Ramon, Baybay, etc.); Nana (Coconiño, mangipod);
Hybrids (Catlag, Mawa)
 Coffee: Robusta, Arabica; Excelsa, Liberica
 Cacao: Amelonado; Trinitario; Forastero
 Abaca: Tangon; Tinawaganputi; Tinawagan pula; Lausigon, Linawaan;
and Bongolanon

Seed testing

Germination test
A germination test determines the percentage of seeds that are alive in any
seed lot. The level of germination in association with seed vigor provides a very good
estimate of the potential field performance. While the speed of germination varies
slightly across varieties, seeds should absorb moisture within two days and produce a
root and the first leaf within four days. At this point, the seed is considered to have
germinated. A germination test is often the only test a farmer can conduct on the seed
to determine if it is suitable for planting. When seed is stored in traditional open
systems, the germination rate of most rice seed begins to deteriorate rapidly after six
months. Also, many varieties have a dormancy period immediately after harvest that
can last for 1−2 months. By knowing the germination rate, farmers can adjust their
planting rates to attain the desired plant population in the field.
A germination test is often the only test a farmer can conduct on the seed to
determine if it is suitable for planting. This is usually done to determine the viability of
seeds. Conducting germination test before planting will save labor and input cost. It
gives the farmer an idea as to how many seeds he will need for a certain area.
Calculating the germination rate Germination rate is the average number of
seeds that germinate over the 5- and 10- day periods.
Percentage germination is calculated as:

Example 1. Farmer Shaheed tested 150 corn seeds using seedbox method a
week before. Four days later he found out that there are only 132 normal seedlings
germinated. What is the % germination?
Solution:

Example 2. If farmer Shaheed proposed to plant 1000 corn-plants and the

germination percentage is 85%, how many seeds his going to plant?
Solutions:

IV. Preparation of the growing media

Selections of growing media is important it provides essential nutrients for

growth and development of crops and serves as anchorage to plants.
The following are some criteria for selecting media: Source: Poonam Kumari et
al.

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 1. Dense and firm enough to hold root system intact
2. Enough nutrients in reserve
3. Should have neutral pH (5.6 to 6.5)
4. Should not shrink or expand easily
5. Good drainage, porosity, aeration and organic matter
6. Free from pathogens, pests and weeds etc.

Some components of Growing Media

a. Garden soil – composed of topsoil and some organic matter so its nutritious to
plants.
b. Peat moss – fibrous material and other living material decompose in peat bogs
also called as peat soil.
c. Saw dust – composed of fine particles of wood or waste product of
woodworking such as sawing, milling, routing, drilling and sanding.
d. Coco coir dust - by product of coconut husk also known as cocopeat, consists
of short spongy fibers and dust.
e. Rice hull/carbonized rice hull – refers to partial burning of rice hull that is
porous bulky and with uniform intact black particles that contains P,K,Ca, and
micronutrients vital to growing crops.
f. Compost - a mix of decaying nutrient-rich soil with medium density that is
naturally made using oxygen, bacteria, water, and organic materials.
g. Fine river sand
h. Animal manure
i. Fern slabs
j. Drift wood
k. Vermicompost

Methods of Soil Sterilization

1. Burning organic materials on the soil

 A common method of soil sterilization is
heating up the soil. The high temperature
will cause the death of many
microorganisms, including pathogens on
the top of the soil and insect pests with
soil-dwelling stages such as cut worms.

2. Pouring boiling water into the soil

3. Solarization
 Solarization, as a method of soil
sterilization, uses the sun to heat the soil.
Solarization can control soil-borne diseases, weed
seeds and some nematodes including root knot
nematodes.
 To solarize soil, the soil is covered
with clear polyethylene or plastic sheets. The best
time is during the hot season, when there is
plenty of sun. The sun heats up the soil through the plastic and the plastic
sheet keeps the heat inside the soil. The sheets should be left in the field
for 4 weeks.
4. Hot plate sterilization
 Unlike in the first method, the soil does not come in direct contact with
the fire and thus is exposed to lower temperature. The soil mix is
moistened, so that the steam generated by the heated soil serves as the
sterilant in addition to the effect of the hot plate itself. During
sterilization, the soil is constantly stirred to ensure even heating.
Sterilization is completed when the soil has dried up.

5. Biofumigation

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  Soil-borne pests and pathogens can be
suppressed by chemical compounds that
are released during decomposition of
certain crops this is called biofumigation.
The chemical compounds that kill or
suppress pathogens are principally
isothiocyanates. Those crops with
biofumigation potentials are used as
rotation crop, a companion or a green manure crop.
6. Chemical treatment
 Treat the soil with chemicals like Formaldehyde, 1 tablespoon per 1 gallon
of water. However, the use of chemicals is not environmentally friendly
because chemicals may kill not only destructive micro-organisms but also
the beneficial ones. They are also hazardous to health when inhaled.

V. Asexual Propagation by Layering

What is propagation by air layering?

Layering is a propagation method by which

adventitious roots are caused to form on a stem while
it is still attached to the parent plant. The rooted or
layered stem is then detached to become a new plant
growing on its own roots.

Advantages of layering

 Clones that are not root easily can be propagated through layering
 Layering are simply to be performed and can be practiced anytime
When small number of plants are involved, layering can give a high
degree of success with somewhat less skill, and equipment than is
necessary with cuttings
 With those few kind of plants in which layering occurs naturally, it is a
simple and economical method of propagation.
 In some cases, a larger plant can be produced in a shorter time than if it
was started as a cutting

Disadvantage of Layering

 Layering is an expensive method of propagation since it requires

considerable hand labor and does not lend itself to the large-scale
technique of mechanization.
 A layered plant requires certain amount of individual attention,
depending upon the particular methods in use, even though the
operation involved are in themselves simple.
 The number of salable plants from a given number of stock plants is
smaller than when cuttings, buds, or scions are taken.
 Layering methods tend to be cumbersome, and the stock plants take up a
considerable area that is difficult to cultivate and maintain free of weeds.

Methods of Layering

Mound layering – the layer is bent to the ground at one

joint or internode and then covered with earth. To keep
the layers in position, they may be held with a hook
driven to the ground.

Simple layering –branches or long shoots near the base of

the plant are bent towards the ground, covering the stem

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portion where roots are desired with soil or other planting media but exposing the
terminal.

Serpentine layering –This is the same as the simple layering except that the branch is
alternately covered and exposed along its length. The stem is girdled or injured at the
lower part and covered in the same manner as in simple layering.

Steps in Marcotting/Layering:

1. Select healthy tree which you want to propagate.

2. Choose the branch you want to marcot and pull it
gently.
3. Use sharp knife to encircle the diameter of the branch
about 1-2 inches and start scraping the cambium layer.
4. Put certain amount of moist soil and cover it with
plastic sheet.
5. Cut off the marcot when it has developed sufficient
roots.
6. Trim some of the big leaves and plant them in a
container big enough to provide sufficient room for
root development.
7. Place the potted marcot in a cool shady place to
hasten its recovery.

VI. Asexual Propagation by Grafting

What is propagation by grafting?

Grafting is the art of jointing vegetative parts

of the plants in order to continue their growth as
one plant possessing superior qualities. The upper
portion of the grafted seedling is termed as Scion
while the lower portion is called the rootstock. But
when the scion part is only a small piece of bark
containing a single bud, the operation is termed as
budding.

The following are reasons for Grafting and Budding:

 To perpetuate clone that cannot be readily reproduced by cutting,

layering, division or other asexual methods.
 Obtaining the benefit of certain rootstocks.
 Changing cultivar of established plants. (Topworking)
 Hastening the growth of seedling selections Obtaining special form of
plant growth
 Repairing damage part of tree

Basic Requirements for Successful Grafting

 Graft closely related plants because usually they are compatible.

 Choose disease-free scion and actively growing root stock.
 Use sharp grafting/budding knife in preparing the scion and the rootstock.
Sharp knife makes a smooth cut which affords better cambial contact.

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  Make sure that the cambium layer of the scion is directly in contact with
the cambium of the rootstock before binding them together.
 In wrapping the graft, make sure there is enough pressure that could hold
them together until they are permanently united.
 In cleft, saddle, splice, and whip grafting, it is desirable to use scions and
root stocks of the same size and preferably of the same vigor.

Types of Grafting

Approach grafting or inarching

the selected shoots of the desirable plant are grafted with the stem of the stocks grown
in individual containers while the scions are still connected with the mother plant.

Graft-inarching or topworking

established plants or trees are used as stocks, and scions to be grafted are asexually
propagated plants that are growing in individual containers. Usually the stock is cut
into a certain height from where branching begins, leaving a stump where scions could
be attached.

Splice grafting

In this method, the detached scion used is leafless, usually with terminal bud or
welldevelop dormant bud. The stocks are usually a seedling.

Cleft grafting

a detached scion is directly grafted on top of the stock as in splice grafting, except that
the types of cuts used vary. The basal end of the scion is cut into a long, gradually
tapering perfect wedges.

In mango, 2-6 week old seedlings have been successfully used as stocks. The term
applied to this technique is either epicotyl grafting, stone grafting, or nurse-seed
grafting.

Side grafting

the basal portion of a detached scion is joined at the side of the trunk of the stock. This
is usually used when the diameter of the stock is much bigger that of the scion.

Bark grafting

this method is especially useful in grafting a

detached scion on a stumped stock whose stem
is much larger than that of the scion. In the bark
grafting, one or more scion can be inserted in
one stock depending in the size of the trunk.

Cleft grafting procedures

1. Collect shoots or scions from a mother

plant possess superior quality. - Collect
scion early in the morning while
temperatures are cool and the plants are
still fully turgid. The scion must have
more and mature.
2. Remove all the leaves of the scion using
grafting knife.

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3. Select a rootstock or a seedling with the same diameter as the scion.
4. Cut the rootstock or a seedling with the same diameter as the scion.
5. Cut the base of the scion to a short wedge and split the rootstock and insert the
scion into the cleft of the stock.
6. Tie the union and entire scion with a strip of polyethylene plastic. Scion
Rootstock Note: Water the grafted seedlings regularly. Once the shoots start to
develop remove the plastic strips to allow shoots to grow. Shoots that develop
below the graft should be removed. as soon as new shoots start to develop from
the scion.

VII. Asexual Propagation by Cutting

What is propagation by cuttings?

Propagation by cutting – it is the methods of propagation involving regeneration of

structural parts in detached vegetative parts under favorable environmental
conditions. A cutting is the detached portion of a selected mother plant intended to
be multiplied.

Forms of cuttings.

1. Stem Cutting. Knowledge of an internal

structure of the stem is necessary in order to
understand the origin of adventitious roots of
the crops. This is the most important type of
cutting. They can be divided into four groups
according to the nature of the wood used in
making the cuttings: (a) hardwood, (b) semi-
hardwood, (c) softwood, and (d) herbaceous.
In propagation by stem cutting, segments of
shoots containing lateral buds are obtained
with the expectation that under the proper
condition adventitious root will develop and
thus produce independent plants. e.g. cassava,
malunggay, coffee, rose
2. Leaf Cuttings. Many plant species including
both monocots and dicots can be started by
leaf cuttings. Although the origin of new
shoot and new roots in leaf cuttings is quite
varied, they can be generally group as
developing from primary roots or secondary
meristems. e.g. snake plant, begonia, African
violet
Note:
 Primary Meristems – are groups of cells that are directly descendants of
embryonic cells that have never ceased to be involved in meristematic
activity.
 Secondary meristems – are groups of cells that have differentiated and
functioned in some mature tissue system and then again resumed
meristematic activity.
 Leaf cutting with primary tissue. Example is Bryophyllum (e. g. Kalanchoe
pinnata) which has small plant arising from the notches around the leaf
margin.
 Leaf cutting with secondary meristems. In leaf cutting such as Begania rex,
Sedum, African violet (Saintpaulia), snake plant, Crassula and lily, new

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 plant may develop from secondary meristems arising from mature cells at
the base of the leaf blade or petiole.
3. Root Cuttings. In root cuttings production of adventitious shoots and, in many
cases, adventitious roots must take place. In young roots, such buds may arise in
the pericycle near the vascular cambium. In old roots buds may arise
exogenously in a callus-like growth from the phellogen; or they may appear in a
callus-like proliferation from ray tissue. Bud primordia may also develop from
wound callus tissue that proliferates from the cut ends or injured surface of the
roots. Ex. breadfruit, apple

Advantages of Propagation by Cutting

 Many new plants can be started in a limited space from a few stock plants.
 It is inexpensive, rapid, and simple, and does not require the special
technique necessary in grating or budding.
 There is no problem of compatibility with rootstocks or of poor graft union.

Greater uniformity is obtained by absence of the variation that sometimes appears

owing to the variable seedling rootstocks of grafted plant

Formative Questions
-------------------------------------- Please return this page to your teacher ------------------------------
Name: _______________________________ Date: ____________
Course: _______________________________ ACP (Lesson A)
Please answer the following questions base on your understanding from the above
lesson

1. What are the different hand tools, farm implements and equipments and its uses?
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2. What are the components of soil media?
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3. What is air layering?
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4. What are the different steps involved in performing air layering?
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5. What is propagation by cutting and its advantages?
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B. PLANTING CROPS

I- Land Preparation

What is Land Preparation?

Land preparation is a process of breaking and

pulverizing up the soil in order to improve the
physical condition of the soil suitable for crop
production.

Importance of land preparation

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 Timeliness and quality of land preparation may influence the growth and yield of
crops.  Untimely and poor quality of land preparation may result to:
1. Uneven growth of the crops causing difference in development and stage of
maturity from one part of the field to another.
2. Weed, insects and other parts are likely to be worse and
3. If organic matter is not well decomposed at the time of planting, the seedlings
are likely to suffer from toxic substances given off during decomposition process.
For these reasons, land preparation should be started at least 15 days before
planting or should be done one (1) month before planting to allow crop residues
to decompose.

Definition of terms
 Tillage –the practice of working the soil for the purpose of bringing about more
favorable conditions for plant growth.
 Plowing –the process of breaking the surface of the soil at exact depth.
 Harrowing –the process of breaking bigger soil clods into finer soil particles with
the used of harrow implements such as disc harrow, spike tooth wooden harrow
or bamboo harrow.
 Conventional tillage – tillage operation where primary and secondary tillage are
employed.
 Minimum/reduced/economy tillage – only the necessary tillage operation is
employed
 Clearing –with the use of mower, grass cutter, sharp bolos or any tools that will
serve the purpose.
 Plowing – mold board plow, disc plow, and rotavator.
 Harrowing – disc harrow, spike-tooth, spring tooth.
 Sub-soiling – sub-soil

Tillage operations

1. Plowing – is the first step in the

preparation of the seed bed. This
should be done when the soil is moist.
If the soil is too dry when plowed, it is
likely to break cloddy and the amount
of pulverization will be reduced. If the
soil is too wet when plowed, it is likely
to be greatly damaged by the puddling
or breaking down of soil granules. The
depths of plowing vary with the kind
of crops to be planted, the time of
plowing and the kind of soil.
2. Harrowing – is usually done at 7-10 days interval after plowing.
3. Sub-soiling – is done to break the hard pan or compacted soil to facilitate
downward movement of water. This should be done only when the soil is
relatively dry to cause shattering or cracking of the land.
4. Furrowing – some upland crops necessitates planting in rows or furrows to
facilitate the succeeding tillage operation and weed control.
5. Off-barring – is a method of cultivation in which the soil is turned away from
the base of the plant. For corn, this is usually done two weeks after planting to
control weeds.
6. Hilling-up – is a method of cultivation in
which the soil is turned towards the base
of the plant. This tillage operation is
usually done about one month after
sowing for corn. Under production
management system, where split
application of fertilizer is recommended,
the second dosage is applied as side-
dress before hilling up.

II- Collect Soils for Sampling

17
 What is soil analysis?

Soil sampling and soil analysis are important to determine the pH level of the soil
and the nutrients present in the soil. Results of the soil analysis will be the basis for
fertilizer application.

Steps on Proper Soil Sampling

1. Make a farm layout where to take the soil sample. Divide the area in terms of
cropping history, past lime and fertilizer treatments, slope, degree of erosion,
and soil texture and color.
2. Use soil auger to get the soil randomly in SWZ pattern. You may use shovel if
soil auger is not available. Collect at least 10 pits in each Sample area. The
number of spot soil samples depends on the size of the Sampling Area.
Procedures for soil sampling are the following:
a) Clear the grasses on the soil surface before digging the pith.
b) Use shovel to dig to a depth of 20-30 cm.
c) Slice 2 cm thick of soil from vertical side of the pit downward.
d) Place the soil (representing one spot soil sample) in a pail or any suitable
clean container.
e) If the subsoil sample is needed, take a bar of soil from the succeeding 20 to 30
cm soil depth. The subsoil and surface sample should be placed in separate
containers.
f) Cover the pit and move to another spot.
3. Pulverize the collected soil and mix it thoroughly. Remove the stones, fresh
leaves, and manure. Then air-dry the soil samples in the shaded area. Place the
composite soil sample (about ½ kg) in a clean plastic bag. The composite soil
sample is now ready for chemical analysis and may also be sent to a soil testing
laboratory.

III- Interpretation of field layout plan

Field Layout

Orchard establishment is a long-term investment and needs lot of planning and

expertise. This is the first things that a crop grower must do is to decide how he will lay
out the site.

Systems of Planting

The selection of a system for planting depends on the conditions and topography of
the orchard location, plant species to be planted and orchards management practices.

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1. The Square System
This system of planting is the most
common because it is the easiest and
simplest to lay- out, and it makes
operations easy by mechanical means. It is
done by setting a fruit tree seedling in each
corner of the square whatever the planting
distance may be.

To determine the number of seedlings to be planted

in a given area can be computed by using the
following formula:
Where:
Np = number of plants
A = Area
S2 = Square of planting distance

Example: 1 A three (3) hectare land is proposed

to be planted with papaya with a planting
distance of 4 meters by 4 meters (4mx4m).
How many seedlings of papaya are needed in 3
hectares?

2. Rectangular system
In this system, the plot is divided into
rectangles instead of squares and trees
are planted at the four corners of the
rectangle in straight rows running at
right angles.

To determine the number of seedlings to be planted in a given area can be

computed by using the following formula:
Where:
Np = number of plants
A = Area
Pd = planting distance (between rows & hills)

Example: 2 If you are task to transplant eggplant

seedlings in 1-hectare land. How many seedlings
of eggplant needed in 1-hectare with a planting
distance of 50cm between hills and 75cm
between rows

3. The Quincunx System

This system of planting makes use of
square with an additional or fifth plant at
the center called filler. Thus, a square
system can be made into quincunx by

19
 placing a tree at the middle of the square. As a result, the tree number in an unit
area becomes almost double the number in the square system. However, when
the trees grow bigger, the area will become crowded. Thus the removal of the
fifth tree is necessary.

To determine the number of seedlings to be planted in a given area can be

computed by using the following formula:
Np = number of plants
A = Area
S2 = Square of planting distance
L = length of the area
W = with of the area

Example: 3 A two (2) hectare land is to be

planted with mango seedlings with a planting
distance of 10 meters by 10 meters (10mx10m).
How many seedlings of mango are needed in 2
hectares?

4. The Hexagonal System

In this system of planting, trees are planted
equidistant to one another from every direction
to form an equilateral triangle. This arrangement
results in a greater number of trees per unit area
than the square system. However, it does not fit
itself well to the use of fillers. To determine the
number of seedlings to be planted in a given area
can be computed by using the following formula:
Where: Np = number of plants
A = Area
S2 = Square of planting distance

0.866 = Constant
Note: Same example for no.3, only
using hexagonal system.

5. The Contour or Terrace System

A special system may be developed
by the grower to meet conditions
particularly in the hillsides where
land is steep, the topography is
irregular, or the area is inclined. This
is called the contour system of
planting. Its main purpose is to
prevent or reduce soil erosion, and in
some instances, to conserve moisture
between the tree rows.

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 IV- Perform direct seeding
One method of planting rice is by direct seeding. In this lesson, we will focus first
on direct seeding rice with dry land preparation, then on direct seeding on wet
land.
How is direct seeding on dry land done?

In rainfed anddeepwater ecosystems, farmers often sow onto a dry soil surface
and then incorporated the seed either by ploughing or by harrowing. Avoid
incorporating the seed too deeply into clay soils or where surface sealing is a
problem. In some deepwater rice areas, the seed is not incorporated after
broadcasting. Germination occurs following rain or floods.

To get good plant establishment, the farmer should check the seed quality, soil
tilth, amount of seed, and expected availability of water.
The target number of plants to be established ranges from 100 to 150 plants per
square meter. Some plant rearrangement (transplanting) might be needed after
establishment to even up plant stands.

Dry direct seeding can be done by:

1. broadcasting
2. drilling
3. dibbling
Dry land direct seeding technique

How is direct seeding on wet land done?

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The method of wet direct seeding is often used in irrigated areas and can be done by:
1. broadcasting, or
2. drilling seeds into the mud with a drum seeder.

For both methods, you need to use pre-germinated seed

Wet land direct seeding techniques

There are 2 advantages to using direct seeding:

1. It requires less labor. You do not have to prepare a nursery, care for it, and pull the
seedlings.

2. Direct-seeded plants mature 7 to 10 days earlier than transplanted rice. They are not
subjected to stress like being pulled from the soil of the nursery and do not need to
reproduce fine rootlets.

However, it also has disadvantages:

1. In direct seeding, the seeds are exposed to birds, rats, and snails.

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2. There is greater crop-weed competition because rice plants and weeds are
of similar age.
3. Plants tend to lodge more because there is less root anchorage

4. More seeds are required:80 to 100 kilograms per hectare compared with
35 to 65 kilograms per hectare with transplanting.

Replanting

What is transplanting?

The other way of establishment is not by sowing seeds but by transplanting

seedlings that are grown in nurseries first.
Transplanting of rice seedlings into puddled fields is widely practiced in Asia,
primarily to better control weeds.
Transplanting requires less seed but much more labor, and the crop takes
longer to mature because of the transplanting shock.

How old do the seedlings need to be?

Before being transplanted, seedlings are grown for different lengths of time
in the nursery:

 Traditional varieties are transplanted 40 to 80 days after seeding;

 Improved varieties are transplanted within 20 days after seeding;
 Machine transplanted seedlings are transplanted 15 days after
establishment.
How to transplant manually (by hand)?

On loamy and clayey soils, transplanting is delayed for 1 to 3 days after the
final working because the soil is too weak to support the seedling.

In some sandy soils, transplanting is undertaken within hours of final

harrowing else the soil becomes too hard to manually implant the seedling.
In areas where there has been insufficient rain and the soil is hard,
transplanting may also be done in non-flooded soils by using a stick to make
a hole to implant the seedling.

Manual transplanting of seedlings is very labor intensive. Depending on the

soil, you might need 30 to 40 people a day to plant 1 hectare of rice!
Seedlings should be planted at 1.5 centimeters of depth.

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Manual transplanting is done either at random or in straight-
rows.

In the random method,

seedlings are transplanted
without a definite distance
or space between plants.

The straight-row method follows a uniform spacing between plants. The seedlings are
transplanted in straight rows.

With this method you will need planting guides to

have uniform spacing. Planting guides are made of
wire, twine, and wood. Set the planting guides in the
field before transplanting.
Make sure the roots and base of the seedlings are
inserted into the soil right under the loop or mark on
the planting wire.

The wooden marker is also used to transplant in straight rows. Mark the rows with a
wooden marker of desired width and with the teeth spaced at 20 or 25 cm.
Pull the marker straight along the length of the field and then pull it over the with to
make the lines cross. Plant the seedlings where the lines cross.

Formative Questions
-------------------------------------- Please return this page to your teacher ------------------------------
Name: _______________________________ Date: ____________
Course: _______________________________ ACP (Lesson B)
Please answer the following questions base on your understanding from the above
lesson

1. What is the importance of land preparation in crops production?

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2. What are the different steps in collecting soils for sampling?
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3. What isfiled lay- outing?
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4. What are the different planting system?
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5. What are the difference between direct seeding and replanting?
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25
C. CARE AND MAINTING CROPS
I- Methods of Pest Control

Growers want to control pests and diseases to get maximum production and prevent
crop loss. Prevention of pests and diseases before any damage is done is most desirable.

Four common methods of control of pests and diseases are biological, cultural,
chemical, and integrated control.

1. Biological control

This uses useful living organisms, such as predators or parasites, to control pests.

Predator insects feed on the pests and can control their numbers. There are some
parasites that live part of their life inside plant pests and finally kill them.

Biological control can occur naturally or growers can release predators and parasites
deliberately.

Here are examples of natural biological control.

Ladybirds prey on aphids. Spiders prey on most insects including pests. Birds prey on
grass grubs and other pest larvae. Thrushes feed on snails.

Scientists study pests, their life cycles and history.

Then they examine the natural predators or
parasites of the pest.

This type of research was used to find a

biological control for white butterfly.
It has been effectively controlled by its natural
predators.

Pteromalus and Apantales are both tiny wasps.

Apantales is a wasp that is only three
millimetres long. When it lays its eggs on the
white butterfly caterpillar, they hatch into
larvae and kill the caterpillar. The Pteromalus
wasp attacks the next part of the white
butterfly lifecycle, the pupa. When its eggs
hatch on the white butterfly pupa, its larvae
feed on and destroy the pupa. Neither of these
wasps occurs naturally. Scientists brought them in from overseas and bred them. They
were then released in areas where the white butterfly is a pest.

Advantages and disadvantages of biological control

Biological control methods do not involve chemicals, so they leave useful insects
unharmed. They only target the pest affected. Once established biological control is
cheap, cost-free and does not harm the environment.

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Biological control is costly to develop and manage. It takes time to work and usually
the pest populations are high before there are significant numbers of predators and
parasites.

1. Cultural control

Cultural control involves changing the environment to make it undesirable for pests
and diseases.

The main forms of culture control are:

 quarantine to prevent pests and diseases coming into the area

 crop rotation
 using resistant plant varieties
 good management and work practices.

2. Crop rotation

Some families of plants are infected by the same pests and diseases.

If similar crops are planted in the same soil year after year, it is possible that pests and
diseases will increase. Crop rotation is planned planting that makes sure the same crop
is not planted in the same place again and again. This reduces pest and disease build-up.
Rotating the crop breaks the life cycle of the organisms and prevents their numbers
building up.

For example, if cabbage, Brussels sprouts and cauliflower (all members of the brassica
family) are grown year after year the disease club root can develop. Club root attacks
the roots and plant growth is stunted.

Carrot rust fly builds up in the soil when carrots are grown in the same piece of land
repeatedly.

Crop rotation groups similar crops together:

 leaf crops such as cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, turnips

 root crops such as carrots, parsnips, beetroot, radish
 legumes and other plants such as beans, peas, green manures (including lupins
and oats), potatoes, celery, leeks.

These plants can then be used in a crop rotation as

shown in the graphic.

Crop rotation helps maintain balanced nutrient

levels in the soil.

Different crops have different nutrient needs.

When crops are changed from year to year,
nutrient shortages will be reduced.

Legumes supply nitrogen, which is needed in large

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amounts by leaf crops. Root crops need more phosphorus and less nitrogen than leaf
crops.

3. Chemical Control

Pesticides
Pesticides are used to control pests. These chemicals are also called insecticides.
Deciding which pesticide to use is determined by:
 the type of pest that needs controlling
 the type and value of the crop
 the presence of any beneficial insects.
There are three main types of pesticides: contact, stomach and systemic.

Contact poisons
These are sprayed onto the pests and are absorbed all over the body surface.
Pyrethrum is a contact poison used against caterpillars. Pyrethrum is a naturally
occurring chemical extracted from some plants in the daisy family. It is also available in
a synthetic form.

Stomach poisons
These are usually laid as bait. Slug and snail pellets are forms of stomach poison. These
are eaten (ingested) by animals and kill them.

Systemic poisons
These are sprayed onto the plant surface and absorbed in the plant tissues. Sucking pests
absorb the pesticide when they feed on the plant. They suck the pesticide up with the
sap.

Death by suffocation
Oils can be used to suffocate pests because they coat the pest with an airtight film of oil
that blocks their breathing holes. Sucking insects like scale can be controlled this way.
Oils are useful to get rid of pests overwintering on plants. Overwintering pests don't
move much. Oils sprayed on dormant plants with no leaves like apples reach and cover
the target pests easily.

How pesticides act on pests

Fungicides and bactericides

Protective fungicides and bactericides are chemicals that prevent fungal and bacterial
spores from germinating. They form a protective layer over the plant so that spores
landing on the surface of the plant cannot grow.
Fungicides and bactericides are best applied before the fungi and bacteria grow.
Compounds of metals such as copper and zinc are commonly used.
Some oils are used to protect plants from fungal and bacterial disease and act in a
similar way as protective fungicides and bactericides.

Controlling large pests

Large chewing pests like rabbits and possums can be controlled with poison baits or
traps.

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Calendar spraying
Calendar spraying is where the grower sprays at regular intervals and control of pests
and diseases is very effective. This method of control has become less popular because
it is costly, wasteful and can have harmful effects on the environment.

Summary of advantages and disadvantages of using chemicals

Advantages Disadvantages
 appearance of fruit  can leave toxic residues – chemicals damage
maintained the environment or remain in food, which
 usually cost-effective can cause consumer resistance
 quick-acting  can be expensive if calendar spraying is used
 increased yields –  useful insects may be killed, for example
important for economic pollinators such as bees often suffer during
reasons spraying
 required for access to some  pests can develop resistance with repeated
overseas markets use
 can harm the person applying them

II- Common Fertilizer in The Market

Nutrient Content of Fertilizers

Most of the inorganic fertilizer available in the market contains guaranteed

nutrients analysis printed on the bags or packages.
 Kinds of Fertilizers Organic Fertilizer any fertilizer product of plant and/or
animal origin that has undergone decomposition through biological, chemical
and or any other process as long as the original materials are no longer
recognizable, soil-like in texture and free from plant or animal pathogens. These
fertilizers are farm manures, compost, crop residues, and other farm wastes
which supply nutrients and improve soil physical conditions.
 Inorganic Fertilizer any fertilizer product whose properties are determined
primarily by its content of mineral mater or synthetic chemical compounds.
Inorganic fertilizers are artificially prepared or those that may be obtained from
the market.
Classification of Inorganic Fertilizer according to elements present:
 Single nutrient fertilizers – fertilizers that supply one primary nutrient, also
called straight fertilizers. Examples: urea (46-0-0), Ammonium sulfate (21-0-
0).
 Multinutrient fertilizers – fertilizers containing two or three primary nutrients,
also known as: complex, compound and mixed fertilizers. Examples:
Ammonium phosphate (16-20-0).
 Complete fertilizer – contains the 3 primary nutrients which are historically
known to be deficient in most soils. Example: Complete Fertilizer (14-14-14).

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III- Common Fertilizer in The Market

Nutrient Content of Fertilizers

Most of the inorganic fertilizer available in the market contains guaranteed

nutrients analysis printed on the bags or packages.
 Kinds of Fertilizers Organic Fertilizer any fertilizer product of plant and/or
animal origin that has undergone decomposition through biological, chemical
and or any other process as long as the original materials are no longer
recognizable, soil-like in texture and free from plant or animal pathogens. These
fertilizers are farm manures, compost, crop residues, and other farm wastes
which supply nutrients and improve soil physical conditions.
 Inorganic Fertilizer any fertilizer product whose properties are determined
primarily by its content of mineral mater or synthetic chemical compounds.
Inorganic fertilizers are artificially prepared or those that may be obtained from
the market.
Classification of Inorganic Fertilizer according to elements present:
 Single nutrient fertilizers – fertilizers that supply one primary nutrient, also
called straight fertilizers. Examples: urea (46-0-0), Ammonium sulfate (21-0-
0).
 Multinutrient fertilizers – fertilizers containing two or three primary nutrients,
also known as: complex, compound and mixed fertilizers. Examples:
Ammonium phosphate (16-20-0).
 Complete fertilizer – contains the 3 primary nutrients which are historically
known to be deficient in most soils. Example: Complete Fertilizer (14-14-14).

IV- Safety Precautions in Handling Fertilizer following OSHS

HANDLING OF FERTILIZERS DURING FIELD APPLICATION

Proper fertilization will result in higher yields and minimizes environmental
effects.

In addition to applying fertilizer to the crops, remember that many factors may
affect movement of the materials away from target sites these include:
1. Soil type
2. Timing/season
3. Rainfall and irrigation
4. Tall weeds or grass
5. Proper calibration
6. Root zone location
7. Formulation and composition of nutrients
A. Apply Materials to Target Sites
Place nutrients within drip-line bands along hedge row of trees. Avoid
placement in areas prone to off-site transport of nutrients, especially water furrows.
For young trees, fertilizer should be spread uniformly around the tree in an area
consistent with the highest root development. Be careful not to get fertilizer within
3 inches of the trunk to prevent salt burn to the tree.

30
 B. Split Applications Throughout Season Dividing the annual fertilizer requirement
into three or more applications can minimize leaching during the summer and
rainy season and help maintain the supply of nutrients over the long growing
season. Frequent fertilizations can be an efficient method of N and K
applications while minimizing leaching during excessive rainfall events. The
trade-off between production costs, fertilizer use efficiency, and resource
protection must be considerations for the number of split applications per year.
C. Fertigation Application of liquid fertilizer through irrigation systems (fertigation)
enables multiple applications of fertilizer with little additional cost. The added
advantage of fertigation is that nutrients are applied directly to the root zone.
Boom applications of liquid or suspension fertilizers also offer this advantage.
D. Fertilizer Applications for Young Trees Traditionally, young trees are applied
with soluble granular fertilizers 4 to 6 times per year to ensure a continuous
supply of nutrients to young trees. Such repetition demands a heavy investment
in energy, time, labor and machinery. Repetitive applications can also increase
soil compaction and contribute to the contamination of groundwater. Another
expense is the need for the fertilization of solated young trees replanted in
established groves. However, controlled or slow release fertilizer mixtures can
be applied less frequently than conventional soluable materials, typically once
per year.
Studies have shown that controlled release fertilizers applied at lower
rates result in growth comparable to that obtained with readily soluble
fertilizers. Fertigation and controlled release fertilization may reduce application
frequency and associated energy costs
Low rates of fertilizer are applied with frequency to ensure even
distribution within the limited root zone and to avoid root damage from excess
salt concentrations in localized areas. Although studies have shown that 2 to 3
applications of granular fertilizer are sufficient for adequate growth during the
first year of tree life, more frequent applications are recommended to ensure
optimum fertilization. Additional applications are used as insurance against
uneven fertilizer distribution with mechanical spreaders and when heavy rains
leach fertilizer away from the root zone.

Perform pruning

A properly pruned tree looks as natural as possible; the tree’s appearance reflects its
fundamental form and character. The pruner must maintain this structural integrity and
know a little tree biology and proper pruning principles.

Importance of Pruning

Pruning, in horticulture, the removal or reduction of parts of a plant, tree, or vine that
are not requisite to growth or production, are no longer visually pleasing, or are
injurious to the health or development of the plant. Pruning is common practice
in orchard and vineyard management for the improvement of flowering and fruiting.
In home gardening (e.g., rose culture), pruning enhances plant shape and flowering
potential; new growth emerges from the bud or buds immediately below the pruning
cut. The once-common practice of cutting off a branch so that its base is flush with the
limb is now recognized as inadvisable. Instead, the pruning cut should be made just
above the collar, or swelling—essentially a protective callus—that surrounds the base of
the branch. Ragged bark at the edge of the wound should be carefully trimmed. The
application of pruning paint, or dressing, also a once-common practice, is unnecessary,
but thin coasts may be applied for cosmetic reasons. Incorrect pruning can cause flower
and fruit loss and leave the plant weak and vulnerable to disease or insect damage.

Tree pruning priorities

1. Maintain the health of the tree
a. remove all dead, dying, and diseased limbs
b. remove crossovers, which can rub together and damage limbs and harbor
disease
c. remove hazardous branches before they fall
d. correct and repair damage.

31
 2. Raise the canopy to increase pedestrian, vehicular or visual zone.
3. Rejuvenate the tree by the removal of old wood in such a way that encourages
the formation of new wood (remove no more than 1/3 of the wood in one
year).
4. Improve the aesthetic quality of the tree and, thus, its value.
5. Slow the tree’s growth by timely removal of foliage (but best to select the right
plant for the site).
6. Fruit trees:
a. increase fruit production
b. develop strong 45-degree angles to support the fruit load
c. remove limbs that grow down or straight up
d. maintain tree size (5 to 10 feet is ideal size for a home orchard in terms of
accessibility)
e. maintain fruit spurs.

What and when to prune and steps in pruning

The best time to prune trees is during the dormant period, usually in late winter from
November to March. Dead or diseased branches should be removed as soon as
possible. Pruning done during the dormant season tends to have an invigorating effect
on tree growth. Pruning done during peak growth times tends to slow growth by
removing leaves that manufacture nourishment. However, too much summer pruning
can damage a tree. Pruning during the spring (post-dormancy) and fall (pre-dormancy)
is generally the least desirable time as the plant is most vulnerable during those times.
Berries and tree fruits are pruned November until bloom; prune blooming
ornamentals during and immediately after bloom.
When you cut away part of a plant, a wound is left, susceptible to pests and
diseases. To avoid trouble, always prune so as to make small wounds, rather than large
ones. Removing a bud or twig produces a smaller wound than waiting until it is a large
limb! Rubbing off a sucker bud leaves a smaller wound than if you wait until it has a
year’s growth or more.

Pruning cuts
Heading vs. thinning cuts
A tree’s response to a pruning cut depends on where on the branch the cut is made.
Both types of cuts are used in pruning fruit trees and grapes.
 Heading cuts: Several buds left on the cut branch grow, making denser, more
compact foliage on more branches. (Figure 1)

Fig. 1 Heading cuts

 Thinning cuts: Branches are removed entirely, leaving no buds to grow. Their
energy is diverted into remaining branches, which grow more vigorously. (Figure
2)

Fig. 2 Thinning Cuts

32
Angle and placement of cuts
Always make cuts close to a node. Branches grow only at these nodes, and if you leave
too long a stub beyond the node, the stub will die and rot. (Figure 3)

Fig. 3 Angle Placement and Cuts

Prune to the lateral bud that will produce the branch you want. The placement of that
bud on the stem points the direction of the new branch. An outside bud, pruned with a
slanting cut just above the bud, will usually produce an outside branch. A flat cut above
the bud allows two lower buds to release and grow shots.
Pruning thick, heavy branches
1. Undercut the bottom of the branch
about a third of the way through, 6–
12 inches out from the trunk. (Figure
4, a)
2. Make a second cut from the top,
about 2-inches farther out from the
under-cut, until the branch falls
away. (Figure 4, b)
3. Cut back the resulting stub to the
branch collar, not flush with the
trunk. (Figure 4, c)

Anatomy of a fruit tree

 Crotch: The angle where branches fork, or where a main limb joins the trunk.
Strong crotches are wide-angled, 45 degrees; weak crotches are narrow.
 Scaffold: The main limbs branching from the trunk.
 Watersprout: A very vigorous shoot from a dormant bud on a branch. Remove
by cutting.
 Sucker: A vigorous shoot from the
roots or from below the bud union.
Cut off at the base. (To remove, dig
out soil around sucker, clip the sucker
off and leave cut exposed to air.)

Parts of the branch

33
  Terminal bud: The fat bud at a branch
tip will always grow first and fastest if
you leave it. Cut it, and several buds will
grow behind it.
 Leaf bud: Flattish triangle on the side of
a branch. To make one grow, cut just
above it. Choose buds pointing outward
from the trunk so the growing branch
will have space and light.
 Flower bud: Plump compared to leaf
buds and first to swell in spring. On
stone fruits they grow alone or beside
leaf buds. On apples and pears they
grow with a few leaves.
 Spur: A short twig on apples, pears,
plums, and apricots that grow on older
branches, produce fat flower buds, then
fruit. Don’t remove them.
 Bud scar: A ring on a branch that marks
the point where the terminal bud began
growing after the dormant season. The
line marks the origin of this year’s
growth.

Formative Questions
-------------------------------------- Please return this page to your teacher ------------------------------
Name: _______________________________ Date: ____________
Course: _______________________________ ACP (Lesson C)
Please answer the following questions base on your understanding from the above
lesson

1. What are the methods of pest control?

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2. How do you classify fertilizers according to elements present?
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3. What is a fertilizer? Why do you need to apply it to crops?

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4. What are the factors that affect movement of fertilizer?
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5. What is pruning?
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-------------------------------------- Please return this page to your teacher ------------------------------

35
 D. CARRYING- OUT HARVES AND POST- HARVEST OPERATIONS

I- Identification of crop maturity monitoring of pest incidence

Maturity
It is the stage of fully development of tissue of fruit and vegetables only after
which it will ripen normally. During the process of maturation the fruit receives a
regular supply of food material from the plant. When mature, the abscission or corky
layer which forms at the stern end stops this inflow. Afterwards, the fruit depend on its
own reserves, carbohydrates are dehydrated and sugars accumulate until the sugar acid
ratio form. In addition to this, typical flavour and characteristic colour also develop. it
has been determined that the stage of maturity at the time of picking influence the
storage life and quality of fruit, when picked immature like mango develop white
patches or air pockets during ripening and lacking in normal brix acid ratio or sugar
acid ratio, taste and flavour on the other hand if the fruits are harvested over mature or
full ripe they are easy susceptible to microbial and physiological spoilage and their
storage life is considerably reduce. Such fruits persist numerous problems during
handling, storage and transportation. Therefore, it is necessary or essential to pick up
the fruits or vegetables at correct stage of maturity to facilitate proper ripening, distant
transportation and maximum storage life.

Horticultural maturity
It is a developmental stage of the fruit on the tree, which will result in a
satisfactory product after harvest.
Physiological maturity
It refers to the stage in the development of the fruits and vegetables when
maximum growth and maturation has occurred. It is usually associated with full
ripening in the fruits. The Physiological mature stage is followed by senescence.
Commercial maturity
It is the state of plant organ required by a market. It commonly bears little
relation to Physiological maturity and may occur at any stage during development
stage.
Harvest Maturity
It may be defined in terms of Physiological maturity and horticultural maturity, it
is a stage, which will allow fruits / vegetables at its peak condition when it reaches to
the consumers and develop acceptable flavour or appearance and having adequate
shelf life.

36
 Vegetables are harvested at harvest maturity stage, which will allow it to be at
its peak condition when it reaches the consumer, it should be at a maturity that allows
the produce to develop an acceptable flavour or appearance, it should be at a size
required by the market, and should have an adequate shelf life. Time taken from
pollination to horticultural maturity under warm condition, skin colour, shape, size and
flavour and abscission and firmness are used to assess the maturity of the produce.

Skin colour Loss of green colour in citrus and red colour in tomato. Shape, size
and flavour Sweet corn is harvested at immature stage, smaller cobs marketed as baby
corn. Okra and cow pea are harvested at mature stage (pre fiber stage). In chilli, bottle
gourd, bitter gourd, cluster beans maturity is related to their size. Cabbage head and
cauliflower curd are harvested before un pleasant flavour. Abscission and firmness Musk
melon should be harvested at the formation of abscission layer. In cabbage and lettuce
should be harvested at firmness stage.
Factors affecting maturity
1. Temperature: Higher temperature gives early maturity. e.g.Gulabi (Pink)
grapes mature in 100 days in Western India but only 82 days are enough in the warmer
Northern India. Lemon and guava takes less time to mature in summer than in winter.
Sun-scorched portions of fruits are characterized by chlorophyll loss, yellowing,
disappearance of starch and other alcohol insoluble material, increase in TSS content,
decrease in acidity and softening.
2. Soil: Soil on which the fruit tree is grown affects the time of maturity. e.g.
Grapes are harvested earlier on light sandy soils than on heavy clays.
3. Size of planting material: This factor in propagated fruits affects fruit
maturity. e.g. In pineapple, the number of days taken from flowering to fruit maturity
was more by planting large suckers and slips than by smaller ones.
4. Closer spacing: Close spacing of hill bananas hastened maturity.
5. Pruning intensity: It enhanced the maturity of Flordasun and sharbati Peaches.
6. Girdling: Process of constricting the periphery of a stem which blocks the
downward translocation of CHO, hormones, etc. Beyond the constriction which rather
accumulates above it. In Grape vines it hastens maturity, reduces the green berries in
unevenly maturity cultivar and lowers the number of short berries. It is ineffective when
done close to harvest. CPA has an additive effect with girdling.

MATURITY INDEX

Maturity index
The factors for determining the harvesting of fruits, vegetables and plantation crops
according to consumer’s purpose, type of commodity, etc and can be judged by visual
means (colour, size, shape), physical means (firmness, softness), chemical analysis (sugar
content, acid content), computation (heat unit and bloom to harvest period),
physiological method(respiration). These are indications by which the maturity is
judged. Various index are as Follows;

37
 1. Visual indices
It is most convenient index. Certain signals on the plant or on the fruit can be
used as pointers. E.g.drying of top leaves in banana, yellowing of last leaf of
Peduncle in jackfruit. Flow of sap from cut fruit stalk of mango slows down if
the harvest is done after maturity but in immature fruits, exudation is more and
comes with force in a jet form. In papaya, the latex becomes almost watery. The
flow gets reduced on maturity in Sapota. In fruits like banana and Sapota, floral
ends become more brittle and shed with a gentle touch or even on their own. In
Sapota, the brown scurf on the fruit skin starts propping. In mango, lenticels
become more prominent and the waxy bloom gradually disappears. Grapes
develop translucent bloom. Other changes like angularity in banana,
development of creamy wide space between custard apple segments and the
flattening of the eyes in pineapple and tubercles in litchi serve as reliable
maturity indices.
2. Seed development
It can also be used as an index of fruit maturity, e.g.endocarp hardening for
stone and fiber development for dessert in mango.
3. Start of bud damage
Occasionally it can be used as an index of fruit maturity in mango.
4. Calendar date
For perennial fruit crops grown in seasonal climate which are more or less
uniform from year to year, calendar date for harvest is a reliable guide to
commercial maturity. This approach relies on a reproducible date for the time of
the flowering and a relative constant growth period from flowering through to
maturity. Time of flowering is largely dependent on temperature, and the
variation in number of days from flowering to harvest can be calculated for
some commodities by use of the degree- concept.
5. Heat units
Harvest date of newly introduced fruits in a widely varying climate can be
predicted with the help of heat unit. For each cultivar the heat requirement for
fruit growth and development can be calculated in terms of degree days:
Maturity at higher temperature is faster as the heat requirement is met earlier.
This heat unit helps in planning, planting, harvesting and factory programmes
for crops such as corn, peas and tomato for processing.

MATURITY OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Banana
The fruit is harvested when the ridges on the surface of skin change from angularity to
round i.e. after the attainment of 3% full stages. Dwarf banana are ready for harvest
within 11- 14 months after planting while tall cultivars takes about 14-16 months to
harvest. Peel colour change from dark green to light green the remaining style ends
were dry, and brittle and fruits were less angular in shape.

Mango
This can be judged when one or two mangoes ripen on the tree are fall on the ground
of their own accord. This process of fallen is known as tapaca specific gravity 1,01—1.02
and TSS 10-14%.

38
II- Harvesting Activity

Methods of Harvesting

Harvesting is the process of collecting

the mature rice crop from the field.
Paddy harvesting activities include
reaping, stacking, handling, threshing,
cleaning, and hauling. These can be
done individually or a combine
harvester can be used to perform the
operations simultaneously.

It is important to apply good harvesting

methods to be able to maximize grain yield, and minimize grain damage and quality
deterioration.

There are many different ways in which fruits and vegetables are harvested. The
harvesting method depends on the crop, how it is grown and the resources available.
For example, if it is a crop where there is machinery available to do or to help with the
harvesting, those methods can only be utilized if the grower or harvesting company can
afford to use that machinery to get the crops harvested.

Harvesting Methods

In general, these are the three different harvesting methods that take place when
harvesting fruits and vegetables:

1. Hand Harvesting
2. Harvesting with Hand Tools
3. Harvesting with Machinery

39
However, it is important to note that it is hard to categorize the different types of
harvesting because there can be some overlap.

1. Hand Harvesting

Hand harvesting is just that: produce is harvested by hand, without the use of any
tools. When hand harvesting, it is typically done using a picking cart or some sort of
container. A common example of a hand harvest with a picking cart is a strawberry
harvest.

2. Harvesting with Hand Tools

This harvesting method is typically carried out when harvesting tree fruit, where some
sort of clipper (usually specialized for the type of produce being harvested) is used to
remove the fruit from the tree, and then the fruit is placed into harvesting containers.
Once the harvesting containers are full, the harvested product is transferred to larger
bins in the field, of which those are then transported to the facility. Some examples
include the harvesting of fresh figs, peaches, and Cuties. Although this is very common
in the harvesting of tree fruit, it does also occur for other produce items, such
as onion (the non-machine harvesting operation), garlic and row crops.

3. Harvesting with Machinery

There are a lot of different harvesting types that land under this category. There are
operations that perform hand harvesting and harvesting with hand tools that also use
harvesting machinery (e.g., harvesting rig) to aid in the overall harvesting and packing
process. But, there are also harvesting operations that use the harvesting rigs to perform
further ―semi-processing activities‖ or postharvest washing. Then, there are also
harvesting mowing machines and combines. All of these harvesting types serve a
specific purpose, based on the type of produce being harvested, and considering the
amount of investment that goes into the machinery, it needs to make sense.
 Harvesting Using a Harvesting Rig – Commonly, the produce items are either
hand harvested or harvested using tools and then passed on to the workers

40
 working on the harvesting rigs, where the product can be packed; washed and
packed; trimmed, washed and packed; etc. The harvesting rigs serve as an aid in
the packing process and then once the product is packed, or prepared for the
processor, it is transported (typically via a conveyor belt) over to an adjacent
trailer that is responsible for transporting the product out of the field. Some
examples of this include the harvesting of cauliflower, cantaloupe, and romaine
hearts (this is an example of semi-processing activities in the field).

 Harvesting Using a Mower – The mower harvests have been perfected to rely
heavily on the mowers and not so much on actual workers. There is the mower,
with a few workers on it or at least one driving it and then an adjacent trailer to
capture the harvested product. Some examples include the harvesting of spring
mix and basil. Another form of a mower that you have seen is as part of the 3-
step almond harvesting process (which also includes a sweeping and shaking
machine).

 Harvesting Using a Combine – Combines are used to harvest grain crops. They
pass through the fields and mow down the grain crops and remove the desired
portion into the machine and spit the rest out the back. An example of this is
a corn combine that is used to harvest corn
that is harvested to be used in processed
products (e.g., corn chips, corn tortillas, etc.).

Harvesting Process

Harvesting of crops consists of the basic operations

which can be done in individual steps or in
combination using a combine harvester. These
include:
1. Reaping - cutting the mature panicles
and straw above ground.Reaping or
cutting is the first operation in

41
 harvesting. Depending on the crop's condition, and availability of labor
or machinery, it can be done either manually or mechanically.

Manual system is the most common means of rice harvesting. The rice
crop is cut by using simple hand tools like sickle (best for cutting 15−25
cm above ground level), and simple hand-held knives (best for cutting just
below the panicle, e.g. ani ani in Indonesia).

When cutting crop with a sickle, always hold the stems with thumb
pointing upwards, away from the blade.

Advantages: Very effective in lodged crop conditions

Disadvantages: Labor-intensive; Manual harvesting requires 5−10 person
days per hectare. It will take
additional labor to manually collect
and haul the harvested crop.

Mechanical cutting uses reapers (machine

that cuts and gathers). Reapers are either
hand-driven or mounted on the front of a
tractor. While the use of reapers has not
been widespread, it is gaining popularity
where labor shortages have occurred.
Most reapers lay the crop in a windrow, which allows easy pick-up of the
harvested crop. A reaper with a cutting-width of 1.5 m can operate at a rate of
2−4 ha per day.
To efficiently use reapers, fields need to be leveled and water drained at least
10−20 days before harvest.
Advantages: Low labor requirements
Disadvantages: Difficult to reap lodged crop; Availability of machine may be an
issue.

2. Threshing - separating the paddy grain from the rest of cut crop.Threshing
is the process of separating the grain from the straw. It can be either done
by hand, by using a treadle thresher or mechanized.

The common method for manual threshing is hand beating against an

object, treading, or by holding the crop against a rotating drum with
spikes or rasp bars.
Hand beating methods are normally used for threshing rice that easily
shatters (i.e., at lower moisture content).

Methods of manual threshing

Pedal thresher (recommended best practice)

The pedal or treadle thresher consists of
threshing drum, base, transmission unit and
a foot crank. When pedaled, the threshing
drum rotates and rice can be threshed when
panicles are applied against the threshing
drum. Because small straws, chaff, and
foreign matter drop along with the threshed
grain, whole grains must be separated using
a flail, sieve or by winnowing (see section
on cleaning).

Trampling
This involves the use of bare feet or animals
to thresh the crop. The crop is spread over a

42
 mat or canvass and workers trample with their own feet or use their
animals. Animal treading or trampling is normally carried out at a
designated location near the field or in the village. In some regions,
animals have been replaced by tractors. After animal treading, the straw is
separated from the grains and cleaning of the grain is done by
winnowing, with or without the aid of an electric fan. Losses are high
from broken and damaged grains.

Threshing rack
The crop is held by the sheaves and
beats it against a slatted bamboo,
wooden platform, or any other hard
object such as a steel oil drum. This is
very labor intensive.

Flail
The use of a flail or stick for threshing the crop is not popular for rice.
Machine threshers
The use of small stationary machine
threshers commonly replaces manual
threshing given the high labor
requirements of manual threshing.
Stationary threshing is generally done
in the field, or near the field.
Many stationary threshers for paddy
have peg-toothed threshing drums,
however threshers fitted with wire-
loop or rasp-bars are used as well.
Most threshers are of the feed-in type
(e.g. entire crop is fed through the thresher) which ensure high
throughput.

3. Cleaning -removing immature,

unfilled, non-grain materials
Cleaning grains after harvest is
important as it removes unwanted
materials from the grain.

A clean grain has a higher value than

a grain that is contaminated with
straw, chaff, weed seeds, soil,
rubbish, and other non-grain
materials.

Grain cleaning will improve the

drying, the storability of grain,
reduce dockage at time of milling,
and improve milling output and quality; while, seed cleaning will reduce
damage by disease, and improve yields.

4. Hauling - moving the cut crop to the threshing location

5. Field drying - leaving the cut crop in the field and exposing it to the sun
for drying (optional)

43
 6. Stacking/piling - temporarily storing the harvested crop in stacks or
piles (optional)

7. Bagging - putting the threshed grain in bags for transport and storage
Traditional harvesting activities such as field drying and stacking/piling are
not recommended because they can lead to rapid quality deterioration
and increased harvest losses.
Besides these, a variety of other activities can be included in harvesting
such as gathering, reaping (gathering standing grain by cutting), bundling,
and various forms of transporting the crop and grain.

III- Post Harvest Operations

Post Harvest Procedures

Postharvest procedure is the stage of crop production immediately following harvest,

including cooling, cleaning, sorting and packing. The instant a crop is removed from
the ground, or separated from its parent plant, it begins to deteriorate. Postharvest
treatment largely determines final quality, whether a crop is sold for fresh consumption,
or used as an ingredient in a processed food product.

Post-harvest handling operations encompass those steps required for harvested produce
to be selected or modified to meet market quality standards and to be packaged in a
form suitable for storage or marketing.

Field operations

The simplest operation is where produce is placed into a container in the field directly
after harvest, which is then placed into storage or transported to a market without
additional sorting or packing. A common variation is to trim off excess leaves or stems
before placing into the field container. These simple packing operations are adequate
where there is only a small distance between farm and market and produce is sold
directly to consumers. This is commonly the case for vegetables grown close to the
towns and/or consuming areas.

Handling produce in a field packing station

44
Simple field packinghouse made from straw and wire mesh

Packinghouse

In many situations it is necessary to

establish a specific site for packing
operations. Need for a packinghouse The
site for the packing operations may simply
be the provision of a portable or
temporary shelter in the field adjacent to
the harvesting area to protect the produce
and workers from the weather during field
handling. This is of considerable
importance for produce harvested in hot,
sunny conditions where exposure to the
weather for only a few hours can markedly
accelerate senescence or in rainy periods
where the chance of microbial infection is
greatly enhanced if the produce becomes
wet.

The need for a more permanent structure

increases as the complexity of grading,
sizing and sorting operations increases and
where the volume of production or the
lengths of the period of harvesting is
substantial. The structure of a packinghouse should only be as elaborate as necessary. A
packing place constructed with a bamboo frame and grass thatched roof without water
or electricity services is satisfactory for a low manual sorting and packing operations.
The complexity of packing house operations increase, as market requirements for
quality and uniform grading become more demanding. The standards of the required
building will also increase along with more sophisticated equipment and a larger and
more skilled work force.

Packing house operations

The actual operations to be carried out will be determined by the market system and
volume of produce passing through the packing place. A packinghouse can fulfill a
variety of functions. It may, for example, accept produce from the field and prepare it
for the market or act as a preliminary quality control operation to ensure that only
quality produce is placed into storage. A packing house may also be used to repack
produce after storage for retail marketing.

Packing houses for small-scale operations can be utilized for:

• Receiving produce where, the quantity and quality are checked on arrival before
being transferred to a temporary storage area;
• Treatment, where excess part plants are trimmed off ,surface contaminants
removed by washing or brushing ,and chemicals applied to extend storage or
market life;
• Grading, where substandard items are removed, produce is graded for factors
such as maturity, color and the separated grades are sized and packed; and
• Temporary shelter for produce waiting for being loaded for dispatch. All
packinghouse operations can be executed manually, mostly small scale, or with a

45
 range of mechanical devices of varying sophistication, mostly for larger
operations. For packinghouses with small throughput, economics will favor
manual operations with workers performing more or all the tasks. The
advantage of human labor is that it provides flexibility of operation since it can
perform a variety of tasks with equal efficiency.

Receipt

On arrival to the packinghouse produce is usually unloaded, weighed, sampled

shlegt down for quality and recorded.

Sorting

A preliminary sorting of produce should remove unmarketable pieces and foreign

matters, such as plant debris, soil and stones, before the produce passes on to
further operations. All discarded material should be quickly hauled away from the
packing place

Cleaning and washing

The removal of soil and stones mentioned above can be done by hand-picking or
by sieving. Some type of produce can be washed, brushed or cleaned with a soft
cloth. Washing is required to clean produce which has acquired latex stains from
injuries from bad harvesting or handling, such as mango, papaya, breadfruit and 41
most of the root crops. It is important to note that washing should be carried out
only when absolutely essential. If it is necessary to wash produce, a fungicide should
be normally applied immediately afterward. Use only clean water. The washing of
produce in recirculated water should be avoided because it can quickly become
heavily contaminated with decay organisms, leading to rotting of the washed
produce. Hypo chlorites or chlorine may be added to washing water but its use is
not recommended for small-scale operations, because they are quickly inactivated
by the organic material present in the dirty water. Washed produced to be treated
with fungicide should first be drained after washing to reduce the danger of
reducing the concentration of the fungicide When washing is not followed by
chemical treatment, the washed produce should be spread out in a single layer on
racks of mesh, in the shade but
exposed to good ventilation to
aid rapid drying.

Washing tank

Fungicide treatment

Decay caused by molds or bacteria is one of the major causes of loss of fresh
produce during storage and marketing. Infection may occur before or after harvest,
either through injuries or direct penetration of the intact skin of the produce. Post
harvest application of fungicide is usual in crops such as apples, bananas and citrus
fruits which have to be stored for a long period or those which undergo long
periods of transport. Fungicide is normally applied only after the produce has been

46
 washed and drained. In small-scale packinghouse operations, fungicide can be
applied by:
• Dipping. Treatment is normally carried out by hand operation using a
suspension of fungicide agitated using stick .Wire-mesh baskets are used to dip
the fruits. After dipping produce should be drained and dried.
• Spraying. This can be done using a hand-operated sprayer while the produce is
still in trays or racks after washing and drying. It is often done on bananas
following the de-handing of bunches.

Quality selection and size-grading

Although produce will have to be sorted on the farm or on its arrival at the
packinghouse there may be a further selection for quality and size immediately
before it is packed. The scope of these operations depends on the market. Will the
buyer be ready to pay premium prices for qualitygraded produce? Many urban
costumers are more demanding of quality than are rural markets.

Waxing
The application of wax or similar coating to enhance appearance and limit water
losses from produce such as citrus requires specialized equipment and has little
relevance to small-scale packing. Waxing is normally preceded by fungicide
treatment.

Packaging
Packaging in small-scale operations means the filling of marketing containers by
hand, often using a packing stand or a table. There are various methods of packing:
• Loose-fill jumble pack is used where there is no advantage to sizegrading:
weighing is necessary;
• Multilayer pattern pack has size-graded produce normally sold by count of
the produce such as citrus and apples;
• Multilayer size-graded pack mostly used in mechanical packing has separator
trays between layers; it is normally sold on per-box basis; and
• Single-layer packs for high value produce may have each piece wrapped in
tissue (often chemically treated) or placed in a divider holding it alone.

Handling and Packaging of Harvest

Harvesting

Different kinds of fruits need different methods of harvesting. Some fruits are easily
pulled, although there is possibility of tearing off a piece of flesh and/or ding. Some
fruits are harvested with stalk with aid of clipper or shear, where the stalk may be
source of damage especially during packaging. Fruits at higher branches are harvested
with long a hold with a bag (mango). Fruits may be caught as it fall using mechanical
harvesters. The best means of reaching high fruits is with a ladder. In banana the trunk
is cut with a sickle over half way through and then the bunch is cut. About 30 cm. of
the stalk must be left to make the handling easy. Citrus fruits are very much susceptible
to damage while harvesting. During wet and humid condition the rind will be turgid
and liable to bruising or tear-off rind is common if the fruits are pulled. The post
harvest quality and storage life of fruits are controlled by maturity. Vegetables are
harvested as and when they attain maximum size and yet are tender. Over Maturity in
root crops causes sponginess and pithiness. Delay in harvesting of onion and garlic
reduces their storage quality.

When to Harvest Horticulture Crops?

 During cooler part of the day (in morning).

 Do not harvest in hot period, cause wilting and shriveling.
 Harvesting during rains or immediately after rains should not be carried
out.
Citrus fruit become susceptible to damage if harvested during rains, as their rind
becomes turgid and prone to easy bruising sunscald.

47
No any bruising or injurious during harvesting may later manifest as black or brown
patches, e.g. Latex coming out of stem in mango should not be allowed to fall on fruits
as creates a black spot.

Post Harvest Handling

Care in harvesting and handling is necessary to preserve subsequent quality of fruits and
vegetables, faulty harvesting and rough handling at the farm directly affect market
quality. Oil gummosis is common peel injury of citrus fruits (causing extensive losses)
which mostly occurs at harvest, if not done carefully. Mechanical injury to the rind
forces the oil out of the epidermal oil glands, which kills adjacent cells of the flavor and
also causes soil spotting on the surface of adjacent undamaged fruit. When put together
cells killed by oil are readily infected by fungi resulting in increased decay. Oil spotting
can be reduced or eliminate by good handling practices.
1. Bruises and injurious later show up as brown and black patches (e.g. banana,
bhindi) making the commodities unattractive and physiological disordered.
Rough handling on produce is cumulative. Several small bruises on a tomato can
produce an off-flavour for consumers
2. Entries to micro organism leading to rotting.
3. Respiration is increased markedly by damages and storage life is shortened. Lack
of knowledge in harvesting and handling results in substantial lost of fruits and
vegetables.
It is estimated that 20 to 30% of the fruits and vegetables produced is being wasted
due to defective methods of picking, storage, and transport procedures in our country.
The quality of fresh fruits and vegetables defoliated due to these faulty handling
procedure. The climatic condition in our country also limits post handling life of there
commodities Hence proper scientific method used to be allowed in harvesting and all
the post harvesting operation of the fruits and vegetables to prevent the huge losses
being occurred and to maintain the quality. Post harvest technology is simple term
as‖Field to Table‖. Programme involving the science applied in providing the
consumers with best quality of fruits and vegetables from the field.
Post harvest handling consists of the following procedures:

1. Grading, sorting & sizing

Grading, sorting, and sizing are based on soundness, firmness, cleanliness, size, weight,
colour, shape, maturity, diseases, insect damage and mechanical injury. They are
grouped in size. This is an important procedure to be followed in post harvest
handling, before packaging storage, transport or marketing to minimize loss and
maintain quality.
 Additional operation: Along with grading, certain additional operation which
include washing, pre cooling, degreening, curing, waxing, fungicidal and other
chemical treatment are also essential preparatory steps to packaging , storage
transportation and subsequent marketing, washing, improves appearance,
remove dirt, soil, scale insect, sooty mould, fungicide and insecticide residues.
Detergent are added to water for effectiveness washing. The excess of surface
water is dried by blowing heated air.
 Pre-cooling: Pre-cooling is done to remove field heat as high temperature is
detrimental to the keeping quality of fruits and vegetables. General aims are to
slow down the respiration minimize the susceptibility to micro organism and
reduce water loss. Several methods used are (a) air -cooling, (b) hydro cooling-
fungicides can be added in cooling water. (c) vacuums cooling- most rapid
methods of pre cooling, especially, for leafy vegetables curing- certain vegetables
like onion have to be cured after harvest before storage and transport
marketing.
 Degreening: In certain cases development of ripe colour by degrading the green
colours is induced usually by the treatment with ethylene under controlled
temperature and humidity and O2 and CO2 concentration e.g. Banana, Mango,
Citrus, Tomato.
 Waxing: (1) Waxing is done to reduce the evaporation loss of water from the
fruits and vegetables thereby increasing the storage life. (2) It gives a fresh glossy
appearance which improves the market value. (3)Recommended fungicides can
be added to the wax to reduce the spoilage buy fungus. The wax replaces the

48
 natural protecting waxy layer which is removed by handling, washing, etc.
CFTRI Mysore, has developed a wax emulsion (Waxol-123) for waxing of fruits
and vegetables.

2. PACKAGING

Packaging is done for more efficient handling and marketing , greater appeal, more
potential life. Packaging requirement vary with different fruits and vegetables.
Packaging cannot improve quality. Hence only best possible produce should be packed.
Inclusion of decayed or damaged produced in bulk or consumer packages may become
a source of infection and reduce the sale at the market. Packaging is not a substitute for
refrigeration; packaging combined with refrigeration is the best methods. A good
package is aim to protection of product from physical. Physiological and pathological
deterioration causes throughout storage, transport and market.

Benefits of packaging:- serves as an efficient handling units, serves as a good storage

unit, protect quality and reduce waste, protect from mechanical damage and moisture
loss, provide beneficial modified atmosphere, prevent pilferage, provides service and
sales motivation.

Material for packaging:-wooden boxes, bamboo basket are the conventional packs.
Fibre board cartoons, corrugated card boards, and several flexible plastic packaging.
Materials used for packing material are (1) polyethylene (low density)-most widely used
for consumer packaging ,strong considerably moisture proof , resistant to several
chemicals and cheap (2) polyprophlene (3)polyvinyl chloride film (4) cellophane (5)
polifilm. The emphasis is being made now to use those materials which contains less or
no wood for packaging as our forest resources being exhausted fastly and is at a
precarious condition.

Consumer packaging with plastic:

the original function of packaging was to contain carry and dispence products.
However the use of plastic as packaging materials has allowed so much variation and
versatility as to protect ,presence, process, store, measure, communicate, and display of
products. Fruits and vegetables are packaged in smaller quantities in polyethylene
pouches as consumer packages. In these films proper ventilation is needed to prevent
moisture accumulation. Leading to rotting of the content and to relegate O2 and
CO2 concentration inside pack. High CO2 concentration may cause deterioration in
quality of the content. Congenial modified atmosphere inside the pack would increases
the storage life of the contents.
 Pre Packaging: Pre packaging increases the shelf life by creating modified
atmosphere with an increase in concentration of CO2 in package. L.D.P.E. films
have high O2 and CO2 transmission rates are more durable.
 The pouch used reducing bruising facilitates inspection, reduces moisture losses
and prevent dehydration. In pre packaging leaves stalk stem are washed cleaned
and weight quantities are put in pouches.
 Ethylene absorbents hydrate lime may insert in packages to retard ripening
process.
 A wide range of packages like gunny bags, bamboo ,woven ,grass stem basket,
wooden cares, earthen pots, corrugated fibre board cartoons and rigid plastic
carats are used.
 Wheat and paddy straws, banana leaves, dry grass are used as cushioning
material.
IV- Storage pest and diseases

Importance of storage

Storage is an important marketing function, which involves holding and preserving

goods from the time they are produced until they are needed for consumption. The
storage of goods, therefore, from the time of production to the time of consumption,
ensures a continuous flow of goods in the market. Storage protects the quality of
perishable and semi- perishable products from deterioration Some of the goods e.g.,
woolen garments, have a seasonal demand.

49
  To cope with this demand, production on a continuous basis and storage
become necessary;
 helps in the stabilization of prices by adjusting demand and supply;
 Storage is necessary for some period for performance of other marketing
functions.
 Storage provides employment and income through price advantages.

Types of Storage

1. Underground Storage Structures - Underground storage structures are dugout

structures similar to a well with sides plastered with cow dung. They may also be
lined with stones or sand and cement. They may be circular or rectangular in
shape. The capacity varies with the size of the structure.
2. Surface storage structures - Food grains in a ground surface structure can be
stored in two ways - bag storage or bulk storage.

Factors to consider in storage

Storage of fruits and vegetables prolongs their usefulness, it is also check market glut,
provide wide selection of fruits and vegetables throughout the year, helps in orderly,
marketing, increases profits to the producers and preserve the quality of the living
products.

The principal aim of storage is to control rate of transpiration, respiration and disease
infection and to preserve the commodity in its most usable form for consumers without
proper storage, the following undesirable things may occur
1. Sprouting:- e.g. onion, ginger, garlic, potatoes etc.
2. Rooting:- e.g. sweet potato, onion etc.
3. Seed germination:-e.g. pod bearing vegetables, tomato, papaya etc.
4. Degreening:-e.g. potatoes of exposed to light, green portion contain solanin
which is toxic.
5. Toughening: e.g. Green beans, bhindi etc.

Factors affecting storage:

i. Pre-harvested factors: climatic, cultural, and pathogenic

ii. Harvesting and handling practices: mechanical injuries
iii. Pre-cooling: an important factor prior to storage reduces P.L.W. and improves
storage life.
iv. Cleanliness
v. Variety and stage of maturity at harvest - prematurely harvested mango,
bananas, tomatoes will not ripe satisfactorily.

Storage life:

It may be prolonged by
(a) proper control of post harvested diseases
(b) chemical treatments
(c) irradiation
(d) refrigeration
(e) controlled atmosphere storage.

a. Proper control of post harvest diseases:

Knowledge of the time and made of infection is essential for the development of an
effective programme for diseases control. Fruits attached to the plant may be infected
by direct penetration of a fungus through enticle by wounds or by natural openings.
Many most harvested diseases are through injuries after harvest such as cut steams and
mechanical damage to the surface in the course of handling and transporting
Cut-stem infection: e.g. crown root of banana hands, black-root of pineapple and stem
end root of papaya and mango.

50
Post harvested diseases initiated in wound create during or after harvest may be
controlled by fungicides treatment. If application can be made before pathogen has
penetrated deep into the fruits.

Low temperature reduces the severity of post harvest diseases by retarding ripening and
also by retarding the growth of micro-organism

Humidity more than 90% favour the development of post harvest diseases. Plastic films
of low permeability and without ventilation increases post harvest diseases.

Control of post harvest diseases – the basic principles are

(1) prevention
(2) cure
(3) delaying the appearance of symptoms and
(4) retarding diseases spread more than one approach is usually required for satisfactory
diseases control.

b. Chemical treatments:
Growth regulators like GA, MH, CCC, ALAR, and other chemicals like acetylene gas
ethylene gas are used to regulate ripening and storage life of fruit and vegetables.
Post harvest treatment with GA markedly retards ripening and tomatoes guava,
bananas and mangoes.
Malik hydrazide (MH) a growth retardant inhibits spouting of onion, potato. Ethylene,
acetylene are used to hasten ripening in fruits.
c. Irradiation:
Low radiant dosage is applied to fresh fruits and vegetables to prolong their storage
life. Irradiation can delay the ripening destruction of spoilage micro-organism and
disinfection. It has been used successfully in retarding the sprouting of potatoes, sweet
potatoes, onion. Irradiation is successful in control of fruit fly on citrus, mango seed,
weevil control, papaya fruit fly control. For some fruit like mango, banana, papaya and
additional advantage in the use of irradiation for disinfestations purpose is retardation
of ripening. in several vegetables irradiation is not useful as it causes discoloration
excessive softening, off flavour, increase decay etc.
Irradiation method is not cleared as safe to use for prolongation of shelf life of fruits
and vegetables in India though its use in certain commodities like onion and potatoes is
cleared in several other countries.
d. Refrigeration:
To date refrigeration is the only known economical methods for long term storage of
fruits and vegetables, all the other methods of regulating ripening and deterioration are
at best supplemental to refrigeration. Other methods are not worked satisfactory
without refrigeration. Refrigeration requirements vary with different kinds of fruits and
vegetables and their maturity stages which are standardized.
Optimum temperature for the even ripening and development of good flavor, and
attractive colour of most fruits generally fall within a range of 59-79’mangoes ripened
at 68’F contains 20% as much sugar as these ripened at 95’F at storage temperature of
about 75’F is optimum for the storage of most fruits except grapes, litchi, pomegranate,
and apple which require a low temperature range 32 to 41’F. Leafy vegetables require
90% to 96% R.H. They should not be stored together with ripening fruits as ethylene
is injurious to them.
Fruit and vegetables bean cucumbers, bhendi, sweet peeper, squash and tomatoes are
sensitive to chilling at very low temperature. They are to be stored as 40 to 50’ F.
Higher temperature cause toughening, yellowing and decay while low temperature
cause pitting.
Chilling injury: A major problems in post harvest handling at low temperature which
otherwise would prolong their storage life .chilling injury is a disorder induced by low,
but non freezing temperature is susceptible fruits and vegetables.
(a) pitting- limes, mangoes, avocado.
(b) water-soaking – tomato
(c) smoky-appearance- banana
(d) surface discoloration- mango etc.
e. Controlled atmosphere storage:

51
Controlled atmosphere (CA) implies to addition or removal of gases, resulting in an
atmospheric composition substantially different from normal air. CA storage is a system
for holding produce in respect to the proportion of nitrogen (N2), oxygen(O2), or
carbon dioxide (CO2). Other gasses such as CO or ethylene are also added to the
storage atmosphere. CA storage process could be the most important innovation in
fruit and vegetables storage since the introduction of mechanism of refrigeration. This
method, if combined with refrigeration markedly retards respiration activity and may
delay softening yellowing, quality change etc.

Identification of storage pests and diseases

The greatest damage to stored grain is generally caused by insects, though this may be
exceeded by rodents in some countries. A high rate of reproduction and a short
development period enable insects to cause important damage by rapidly developing
from a small number of individuals to a large mass.

The multiplication factor of Tribolium is 70, for example. This means that under
optimum conditions one pair of Tribolium will have the following offspring: after I
month: 2 x 70 = 140 after 2 months: 140 x 70 = 9 800 after 3 months: 9 800 x 70 =
686 000

Identification of pests
Insect species are different from one another in terms of their behaviour, their damage
caused and their reaction to control measures. It is essential to identify insects found in
the store and to know about their biology in order to be able to answer the following
questions:
- Is it a storage pest?
Example :
Several species of Bruchus are held pests of pulses and may be brought into the store
where they cannot develop. In this case, these insects ate no storage pests.
- Is it an important storage pest?
Example:
The Maize weevil (Sitophilus zeamais) is for example a very important storage pest of
different commodities, especially cereals in tropical and subtropical regions, whereas
the Depressed flour beetle (Palorussubdepressus) generally plays a minor role.
- is it an insect species which reveals problems in storage?
Example:
The Black fungus beetle (Alphitobiuslaevigatus) occurs mainly in mouldy stock. If this
insect is found, it indicates moist storage conditions.
- What control measures should be performed?
Example:
Bostrichidae, e.g. the Lesser grain borer (Rhyzoperthadominica) are most effectively
controlled by pyrethroids, less by organophosphorous compounds.
There are various aids to identifying insects:
 identification keys, which are not suitable for everyday practical use in stores
 illustrations hi the form of posters, leaflets, brochures or books
 reference collections of storage pests for direct comparison with the ones found.

Classification of storage pests

By far the largest group of storage pests are beetles (Coleoptera), followed by moths
(Lepidoptera). There are still others including dust lice (Psocoptera) which cause little
damage to stored produce but may become a hygienic problem if they occur in large
numbers.
Beside insects mites (Acarina) occur as pests in grain and particularly in flour. They
belong to the order of Arachnida.

Development of insects
Comparable to other insects, beetles and moths pass through several stages of
development. The adult insects lay eggs from which larvae hatch. Larvae cause most
damage as a result of their intensive feeding on the stored produce. Their development
passes through a number of growing stages called instars followed by pupation. The

52
adult emerges from the pupa. This development cycle is referred to as complete
metamorphosis. The duration of this cycle varies from species to species and is greatly
influenced by external factors (see section 7.4)
There are often also differences from species to species as to where the eggs are laid (in
or on grain), where the larvae develop (inside or outside grain) and where pupation
takes place (inside or outside grain).

The use of various sources of food by pests

Stored product insects have different requirements as to the composition of their food:

 Primary pests are able to teed on whole, healthy and well-storable grains.
Examples: weevils, lesser grain borer (Rhyzoperthadominica). Angoumois grain
moth (Sitotrogacerealella)

 Secondary pests can only attack broken grain, moist, and thus soft grain,
grain damaged by primary pests or processed products, e.g. flour.
Examples: flour beetles

 Mould indicating pests live partially or entirely on fungi and their

presence reveals problems with moisture.
Examples: Black fungus beetle (Alphitobiusdiaperinus), Foreign grain
beetle (Ahasverusadvena)

 Scavengers live largely on dust, the excrements of other insects or dead

insects. They do not usually feed on the stored produce itself but often pose a
serious hygienicproblem.
Examples: dust lice

 Predators live entirely or partially on insects, mostly on eggs and larvae

Examples: Teretriosomanigrescens, Wheat beetle (Tenebroidesmauritanicus)
Some storage pests also prey mm the larvae of other species. Their use in
reducing infestation is, however' far less than the damage they themselves cause
by feeding on the stored produce.
Example: Triboliumcastaneum
Whether an insect can make use of stored produce as a source of food depends
on a number of factors:
Most storage pests are able to penetrate a stack of bags far more quickly and
thoroughly than bulk produce because of the gaps between the bags. The size,
the surface texture and nutrients in the grain influence the ability of the pest to
attack the commodity. This applies also for packaging material and the state of
the store itself
Morphological features of insects
The body of an insect is divided into three parts:
1. The head, which bears the eyes, the antennae and the mouthparts
2. the thorax, which consists of three segments (prothorax, mesothorax, metathorax)
carries three pairs of legs and the wings or the elytra, respectively
3. the abdomen, where the reproductive and digestive organs are located.
In the case of beetles, the forewings (elytra) are thickened and hornlike and protect the
abdomen.

53
Moths have two pairs of membranous wings densely covered with pigmented scales.
Beetle larvae have three pairs of legs. However, in some species which develop inside
the grain (e.g. weevils) they are lacking.

Moth larvae have three pairs of thoracic legs and additionally four pairs of prolegs,
located at the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th segment of the abdomen. The final segment of the
abdomen has a further pair of prolegs.

Storage pest species

Pictorial key for the most important stored product beetles

The following key only refers to the most frequently found stored product beetles and
is not a comprehensive tool for determination. Any identification should be confirmed
by comparing with other illustrations, descriptions or specimens from reference
collections.

54
Sitophilus oryzae
Common name: Rico weevil
Family: Curculionidae
Description
size: 2.5 - 3.5 mm
shape: more or less cylindrical
colour: black-brown with four reddish spots on the elytra
recognition: well defined snout: elbowed and clubbed antennae; circular punctures on
the prothorax; can fly
Distribution: cosmopolitan
Life history
range of temperature: 17 - 34°C
optimal temperature: 28°C
range of rel. humidity: 45 - 100%
optimal rel. humidity: 70%
eggs laid: up to 150 separately deposited inside the grain
life cycle: 35 days at optimum
110 days at sub-optimal conditions
Damage
Adults and legless larvae are primary pests of cereals, rice and dried cassava. Larvae
spend their lives inside the grain.
Similar species
S. zeamais (Maize weevil): larger, but almost indistinguishable externally; with similar
distribution, biology and behaviour. Good flyer.
S. granarius (Granary weevil): without spots on elytra, punctures on prothorax oval-
shaped. A pest of cereals (especially wheat and barley) in temperate regions.

55
Triboliumcastaneum
Common name: Rust-red flour beetle
Family: Tenebrionidae
Description
size: 3 - 4 mm
shape: elongate body, more or less parallel sided
colour: red brown - dark brown
recognition: antennae are inserted under the sides of the head (frontal ridge) and form
a three-segmented club; elytra with finely punctured lines
Distribution: throughout the tropics and the subtropics
Life history
range of temperature: 22 - 40°C
optimal temperature: 35°C
range of rel. humidity: 1 - 90%
optimal rel. humidity: 75%
eggs laid: up to 500
life cycle: 20 days under optimum conditions
Damage
Larvae and adults are secondary pests and attack cereals and cereal products,
groundnuts, nuts, spices, coffee, cocoa, dried fruit and occasionally pulses. Infestation
leads to persistent disagreeable odours of the products.
Similar species
T. confusum (segments of antennae gradually broaden towards the tip), cosmopolitan.

Rhyzoperthadominica
Common name: Lesser grain borer
Family: Bostrichidae
Description
size: 2 - 3 mm
shape: slim, cylindrical
colour: red-brown to black-brown
recognition: head concealed beneath prothorax (typical for the Bostrichidae);
prothorax bears marginal rows of teeth; elytra with well defined rows of punctures
Distribution: mainly in tropical and sub-tropical regions
Life history
range of temperature: 18 - 38°C
optimal temperature: 34°C
range of rel. humidity: 25 - 70%
optimal rel. humidity: 60 - 70%
eggs laid: 300 - 500 life cycle:20 - 84 days

56
Damage
Primary pest of cereal grains, other seeds, cereal products, dried cassava, etc. Damage is
done by adults and larvae, which develop within the grain.
Similar species
Dinoderus spp. bearing two slight depressions at the base of the pronotum. Found on
dried cassava and incidentally on other commodities.

Prostephanustruncatus
Common names: Larger grain borer
Greater grain borer

Family: Bostrichidae
Description
size: 3 - 5 mm
shape: cylindrical
colour: dark brown
recognition: similar to Rhyzopertha, but elytra apically flattened, steeply inclined,
curved ridges at the sloping part; elytra look like cut off
Distribution
Central America, accidentally introduced to East and West African countries
Life history
range of temperature: 18 - 40°C
optimal temperature: 32°C
range of rel. humidity: 40 - 90%
optimal rel. humidity: 80%
eggs laid: up to 400 life cycle: 27 days at optimum
Damage
Primary pest.
Adults and larvae attack maize as well as dried cassava and yams. Causes severe losses
of farm-stored maize in African countries.

57
Trogoderma granarium
Common name: Khapra beetle
Family: Dermestidae
Description adult larva
size: 2 - 3 mm 5 mm
shape: oval spindle-shaped
colour: dark brown, often with blurred, yellowish brown to golden brown
reddish markings
recognition: body covered with fine hairs reddish-brown hairs with two tail-
like tufts
Distribution
In hot, dry areas, especially in the near and middle east and Africa
Life history
range of temperature: 22 - 41°C
optimal temperature: 33 - 37°C
range of rel. humidity: 2 to 50%
optimal rel humidity: 25%
eggs laid: 50 - 80 life cycle: 25 days at 37°C and 25% r.h. larval diapause up to 4 years
Damage
Primary pest
Damage is done only by larvae on cereal grains and products, oilseed cakes, nuts,
pulses, etc.

Oryzaephilussurinamensis
Common name: Saw-toothed grain beetle
Family: Silvanidae
Description
size: 2.5 - 3.5 mm
shape: slender
colour: dark brown
recognition: six toothlike projections along each side of the prothorax
Distribution: cosmopolitan
Life history
range of temperature: 18 - 37°C
optimal temperature: 30 - 35°C
range of rel. humidity: 10 - 90%
optimal rel. humidity: 70 - 90%
eggs laid: up to 150 life cycle: 20 - 80 days
Damage
Secondary pest of cereals and cereal products, also on copra, spices, nuts and dried
fruit. Damage is done by larvae and adults.

58
Similar species
O. mercator in the warmer temperate and tropical regions. Less tolerant to extremes of
temperature and humidity than O. surinamensis. More common on oilseeds, also on
copra, spices, nuts and dried fruit.

Cryptolestesferrugineus
Common name: Rust-red grain beetle
Family: Cucujidae
Description
size: 1.5 - 2.5 mm
shape: tiny, flat and slender, elongate
colour: reddish brown
recognition: head and prothorax account for half of the body length: prothorax
bearing two longitudinal ridges; antennae without club and half the length up to the
length of the body
Distribution: cosmopolitan
Life history
range of temperature: 21 - 43°C
optimal temperature: 33°C
range of rel. humidity: 50 - 90%
optimal rel humidity: 70%
eggs laid: 100 - 400
life cycle: 17 - 100 days at optimum conditions; mean duration of life cycle: 23 days
Damage
Secondary pest on all types of grain and grain products, also on nuts, dried fruit.
oilseed cakes, cocoa and cowpeas. Adults and larvae attack stored products and are
often causing "hot spots".

Callosobruchus chinensis
Common name: Cowpea weevil
Family: Bruchidae
Description
size: 3 - 4.5 mm
shape: mote or less triangular
colour: pale brown with blackish patches on the elytra
recognition: body clothed in short hairs; last abdominal segment visible; antennae
slightly serrated: each hind femur bears a tooth; large emarginated eyes
Distribution: throughout the tropics and subtropics
Life history

59
range of temperature: 18 - 35°C
optimal temperature: 30°C
range of rel. humidity: 25 - 90%
optimal rel. humidity: 80%
eggs laid: up to 100 glued to surface of pod or seed life cycle: 23 days at optimal
conditions
Damage
Larvae, which develop within the seed, feed as primary pests on cowpeas, pigeon peas,
lentils and other pulses. Infestation begins in the field.
Similar species
C. maculatus (originated in Africa, now distributed throughout the tropics and
subtropics)
Caryedon serratus (Groundnut seed beetle, size 4 - 7 mm)

Acanthoscelidesobtectus
Common name: Dried bean weevil
Family: Bruchidae
Description
size: 3 - 5 mm
shape: oval
colour: grey and reddish brown with yellowish and dark brown patches of hairs on the
elytra recognition hind femur with one large tooth and two small teeth; elytra do not
completely cover the abdomen; antennae serrated
Distribution: cosmopolitan
Life history
range of temperature: 17 - 35°C
optimal temperature: 30°C
range of rel. humidity: 30 - 90%
optimal rel. humidity: 70%
eggs laid: 40 - 50 laid on ripening pods or among stored seeds life cycle: 21 days at
optimum conditions
Damage
Larvae are primary pests of common beans. Infestation may begin in the field.
Similar species
There are various other species of Bruchidae attacking pulses, which cannot easily he
identified

Ephestiacautella
Common name: Tropical warehouse moth
Family: Pyralidae
Description adult larva

60
size: 15 - 20 mm (wing span) 15 - 20 mm
colour: grey; fore wing greyish-brown with white, sometimes pinkish or greyish
an indistinct pattern
recognition: setae (hairs) arising from dark brown
pigmented spots
Distribution: throughout the tropics; less common in arid areas
Life history
range of temperature: 10 - 33°C
optimal temperature: 30°C
range of rel. humidity: min. near 0%
optimal rel. humidity: 40 - 75%
eggs laid: 200 - 500 life cycle: 30 days at optimum conditions
Damage
Larvae are found as primary pests in a wide range of commodities, especially cereal
flours and other milled products, but also in whole grains, mainly feeding on the germ.
Webbing and frass produced in infested products are nuisance factors.
Similar species
E. kuehniella (15 - 25 mm wing span, mainly in countries with temperate climate)

Plodia interpunctella
Common name: lndian-meal moth
Family: Pyralidae

Description adult larva

size: 14 - 20 mm (wing span) up to 17 mm
colour: basal third of the fore wing cream coloured, yellowish-white,
rest of the wing copper with dark grey sometimes reddish or
markings greenish
recognition: base of setae without
pigmented spots
Distribution: cosmopolitan
Life history
range of temperature: 16 - 36°C
optimal temperature: 28 - 32°C
range of rel. humidity: 30 - 90%
optimal rel. humidity: 75%
eggs laid: 60 - 400 life cycle: 27 days at 30°C and 70% r.h.
52 days at 20°C and 70% r.h.
Damage
Larvae are primary pests of cereal grain and flour, groundnuts and dried fruit. Webbing
and frass produced m the infested commodities are nuisance factors.

Corcyra cephalonica
Common name: Rice moth
Family: Pyralidae

61
Description adult larva
size: 15 - 25 m (wingspan) 15 mm
colour: fore wings mid-brown; uniformly yellowish-white
coloured
recognition: spiracles thickened on their posterior
rims:
Distribution
Throughout the humid tropics
Life history
range of temperature: min. 18°C
optimal temperature: 30- 32°C
range of rel. humidity: min. 20%
optimal rel humidity: 70% life cycle: 26 - 27 days at optimum conditions
Damage
Larvae are primary pests of cereal grain and flour, nuts, groundnuts, dried fruit, cocoa,
copra and many other commodities. The dense white cocoons of the pupae, which are
very tough are often seen attached to the bag surfaces. Infestation is characterized by
aggregations of kernels, frass, cocoons and dint caused by webbing

Sitotrogacerealella
Common name: Angoumois grain moth
Family: Gelechiidae
Description
size: 10 - 18 mm (wing span)
colour: fore wings buff often with a small black spot in the distal half, hind wings
greyish
recognition: hind wings with a long fringe of hairs, sharply pointed at the tip
Distribution: cosmopolitan
Life history
range of temperature: 16 - 35°C
optimal temperature: 26 - 30°C
range of rel. humidity: 20 - 80%
optimal rel. humidity: 75% eggs laid: up to 200 life cycle: 28 days at 30°C and 80%
r.h.
Damage
V- Larvae are primary pests of whole cereal grains as paddy, sorghum, maize and
wheat. Larval development takes place inside the grain. Damage is very similar to
that caused

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Formative Questions
-------------------------------------- Please return this page to your teacher ------------------------------
Name: _______________________________ Date: ____________
Course: _______________________________ ACP (Lesson B)
Please answer the following questions base on your understanding from the above
lesson

1. What are the different types of maturity indices?

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2. What are the different harvesting methods?
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5. What are the different storage pest species?
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-------------------------------------- Please return this page to your teacher ------------------------------

E. SOIL AND FERTILITY MANAGEMENT

Basic Concepts of Soil Fertility

1. Role of the following in supplying nutrients from the soil:

A. Soil solution
B. Cation exchange sites
C. Organic matter
D. Soil minerals
E. Plant residue
 The soil solution is the liquid in the soil and plant nutrients dissolved in the soil
solution can move into the plant as the water is taken up.
 Cations (positively charged ions such as calcium, magnesium and potassium) are
held on negatively charged exchange sites in the soil. Cation exchange capacity
(CEC) is a measure of the amount of cations that can be held by the soil and
released into the soil solution. Soils with a greater cation exchange capacity (see
PO#10) are able to hold onto more nutrients.
 Organic matter contains nutrients that are released for plant uptake through
microbial decomposition.
 As soil minerals (clays, carbonates, etc.) weather (breakdown) they release
nutrients for plant uptake. A good example of this is potassium.
 As plant residues breakdown, the nutrients in them become available to
growing plants. Nitrogen is typically the one we think of, but the other essential
nutrients in plant residues will become available for plant uptake as well.
 The speed and degree of the breakdown of residues will depend on
environmental factors such as moisture and temperature. Most nutrients are
released as the organic molecules in the residue are broken down by microbes.
However, some nutrients, like K, are not part of any organic molecules in
residues and thus are released much more rapidly.
2. Nutrient transformations and interactions:
A. Mineralization
B. Immobilization
C. Nutrient uptake antagonism
 Mineralization refers to the conversion of organic N sources (plant residues,
manures, and biosolids) to inorganic N sources. This is accomplished by a wide
variety of microorganisms.

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 Immobilization is the reverse of mineralization as this refers to the conversion of
inorganic forms of nitrogen into organic forms, such as microbial cells and
organic matter.
 Mineralization and Immobilization occur at the same time. The net effect of
these two processes is typically determined by the ratio of carbon to the
nitrogen content in the organic material. For example, a C:N ratio less than ~20
typically results in net mineralization of N and a C:N ratio greater than ~30
typically results in net immobilization of N.
 Nutrient uptake antagonism refers to circumstances where, depending on soil
conditions and nutrient form and availability, plant uptake is weighted favorably
toward some nutrient(s) over others.
3. The processes of mass flow, diffusion, and root interception affect nutrient
uptake.
 Mass flow of a nutrient occurs when it is dissolved in the soil solution and flows
with water into the plant. This is the major process for uptake of nitrogen,
calcium and magnesium.
 Diffusion is the movement of a nutrient from an area of high concentration to
one of lower concentration. Typically the nutrient will move from the soil
solution (high concentration) to the root surface (low concentration). This is an
important process for phosphorus and potassium and is a key theory behind the
use of banded or starter fertilizer.
 Root interception occurs when a root grows in to a fresh area or surface of clay or
organic matter reducing the distance a nutrient must diffuse and thus increasing
absorption of the nutrient. Root interception is extremely important for very
immobile nutrients like P and thus having good soil conditions for root growth is
essential for good P nutrition.
4. Distinguish each macronutrient as mobile or immobile in the soil and recognize
difference in mobility depending on form. The mobility of nitrogen is dependent
on the form it is in. If it is in the nitrate form (NO3 - ) it is very mobile with the
soil water and can be easily leached. In the ammonium form (NH4 + ) it can be
held on cation exchange sites and is not susceptible to leaching. Phosphorus is
typically immobile in the soil unless soil test levels rise above the soil’s ability to
bind it. Calcium, magnesium and potassium are considered immobile in soil since
they are held on cation exchange sites. Sulfur (as sulfate SO4 - is an anion and
not held on cation exchange sites) is mobile in most soils.
5. Soil characteristics that affect nutrient uptake:
 Texture is defined as the proportion of sand, silt and clay in the soil. As the clay
content increases, so does the CEC, resulting in a greater ability to hold nutrients.
Soils with more sand and less clay have lower CECs and cannot hold as many
cations. Since sandy soils also have large pore spaces, leaching of nutrients is
greater than on a soil with more silt and clay.
 Soil structure is defined as the arrangement of soil particles into aggregates.
Good soil structure is represented by significant aggregation. This allows for
optimal root growth and water and nutrient access for any given soil.
Destruction of good structure, by compaction or tillage can result in an increase
in runoff since water cannot move as readily down through the
 Under poor drainage conditions, nitrate nitrogen can be lost through
denitrification. With excessively drained soils (sandy) leaching losses are more
important. Some nutrients like iron and manganese are more soluble under very
wet or flooded conditions.
 Soil moisture is very important for root growth, so adequate moisture will
improve uptake of nutrients by diffusion and root interaction. Soil moisture is
also important for organic matter decomposition (which releases N, P and S).

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  Soil pH affects the availability of most nutrients. For example, at low pH and
high pH, phosphorus is less available than when the pH is around 6.5. At a low
pH it is bound by aluminum and iron and at a high pH is bound by calcium.
Many of the micronutrients are also sensitive to pH, being more available in
slightly acid soils. At high pH’s, molybdenum can become too available and be
toxic to plants.
 Soil pH is important in N transformations including mineralization of organic
materials (biological degradation), nitrification (bacteria responsible for this
process are pH sensitive) and N fixation.
 Temperature affects the plant’s ability to grow and thus affects nutrient uptake.
Temperature also controls the mineralization of organic forms of nutrients to
mineral forms that plants can take up. Mineralization and thus nutrient
availability is reduced or stopped completely at very low and very high soil
temperatures. oil profile.
6. The fate of Nitrogen in soil;
A. Fixation by clay B. Ammonification/mineralization C. Nitrification D.
Volatilization
E. Denitrification F. Immobilization G. Leaching H. Plant uptake I. Symbiotic
fixation

A. Since the soil has a negative charge, the ammonium ion (NH4 + ) can be
bound to soil particles. Depending on the type of clay, this ion can be trapped in
the actual structure of the clay mineral and become unavailable for plant uptake
as well.

B. Ammonification/Mineralization (see diagram below) is the conversion of

organic nitrogen to ammonium-N by microbes as they decompose the organic
matter. If large amounts of N-rich organic materials with narrow C:N ratios.

C. Nitrification (see diagram below) is a two-step process that converts ammonium to

nitrite (by one species of bacteria) and then to nitrate (by a second species of bacteria).
These bacteria are sensitive to temperature, moisture and soil pH. Nitrification is most
rapid when soil is warm (67-86°F), moist and well-aerated, but virtually ceases below

41°F and above 122°F.

D. Volatilization (see diagram below) is the loss of ammonium N through conversion to

ammonia. Volatilization losses are higher for manures and urea fertilizers that are
surface applied and not incorporated (by tillage or by rain) into the soil. Manure
contains N in two primary forms: ammonium and organic N. If manure is incorporated
within one day, approximately 65% of the ammonium N is expected to be retained;
when incorporated after 5 days the ammonium N will have been lost through
volatilization. Organic N in manure is not lost through volatilization, but it takes time
to mineralize before it becomes plant available.

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E. Once nitrogen in the soil is in the nitrate (NO3 - ) form, several things can happen.
Under waterlogged or flooded (anaerobic) conditions, nitrate can be converted to
gaseous forms of N. Under typical conditions the majority would be in as N2 gas.
However, a significant amount of N released in this process is in the form of nitrous
oxide, a very potent greenhouse gas. This process is called denitrification (see diagram

below).

F. If the soils are not wet (aerobic), the nitrate can be used by microbes to breakdown
more organic materials. Immobilization refers to the process where nitrate and
ammonium are taken up by soil organisms and therefore become unavailable to crops.
Incorporation of materials with a high carbon to nitrogen ratio (e.g. sawdust, straw,
etc., with C:N>30), will increase biological activity and cause a greater demand for N,
and thus result in N immobilization (see diagram below). Immobilization only
temporarily locks up N. When the microorganisms die, the organic N contained in their

cells is converted by mineralization and nitrification to plant available nitrate.

G. If sufficient rain occurs nitrate can be lost to groundwater by leaching through the
soil profile below the roots of the plants.

H. If conditions are aerobic (not wet or flooded) nitrate can be taken up by the plants.

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I. Symbiotic fixation of nitrogen is a mutually beneficial process between a legume plant
and the associated microorganism (Rhizobium sp.). The plant provides the microbe
with an energy source to convert N2 from the atmosphere to ammonium that can be
utilized by the plant. Nitrogen fixation requires rhizobia, energy, enzymes and minerals.
If a plant available form of N is present, the crop will use it instead of fixing N from the

air.

7. Soil factors affect symbiotic nitrogen fixation:

A. pH B. Moisture C. Population of correct Rhizobia species D. Nitrogen level E.

Aeration F. Organic matter

 The microbes that are responsible for symbiotic nitrogen fixation are very sensitive
to pH. As the pH drops, fixation will slow. Very little will occur below a pH of 5.0.
 The Rhizobia species that are responsible for fixation operate under good moisture
conditions. If it gets too wet or dry microbial activity will slow down. Under
drought conditions, fixation will stop.
 There are numerous species of Rhizobium, and they each require a specific host. The
inoculation of the legume seed with the correct species (especially the first time this
legume has been in the field) is extremely important to obtaining good levels of
fixation. For example, the symbiotic bacteria for soybean will not fix nitrogen with
alfalfa.
 As readily available nitrogen from other sources (fertilizers, manures, biosolids,
organic matter) increases, the amount of nitrogen fixed decreases.
 Since the Rhizobia are aerobic bacteria, aeration is very important. Under very wet
conditions they will not fix as much nitrogen. Under wet conditions, leaching and
denitrification losses may increase as well.
 If the organic matter content is very high, and the supply of available nitrogen is
plentiful, the bacteria will not fix as much nitrogen.

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 15. The different crops and cropping systems affect soil fertility and fertilization
strategies
I- Fertility management in one year will impact fertility status the next year. Thus,
recommendation systems should take into account crop rotations. One example is
corn in rotation with hay (alfalfa, alfalfa-grass or grass). First year corn after hay does
not need any additional N, aside from potentially 20-30 lbs N/acre of starter
fertilizer, as it benefits from the significant pool of N mineralized from the roots and
remaining above ground biomass of the hay present before rotation to corn. Also
corn after soybeans needs less external N (typically 20-30 lbs N/acre less) as it
benefits from the soybean in the rotation. Similarly, when manure is applied to meet
N needs of a crop like corn, P and K are typically applied in excess of crop removal,
typically eliminating the need for additional P and K for the crop that follows the
corn. Often times in wheat and corn rotations, farmers manage fertility

II- Nutrient Sources, Analyses, Application Methods

1. Crop response relationships:
a. Diminishing returns response curve
b. Plateau yield
c. Critical response level
d. Economic optimum nutrient rate

Crop yields depend on many different factors including soil properties, genetics,
climate, crop management (cultural practices, pest and disease management), and
fertility management.
Assuming good crop
management and reasonable
growing conditions, a crop
response to fertility
management could be
expected for soils that are
relatively low in a specific
nutrient. For example, if
nitrogen is limiting yield,
addition of N will result in a
crop response. Trials with
multiple N rates can then be
used to determine the economic optimum nutrient rate. Such trials consist of
multiple rates of N (typically at least 5 rates) where yield data can be used to
determine the plateau yield, the critical response level and the diminishing returns
response curve. An example is shown below. In this example, when fertilizer was
applied to a low fertility field, yield increased (phase A) until a plateau was reached
(phase B). Applying more fertilizer than needed does not increase yield (phase C)
and could, in some situations, cause a yield decline (phase D; not commonly
observed in field crops). Often, additions of excess fertilizer also increase the
likelihood of losses to the environment (see PO#51). The crop response curve will be
different for each crop and field, so development of a crop fertilizer
recommendation system requires assembly of data from many field crop response
trials. Together such trials result in identification of critical response levels (critical
agronomic test levels) beyond which a response to additional fertility is unlikely to
result in a yield increase. Going from A to B in the figure above, the economic
optimum nutrient rate takes into account the diminishing return to added fertilizer ,
and is set where the next addition of fertilizer costs more than the return in yield is
worth. Thus, the most economic rate of fertilizer is slightly lower than the fertilizer
rate at which a maximum yield is obtained.

69
2. Describe the role of the following in providing plant nutrients: A. Soil organic matter
B. Commercial fertilizer C. Soil minerals D. Animal manure E. Compost F. Biosolids
G. Plant residue
 Soil organic matter and organic amendments such as animal manure, compost
and biosolids release nutrients over time through microbial mineralization.
 Soil minerals and organic matter create negatively charged surfaces that attract
nutrient cations (cation exchange capacity). Soils differ in their mineral
composition and organic matter content, resulting in differences in their
capability to provide essential minerals to plants.
 Commercial fertilizer is recommended only when nutrient supply from other
sources is insufficient.
 Plant residues release nutrients back to the soil. Residue coverage of the soil
can furthermore result in moisture conservation and added moisture can
make nutrients more available.

3. Describe the physical form and analysis of each of the following N, P, K

sources;
4. Describe the physical form and analysis of each of the following calcium
and/or magnesium sources:
A. Calcitic lime B. Dolomitic lime C. Gypsum D. Potassium magnesium sulfate

70
 5. Define the following commercial fertilizer terms:
A. Nutrient use efficiency B. Total availability C. Water solubility D.
Guaranteed analysis E. Salt effect F. Density

 Nutrient use efficiency is the yield output per unit input (e.g. bushels of corn per lb
of applied N).
 Total availability is the total amount of a nutrient that is eventually expected to
become plant available (could be over many years).
 Water solubility reflects the portion that dissolves in water (more immediately
available).
 Guaranteed analysis is the minimum amount of %Total N, Available P labeled as
% P2O5, and soluble K labeled as %K2O (etc.) in the fertilizer material. By law,
fertilizer analyses are always labeled in these terms regardless of the actual chemical
form of the fertilizer materials.
 Soluble salts are salts in the soil solution, in direct contact with roots. High soluble
salt content (resulting from e.g. large applications of N (ammonium salts) and K
sources) can cause seedling damage (dehydration).
 For liquid fertilizers where the rate is given in gallons per acre the density of the
fertilizer must be known to determine the amount of nutrients applied per acre.
For example, if the recommendation calls for 120 lbs N/acre and the source is UAN
30-0-0 that weighs 10.85 lbs/gallon, the application rate is calculated in the
following way:

120 lb N/A ÷ 0.30 lb N/lb UAN ÷ 10.85 lb UAN/gallon = 37 gallons of

UAN /acre.

6. Define the following nutrient terms: A. Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) B. Organic N
C. Inorganic N D. Organic P E. Inorganic P F. Dissolved P G. Particulate P
 Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN): – Total N analytical method that includes organic
fraction for soils, plants and waters. – Soils range from 0.05 to 0.3 % typically,
but can be several % for mucks. – Plants are normally 0.2 to 4 % depending on
species, age, plant part, etc.
 Organic N: – Not water soluble, organically bound (e.g. protein), slow to become
available. Availability based on mineralization of organic matter.
 Inorganic N: – e.g. ammonium, urea, nitrite, nitrate.
 Organic P: – P bound in organic form, not soluble, most commonly found as
phytate. – Largest P fraction in animal manure, availability based on
mineralization of organic matter.
 Inorganic P: – P not associated with carbon (usually P dissolved in solution as PO4
3- , HPO4 2- , H2PO4 - ).
 Dissolved P: – P in the soil solution (PO4 3- , HPO4 2- , H2PO4 - ).
 Particulate P: – P attached to soil particles.

7. Calculate fertilizer application rates from fertilizer analysis information.

71
 For liquid fertilizers where the rate is given in gallons per acre the density of the
fertilizer must be known to determine the amount of nutrients applied per acre. In
this example, UAN 30-0-0 weighs 10.85 lb/gal. Therefore, 37 gallons/ acre equals 37
x 10.85 = 401 lb of UAN/acre and thus at 30% N, this equals 401 x 0.30 = 120 lb
N/acre.

III- Soil pH and Liming

1. Elements of soil pH and liming;

 Soil pH
pH is the negative log of the H+ ion concentration
pH = -Log H+ = log 1/H+
pH 7.0 = -log 0.0000001 H+ or (H+ ) = 1 x 10-7
pH 6.0 = -log 0.000001 H+ or (H+ ) = 1 x 10-6

 Properties of pH:
 pH 7 is neutral - neither acid or basic (alkaline)
 pH < 7 is acid and > 7 is basic (alkaline)
 1 pH = A 10 fold increase in acidity. pH 5 is 10 times more acid than 6, 100
times more acid than 7 Soils range between pH 3.5 and 9.
a. Hydrogen and aluminum ions and complexes are the two primary sources
of soil acidity.
b. pH – Northeastern mineral soils 4.5 – 8.2
c. pH – Northeastern muck soils 3.5 – 8.2
 Exchangeable acidity is a measure of the soil’s ability to withstand a change in
pH upon lime addition. The higher the exchangeable acidity of a soil, the more
lime is needed for a particular pH change.
 Buffer pH is used to estimate a soil’s exchangeable acidity; the amount of change
in buffer pH is related to lime needs.
 Alkalinity is the term used to describe the amount of base in a soil when the pH
is above 7.

2. The long-term change in soil pH from applying N.

Nitrification or the conversion of ammonium N to nitrate N produces acidity:

2NH4 + + 4 O2 → 2 NO3 - + 4 H+ + H2O

2H+ are produced for every N in the ammonium-N form (NH4 + ). This
reaction occurs regardless of the source or the NH4 + .

The acidity from N fertilizers is often the largest single acidifying addition to agricultural
soils. The net amount of acidity created when N fertilizer is applied depends on other
reactions that occur with the fertilizer. The acidity created by different fertilizer
materials is summarized in the table, above. As an example, if 150 lb N/acre is applied
as urea, this will produce the equivalent of 270 lb of lime requirement (150 x 1.8 =
270). Similarly if 150 lb N/acre is applied as ammonium sulfate, 810 lb of lime
requirement (150 x 5.4 = 810) will be created.

3. Application of N in a no-till or long-term perennial forage crop results in pH

stratification (acid roof) and how this impacts root growth, herbicide activity, soil
sampling, and liming management.

72
The reaction of ammonium forming fertilizers (e.g. ammonium nitrate, urea, urea
ammonium nitrate, anhydrous ammonia, ammonium sulfate) with oxygen (a process
called oxidation) results in the formation of nitrate (NO3 - ) and H+ ions which

lowers soil pH:

In no-till situations, the fertilizer is not mixed throughout the soil profile, and
consequently, the acidity created by this fertilizer remains at the surface, resulting in
the formation of an ―acid roof‖ where the surface inch or two of soil is lower in pH
than the subsoil. This can impact root growth, especially for new seedings, as well as
impact herbicide activity. Under minimum or no-tillage systems, because the surface
inch of the soil may become acid more rapidly than the deeper layer, the pH values of
two soil layers (0-1 and 0-6 inches) should be determined. If the pH of the surface 0-1
inches is less than desired, but the pH of the 6-inch core is adequate, a small lime
addition (1 to 1 ½ tons of lime per acre) is recommended to raise the pH of the soil
surface. If both samples are strongly acidic, do not use no-till methods for the
establishment of legumes unless lime has been applied and mixed with the soil for at
least 6 to 9 months to permit the lime to react with the soil. If the surface pH is
adequate, but the pH of the 6-inch core is lower than desired, legumes might be no-
till seeded with a slightly lower overall pH or without waiting so long for the applied
lime to react as when both zones have a low soil pH. Downward movement of lime
to subsurface layers is very slow and only occurs after the surface layer has reached
>80% saturation which means the pH of the surface needs to be around 7.0 to let
lime to move downward. If a rapid increase in pH is desired, a very finely ground
limestone can be used or hydroxide sources (hydrated lime or slaked lime) can be
considered. Both will be more expensive than planning ahead and maintaining a good
pH level over time. As explained, these sources increase the pH of the soil much faster
than calcitic or dolomitic limestones. This could be desirable if a quick increase in pH
is needed. However the effects are of shorter duration.

4. soil pH affects the availability of each nutrient.

 Most plants usually
grow best at pH
values above 5.5.
 Lower pH increase
solubility of Al, Mn,
Fe.
a. In excess Al, Mn,
Fe are toxic to plants.
b. A critical effect is
that root growth is
slowed or stopped
by excess soluble Al.
 Extreme pH values
decrease the
availability of most
nutrients. The effect of
soil pH on nutrient
availability is summarized in the figure below. Low pH reduces the availability of
the macro and secondary nutrients. High pH reduces the availability of most
micronutrients.
 Soil pH around 6.5 is usually considered optimum for nutrient availability. o
Microbial activity may be affected by very low or very high pH.
5. Effects of Soil Liming Materials in Soil pH

73
 Limestone is calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate
CaCO3 and MgCO3
 The limestone dissolves in water to form carbonic acid
(H2CO3) and Ca(OH)2: CaCO3 + HOH ↔ H2CO3 + Ca(OH)2
 H2CO3 is unstable and converts to carbon dioxide and water - the CO2 gas
escapes
H2CO3 ↔ CO2 + HOH

 Tremaining Ca(OH)2 dissociates into Ca2+ and OH

 The Ca2+ replaces 2 H+ from the soil; increasing the soil base saturation
 The OH anion reacts with the soil acid cation H+ forming water H+ + OH- ↔
HOH (water)

6. Calculate lime application rates to meet lime requirements.

Lime recommendations are given in 100% ENV. To convert to lime
recommendation for a particular liming material A: Lime rate (tons/acre) = 100
x lime rate for 100% ENV (tons/acre) / ENV of material A. For example, the soil
test recommendation is 1.5 ton/acre of 100% ENV and the limestone has an
ENV of 70.3. How much of this material needs to be added?

Answer: Lime rate (ton/acre) = 100 x 1.5 ton 100% ENV ÷ 70.3 ENV = 2.1 tons
limestone/acre

7. How biosolid application and soil pH affect availability of heavy metals to

plants.

In general, heavy metal availability is highest at low pH so liming can decrease

heavy metal availability while heavy metals, if present, could become toxic at

74
 low pH. Biosolids can contain heavy metals while some biosolids might also be
lime-stabilized, resulting in a pH increase upon application.

Formative Questions
-------------------------------------- Please return this page to your teacher ------------------------------
Name: _______________________________ Date: ____________
Course: _______________________________ ACP (Lesson E)
Please answer the following questions base on your understanding from the above
lesson

1. What are the role of the following in supplying nutrients from the soil:
A. Soil solution
B. Cation exchange sites
C. Organic matter
D. Soil minerals
E. Plant residue
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2. Summarize the following process plays a role in the fate of Nitrogen?
A. Fixation by clay B. Ammonification/mineralization C. Nitrification D. Volatilization
E. Denitrification F. Immobilization G. Leaching H. Plant uptake I. Symbiotic fixation

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3. Describe the following crop response relationships:
a. Diminishing returns response curve
b. Plateau yield
c. Critical response level
d. Economic optimum nutrient rate

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4. What is pH?
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5. What are the different storage pest species? How does soil pH affects the
availability of nutrients?
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