Engineering Mechanics I: Statics (MEng 2201)

Chapter 4: Structures
Contents
• Plane Trusses (Lecture 7)
• Method of Joints (Lecture 7)
• Method of Sections (Lecture 8)
• Frames and Machines (Lecture 9)

1
 Plane Trusses (Lecture 7)
Aim: determination of the forces internal to a structure.
• To determine these internal forces, we must dismember
the structure and analyze separate FBDs of individual
members or combinations of members.
Plane Trusses
• A framework composed of members joined at their ends
to form a rigid structure is called a truss.
– Bridges and roof supports are common examples of
trusses.
• Structural members commonly used as plane trusses are
I-beams, channels, angles, bars, and special shapes which
are fastened together at their ends by welding, riveted
connections, large bolts or pins. 2
 Commonly Used Trusses
• Trusses

3
 Plane Trusses
• When the members of the truss lie essentially in a single
plane, the truss is called a plane truss
• The basic element of a plane truss is triangle.
• Three bars joined by pins at their ends,
constitute a rigid frame.
• Four or more bars pin-jointed to form
a polygon of as many sides constitute
a non-rigid frame.
• We can make the non-rigid frame rigid
or stable by adding a diagonal bar joining A and D or
B and C and thereby forming two triangles.
4
 Simple Trusses
• We can extend the structure by adding additional units
of two end-connected bars, such as DE and CE or AF
and DF, which are pinned to two fixed joints.

• In this way the entire structure will remain rigid.

• Structures built from a basic triangle in the manner
described above are known as simple trusses. 5
 Simple Trusses
• When more members are present than are needed to
prevent collapse, the truss is statically indeterminate.
• A statically indeterminate truss cannot be analyzed by
the equations of equilibrium alone.
• Additional members or supports which are not
necessary for maintaining the equilibrium configuration
are called redundant.
• Several assumptions are made in the force analysis of
simple trusses.
• First, we assume all members to be two-force members.
• A two-force member is one in equilibrium under the
action of two forces only.
6
 Simple Trusses
• Each member of a truss is normally a straight link
joining the two points of application of force.
• The two forces applied at the ends of the member are
necessarily equal, opposite, and collinear for
equilibrium.
• The member may be in tension
or compression.
• We usually assume here that the
weight of the member is small
compared with the force it
supports.
7
 Simple Trusses
• If we must account for the effect of the weight, we can
replace the weight W of the member by two forces, each
W/2 if the member is uniform, with one force acting at
each end of the member.
• These forces, in effect, are treated as loads externally
applied to the pin connections.
• When welded or riveted
connections are used to join
structural members, we may
assume that the connection is
a pin joint if the centerlines
of the members are concurrent at the joint as in the Fig.
8
 Simple Trusses
• We also assume in the analysis of simple trusses that all
external forces are applied at the pin connections.
• For large trusses, a roller, rocker, or some kind of slip
joint is used at one of the supports to provide for
expansion and contraction due to temperature changes
and for deformation from applied loads.
• Trusses and frames in which no such provision is made
are statically indeterminate.
• Two methods of force analysis (Method of Joints &
Method of Sections) of simple trusses will be presented
here.
• Each method will be explained for the simple truss
shown in the next slide. 9
 Simple Trusses
• The external reactions are determined first, by applying
the equilibrium equations to the truss as a whole.
• Then the force analysis of the remainder of the truss is
performed.

10
 Simple Trusses
A. Method of Joints
• This method for finding the forces in the members of a
truss consists of satisfying the conditions of equilibrium
for the forces acting on the connecting pin of each joint.
• The method therefore deals with the equilibrium of
concurrent forces, and only two independent
equilibrium equations are involved.

11
 Method of Joints (Lecture 7)
• We begin the analysis with any joint where at least one
known load exists and where not more than two
unknown forces are present.
• The solution may be started with the pin at the left end.
• Its free-body diagram is shown in Fig. below.
• With the joints indicated by
letters, we usually designate
the force in each member by
the two letters defining the
ends of the member.
• The proper directions of the
forces should be evident by inspection. 12
 Method of Joints
• The FBDs of portions of members AF and AB are also
shown to clearly indicate the mechanism of the action
and reaction.
• The force AB is drawn from the right side and is shown
acting away from the pin.
• Thus, if we consistently draw the force arrows on the
same side of the pin as the member, then tension (such
as AB) will always be indicated by an arrow away from
the pin, and compression (such as AF) will always be
indicated by an arrow toward the pin.
• First, the magnitude of AF is determined from the
equation ΣFy = 0 and then
• AB is determined from ΣFx = 0. 13
 Method of Joints
• Joint F may be analyzed next, since it now contains
only two unknowns, EF and BF.
• We cannot go to joint B because at this stage of the
calculation, there are three unknowns.
• Proceeding to the next joint having no more than two
unknowns, we subsequently analyze joints B, C, E, and
D in that order.
• Figure (next slide) shows the FBD of each joint and its
corresponding force polygon, which represents
graphically the two equilibrium conditions:
ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0.
• The numbers indicate the order in which the joints are
analyzed. 14
 Method of Joints
• FBD

15
 Method of Joints
• When joint D is finally reached, the computed reaction
R2 must be in equilibrium with the forces in members
CD and ED, which were determined previously.
• Isolation of joint C shows that the force in CE is zero
when the equation ΣFy = 0 is applied.
• The force in this member would not be zero, of course,
if an external vertical load were applied at C.
• We cannot initially assign the correct direction of one
or both of the unknown forces acting on a given pin.
• If so, we may make an arbitrary assignment.
• A negative computed force value indicates that the
initially assumed direction is incorrect.
16
 Example 1:Method of Joints
• Compute the force in each member of the loaded
cantilever truss by the method of joints.

17
 Example 1:Solution
• The first step will be to compute the external forces at D
and E from the free-body diagram of the truss as a
whole. The equations of equilibrium give:

18
 Example 1: Solution
• Next we draw FBDs showing the forces acting on each
of the connecting pins.
• The correctness of the assigned directions of the forces
is verified when each joint is considered in sequence.
• Starting at joint A, equilibrium requires,

• Joint B must be analyzed next, since there are more

than two unknown forces on joint C.
• The force BC must provide an upward component, in
which case BD must balance the force to the left.
19
 Example 1: Solution
• FBDs

20
 Example 1: Solution
• For joint B, the forces are obtained from

• Joint C now contains only two unknowns, and these are

found in the same way as before:

• Finally, from joint E there results

21
 Method of Sections (Lecture 8)
B. Method of Sections

• The force in almost any desired member may be found

directly from an analysis of a section which has cut that
member.
• It is not necessary to proceed with the calculation from
joint to joint until the member in question has been
reached.
• In choosing a section of the truss, not more than three
members whose forces are unknown should be cut,
since there are only three available independent
equilibrium equations.
22
 Method of Sections: Illustration
• Consider the figure below, L > R1
• The external reactions are first
computed as with the method of
joints, by considering the truss
as a whole.
• Let us determine the force in the
member BE,
• An imaginary section,
indicated by the dashed line,
is passed through the truss,
cutting it into two parts.
23
 Method of Sections: Illustration
• This section has cut three members whose forces are
initially unknown.
• In order for the portion of the truss on each side of the
section to remain in equilibrium, it is necessary to apply
to each cut member the force which was exerted on it
by the member cut away.
• For simple trusses composed of straight two-force
members, these forces will always be in the directions
of the respective members.
• The left-hand section is in equilibrium under the action
of the applied load L, the end reaction R1, and the three
forces exerted on the cut members by the right-hand
section which has been removed. 24
 Method of Sections: Illustration
• MB = 0 requires that EF be to the left, which makes it
compressive, because it acts toward the cut section of
member EF.
• The MB = 0 eliminates three forces from the relation,
and the magnitude of EF can be determined directly.
• Since L > R1, Fy = 0 indicates that the force BE must
be up and to the right to supply the needed upward
component for vertical equilibrium.
• Force BE is therefore tensile, since it acts away from
the cut section.
• The ME = 0 requires that BC be to the right.
• We determine the magnitude of BC from ME = 0.
25
 Method of Sections
• In this way each of the three unknowns has been
determined independently of the other two.
• The right-hand section of the truss is also in equilibrium
under the action of R2 and the same three forces in the
cut members applied in the directions opposite to those
for the left section.
• The proper sense for the horizontal forces can be found
from the balance of moments about points B and E.

• Either portion of a truss can be used for the calculations,

but the one involving the smaller number of forces will
usually yield the simpler solution.
26
 Method of Sections: Illustration
• In the method of sections, one should choose a moment
center, either on or off the section, through which as
many unknown forces as possible pass.
• It is not always possible to assign the proper sense of an
unknown force when the FBD of a section is initially
drawn.
• Once an arbitrary direction is assumed, a + answer will
verify the assumed sense and a – result will indicate that
the force is in the sense opposite to that was assumed.
• An alternative notation is to assign all unknown forces
arbitrarily as positive in the tension direction (away
from the section) and let the algebraic sign of the answer
distinguish between tension and compression. 27
 Example 2: Method of Sections
• Calculate the forces induced in members KL, CL, and
CB by the 20-ton load on the cantilever truss.

28
 Example 2: Solution
• The vertical components of the reactions at A and M are
statically indeterminate with the two fixed supports, all
members other than AM are statically determinate.
• We may pass a section directly through members KL,
CL, and CB and analyze the portion of the truss to the
left of this section as a statically determinate rigid body.

29
 Example 2: Solution
• ML = 0 shows that CB is in compression, and
• MC = 0 shows that KL is in tension.
• The direction of CL is not quite so obvious until we
observe that KL and CB intersect at a point P to the
right of G.
• MP = 0 eliminates reference to KL and CB and shows
that CL must be compressive to balance the moment of
the 20-ton force about P.
• Summing moments about L requires finding the moment
arm BL= 16 + (26 – 16)/2 = 21 ft. Thus,
• [ΣML = 0] 20(5)(12) – CB(21) = 0
 CB = 57.1 tons C
30
 Example 2: Solution
• Next ΣMC = 0, which requires a calculation of cos .
From the given dimensions we see  = tan–1 (5/12) so
that cos  = 12/13. Therefore,

• Finally, ΣMP = 0 can be used to find CL, whose distance

from C is given by or [ΣFx/y = 0]
PC/16 = 24/(26 – 16) or PC = 38.4 ft.
• We also need , which is given by
 = tan–1 (12/21) = 29.70 and cos  = 0.868.
• We now have
• [ΣMP = 0] 20(48 – 38.4) – CL(0.868)(38.4) = 0
 CL = 5.76 tons C 31
 Example 3: Method of Sections
• Calculate the force in member DJ of the Howe roof
truss illustrated. Neglect any horizontal components of
force at the supports.

32
 Example 3: Solution
• It is not possible to pass a section through DJ without
cutting four members whose forces are unknown.
• Although three of these cut by section 2 are concurrent
at J and therefore the moment equation about J could be
used to obtain DE, the force in DJ cannot be obtained
from the remaining two equilibrium principles.
• It is necessary to consider first the adjacent section 1
before analyzing section 2.
• FBD of Section 1:

33
 Example 3: Solution
• To assign the proper directions for the forces acting on
the three cut members of section 1, we see that ΣMA = 0
eliminates the effects of CD and JK and requires that CJ
be up and to the left.
• ΣMC = 0 eliminates the effect of the three forces
concurrent at C and indicates that JK must be to the
right to supply sufficient CCW moment.
• Although it should be apparent that the top chord is
under compression, for purposes of illustration the force
in CD is arbitrarily assigned as tension.
• By the analysis of section 1, CJ is obtained from
• [ΣMA = 0] 0.707CJ(12) – 10(4) – 10(8) = 0
 CJ = 14.14 kN C 34
 Example 3: Solution
• [ΣMJ = 0] 0.894CD(6) + 18.33(12) – 10(4) – 10(8) = 0
 CD = – 18.63 kN
• The minus sign indicates that CD was assigned in the
wrong direction. Hence, CD= 18.63 kN C.
• FBD of Section 2:

35
 Example 3: Solution
• From the FBD of section 2, which now includes the
known value of CJ, a balance of moments about G
eliminates DE and JK. Thus,
• [ΣMG = 0] 12DJ + 10(16) + 10(20) – 18.33(24) –
14.14(0.707)(12) = 0
 DJ = 16.67 kN T.
• The answer for DJ is positive, so that the assumed
tensile direction is correct.

• An alternative approach to the entire problem is to

utilize section 1 to determine CD and then use the
method of joints applied at D to determine DJ.
36
 Frames and Machines (Lecture 9)
• A structure is called a frame or machine if at least one
of its individual members is a multi-force member.
• A multi-force member is defined as one with three or
more forces acting on it, or one with two or more forces
and one or more couples acting on it.
• Frames are structures which are designed to support
applied loads and are usually fixed in position.
• Machines are structures which contain moving parts
and are designed to transmit input forces or couples to
output forces or couples.
• We cannot analyze these structures by the methods of
joints or sections because they are not simple trusses
composed of two-force members. 37
 Frames and Machines
• Here we focus on the equilibrium of interconnected
rigid bodies which include multi-force members.
• Although most such bodies may be analyzed as
two-dimensional systems, there are numerous examples
of frames and machines which are three-dimensional.
• The forces acting on each member of a connected
system are found by isolating the member with a FBD
and applying the equations of equilibrium.
• If the frame or machine constitutes a rigid unit by itself
when removed from its supports, like the A-frame in
Fig. a, the analysis is best begun by establishing all the
forces external to the structure treated as a single rigid
body. 38
 Frames and Machines
• We then dismember the structure and consider the
equilibrium of each part separately.

• The equilibrium equations for the several parts will be

related through the terms involving the forces of
interaction (action and reaction). 39
 Frames and Machines
• If the structure is not a rigid unit by itself but depends
on its external supports for rigidity, as illustrated in Fig.
b, then the calculation of the external support reactions
cannot be completed until the structure is dismembered
and the individual parts are analyzed.

40
 Force Representation and FBDs
• It is absolutely necessary that a force be consistently
represented on the FBDs for interacting bodies which
involve the force in question.
• Thus, for two bodies connected by the pin A, Fig. a, the
force components must be consistently represented in
opposite directions on the separate FBD.

41
 Force Representation and FBDs
• For a ball-and-socket connection between members of a
space frame, we must apply the action-and-reaction
principle to all three components as shown in Fig. b.
• The assigned directions may prove to be wrong when
the algebraic signs of the components are determined
upon calculation.

42
 Force Representation and FBDs
• If Ax, for instance, should turn out to be negative, it is
actually acting in the direction opposite to that originally
represented.
• Accordingly, we would need to reverse the direction of
the force on both members and to reverse the sign of its
force terms in the equations.
• If we choose to use vector notation in labeling the
forces, then we must be careful to use a plus sign for an
action and a minus sign for the corresponding reaction.
• We may occasionally need to solve two or more eqns.
simultaneously, but we can avoid simultaneous solutions
by careful choice of moment axes which will eliminate
undesired terms from the equations. 43
 Example 4: Frames and Machines
• The frame supports the 400-kg load in the manner
shown. Neglect the weights of the members compared
with the forces induced by the load and compute the
horizontal and vertical components of all forces acting
on each of the members. (Four members)

44
 Example 4: Solution
• The three supporting members (pin, roller & weight)
which constitute the frame form a rigid assembly that
can be analyzed as a single unit.
• From the FBD of the entire frame we determine the
external reactions.

45
 Example 4: Solution
• Thus,

• Next we dismember
the frame and draw
a separate FBD of
each member.

46
 Example 4: Solution
• The external reactions just obtained are entered onto the
diagram for AD.
• Other known forces are the 3.92-kN forces exerted by
the shaft of the pulley on the member BF, as obtained
from the FBD of the pulley.
• The cable tension of 3.92 kN is also shown acting on AD
at its attachment point.
• Next, the components of all unknown forces are shown
on the diagrams.
• Here we observe that CE is a two-force member.
• The force components on CE have equal and opposite
reactions, which are shown on BF at E and on AD at C.
47
 Example 4: Solution
• We may not recognize the actual sense of the
components at B at first glance, so they may be
arbitrarily but consistently assigned.
• The solution may proceed by use of a moment equation
about B or E for member BF, followed by the two force
equations. Thus,

• Positive numerical values of the unknowns mean that

we assumed their directions correctly on the FBD.
48
 Example 4: Solution
• The value of Cx = Ex = 13.08 kN obtained by inspection
of the FBD of CE is now entered onto the diagram for
AD, along with the values of Bx and By just determined.

• The equations of equilibrium may now be applied to

member AD as a check, since all the forces acting on it
have already been computed.
• The equations give

49
 Example 5: Frames and Machines
• Neglect the weight of the frame and compute the forces
acting on all of its members

• Assume that the 30-lb force is applied to the pin as a

part of member BC. 50
 Example 5: Solution
• We note first that the frame is not a rigid unit when
removed from its supports since BDEF is a movable
quadrilateral and not a rigid triangle.
• Consequently the external reactions cannot be
completely determined until the individual members
are analyzed.
• However, we can determine the vertical components of
the reactions at A and C from the FBD of the frame as a
whole. Thus,

51
 Example 5: Solution
• FBD of the frame as a whole.

• Next we dismember the frame and draw the FBD of

each part.
52
 Example 5: Solution
• Since EF is a two-force member, the direction of the
force at E on ED and at F on AB is known.

53
 Example 5: Solution
• There should be no difficulty in assigning the correct
directions for forces E, F, D, and Bx.
• The direction of By, however, may not be assigned by
inspection and therefore is arbitrarily shown as
downward on AB and upward on BC.

• Member ED. The two unknowns are easily obtained by:

• Member EF. Clearly F is equal and opposite to E with

the magnitude of 50 lb. 54
 Example 5: Solution
• Member AB. Since F is now known, we solve for Bx,
Ax, and By from:

• The - sign shows we assigned By in the wrong direction.

• Member BC. The results for Bx, By, and D are now
transferred to BC, and the remaining unknown Cx is

• Apply the remaining 2 equilibrium equations as a check.

55
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