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EC8651 TRANSMISSION
LINES AND RF SYSTEMS
Department: ECE
Batch/Year:2018-2022/III YEAR
Created by: Mrs. P. SANTHOSHINI
Mr. S. KARUPPAIAH

Date: 17.03.2021
1.TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.NO CONTENT PAGE NO

1 Table of Contents 5

2 Course Objectives 6

3 Pre Requisites (Course Names with Code) 7

4 Syllabus 8

5 Course outcomes 9

6 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 10

7 Lecture Plan 12

8 Activity based learning 13

9 Lecture Notes 14-38

10 Assignments 39

11 Part A Q & A 40-44

12 Part B Qs 45

13 Supportive online Certification courses 46

14 Real time Applications in day to day life and to Industry 47

15 Contents beyond the Syllabus 48

16 Assessment Schedule 49

17 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 50

18 Mini Project suggestions 51

5
2. COURSE OBJECTIVES

To introduce the various types of transmission lines and its

characteristics
To give thorough understanding about high frequency line, power
and impedance measurements
To impart technical knowledge in impedance matching using
smith chart
To introduce passive filters and basic knowledge of active RF
components
To get acquaintance with RF system transceiver design
3. PRE REQUISITES

EC 8251 CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

EC 8451 ELECTROMAGNETICFIELDS
4. SYLLABUS

EC8651 TRANSMISSION LINES AND RF SYSTEMS

LTPC
3003
OBJECTIVES:
 To introduce the various types of transmission lines and its characteristics
 To give thorough understanding about high frequency line, power and impedance
measurements
 To impart technical knowledge in impedance matching using smith chart
 To introduce passive filters and basic knowledge of active RF components
 To get acquaintance with RF system transceiver design
UNIT I TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY 9
General theory of Transmission lines - the transmission line - general
solution - The infinite line - Wavelength, velocity of propagation - Waveform
distortion - the distortion-less line - Loading and different methods of loading -
Line not terminated in Z0 - Reflection coefficient - calculation of current, voltage,
power delivered and efficiency of transmission - Input and transfer impedance -
Open and short circuited lines - reflection factor and reflection loss.
UNIT II HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION LINES 9
Transmission line equations at radio frequencies - Line of Zero dissipation -
Voltage and current on the dissipation-less line, Standing Waves, Nodes, Standing
Wave Ratio - Input impedance of the dissipation-less line - Open and short
circuited lines - Power and impedance measurement on lines - Reflection losses -
Measurement of VSWR and wavelength.
UNIT III IMPEDANCE MATCHING IN HIGH FREQUENCY LINES 9
Impedance matching: Quarter wave transformer - Impedance matching by
stubs - Single stub and double stub matching - Smith chart - Solutions of
problems using Smith chart - Single and double stub matching using Smith chart.
UNIT IV WAVEGUIDES 9
General Wave behavior along uniform guiding structures – Transverse
Electromagnetic Waves, Transverse Magnetic Waves, Transverse Electric Waves –
TM and TE Waves between parallel plates. Field Equations in rectangular
waveguides, TM and TE waves in rectangular waveguides, Bessel Functions, TM
and TE waves in Circular waveguides.
UNIT V RF SYSTEM DESIGN CONCEPTS 9
Active RF components: Semiconductor basics in RF, bipolar junction
transistors, RF field effect transistors, High electron mobility transistors Basic
concepts of RF design, Mixers, Low noise amplifiers, voltage control oscillators,
Power amplifiers, transducer power gain and stability considerations.
5.COURSE OUTCOME

Course Knowledge
Course Outcomes
Outcome Level

To introduce the various types of transmission

CO1 lines and its characteristics K2

To give thorough understanding about high

CO2 frequency line, power and impedance K2
measurements.
To impart technical knowledge in impedance
CO3 matching using smith chart K4

To Discuss basic principles associated with

CO4 waveguides K2

To introduce basic knowledge of active RF

CO5 Components K2

To get acquaintance with RF system transceiver

CO6 design K2

9
6.CO- PO/PSO MAPPING

Program Outcomes (POs)

Course
Outcomes PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
CO1 3 3

CO2 3 3 2 2

CO3 3 3

CO4 3 3 1

CO5 3 3

CO6 3 3 2 2

Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

Course Outcomes
PSO 1 PSO 2 PSO 3
CO1 2
CO2 2
CO3 2 1
CO4 2
CO5 3
CO6 2 2

10
UNIT I
TRANSMISSION
LINE THEORY
 7. LECTURE PLAN
S.No Topic No. Propo Actual CO Taxon Mode of
of sed Date omy Delivery
Perio Date Level
ds
1 General theory of 1 22.02.21 CO1 K2 PPT
Transmission lines

2 The transmission 2,3 24.02.21 CO 1 K2 PPT

line – general
solution

3 The infinite line - 4 26.02.21 CO1 K2 PPT

Wavelength,
velocity of
propagation
4 Waveform 5 27.02.21 CO1 K2 PPT
distortion – the
distortion-less line
– Loading and
different methods
of loading
5 Line not 6 01.03.21 CO1 K2 PPT
terminated in Z0 –
Reflection
coefficient
6 Calculation of 7 03.03.21 CO1 K2
current, voltage,
power delivered
and efficiency of
transmission
7 Input and transfer 8 05.03.21 CO1 K2
impedance –Open
and short circuited
lines
8 Reflection factor 9 06.03.21 CO1 K2
and reflection loss.

12
8. ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

•Poster presentation can be arranged, where students are asked to display

different types of transmissionlines
• Collection of transmissionline samples

• QUIZ

•Reverse Dumb Charades: This is a group activity. Student from one group,
stands on the dais facing the group, away from the board. One student from next
group comes and writes down a technical word on the board. Now the first group
should make their team member tell the word written on the board without using
any technical words. Students find it very useful for refreshing the topics.

•Write & Define: This activity can be planned at the end of a unit. Teams of 5
to 6 members each should be formed. One member from each team, in turns,
should write a term on the board and define them. The words should not get
repeated. By the end of the activity, the board will be filled with various terms
related to the unit. The picture of this board can be used as reference when
students prepare for examination. As the turns go on, the terms get lesser and the
students take it as a challenge to explore every small/big term from the concerned
unit.

13
 9.LECTURE NOTES:
UNIT-1
TRANSMISSION LINE THEORY

1. GENERAL THEORY OF TRANSMISSION LINES

1. Introduction
A transmission line is a device designed to guide electrical energy from one point
to another. It is used, for example, to transfer the output rf energy of a transmitter to an
antenna. This energy will not travel through normal electrical wire without great losses.
Although the antenna can be connected directly to the transmitter, the antenna is usually
located some distance away from the transmitter.

On board ship, the transmitter is located inside a radio room, and its associated
antenna is mounted on a mast. A transmission line is used to connect the transmitter
and the antenna. The transmission line has a single purpose for both the transmitter and
the antenna.

This purpose is to transfer the energy output of the transmitter to the antenna
with the least possible power loss. How well this is done depends on the special physical
and electrical characteristics (impedance and resistance) of the transmission line.

2. Transmission Line Theory

The electrical characteristics of a two-wire transmission line depend primarily on

the construction of the line. The two-wire line acts like a long capacitor. The change of its
capacitive reactance is noticeable as the frequency applied to it is changed. Since the
long conductors have a magnetic field about them when electrical energy is being passed
through them, they also exhibit the properties of inductance.

The values of inductance and capacitance presented depend on the various

physical factors are:

For example, the type of line used, the dielectric in the line, and the length of the
line must be considered. The effects of the inductive and capacitive reactance of the line
depend on the frequency applied. Since no dielectric is perfect, electrons manage to
move from one conductor to the other through the dielectric.

Each type of two-wire transmission line also has a conductance value. This
conductance value represents the value of the current flow that may be expected
through the insulation, If the line is uniform (all values equal at each unit length), then
one small section of the line may represent several feet. This illustration of a two-wire
transmission line will be used throughout the discussion of transmission lines; but, keep
in mind that the principles presented apply to all transmission lines.

14
 A transmission line has the properties of inductance, capacitance, and resistance
just as the more conventional circuits have. Usually, however, the constants in
conventional circuits are lumped into a single device or component. For example, a coil of
wire has the property of inductance. When a certain amount of inductance is needed in a
circuit, a coil of the proper dimensions is inserted.

The inductance of the circuit is lumped into the one component. Two metal plates
separated by a small space, can be used to supply the required capacitance for a circuit.
In such a case, most of the capacitance of the circuit is lumped into this one component.
Similarly, a fixed resistor can be used to supply a certain value of circuit resistance as a
lumped sum.

Ideally, a transmission line would also have its constants of inductance,

capacitance, and resistance lumped together.

3. Distributed Constants

Transmission line constants, called distributed constants, are spread along the entire
length of the transmission line and cannot be distinguished separately. The amount of
inductance, capacitance, and resistance depends on the length of the line, the size of the
conducting wires, the spacing between the wires, and the dielectric (air or insulating
medium) between the wires.

The electrical lines which are used to transmit the electrical waves along them are
represented as transmission lines. he parameters of a transmission line are: Resistance
(R),Inductance (L),Capacitance (C), Conductance (G). Hence transmission line is called
distributed network.

Resistance (R) is defined as the loop resistance per unit length of the wire. Unit :
ohm/Km Inductance (L) is defined as the loop inductance per unit length of the wire. Unit:
Henry/Km Capacitance (C) is defined as the loop capacitance per unit length of the
wire.Unit :Farad/Km Conductance(G) is defined as the loop conductance per unit length of
the wire.Unit: mho/Km

4. Parameters of a Line

Wavelength of a line is the distance the wave travels along the line while the
phase angle is changing through 2π radians is a wavelength.

Characteristic impedance is the impedance measured at the sending end of

the line. It is given by Z0 = Z/Y,where Z = R + jwL is the series impedance Y = G + jwC
is the shunt admittance.
 The secondary constants of a line are:

(i) Characteristic Impedance

(ii) Propagation Constant

Since the line constants R, L, C and G are distributed through the entire length of
the line, they are called as distributed elements. They are also called as primary
constants.
Examples of common transmission lines include the coaxial cable, the microstrip
line which commonly feeds patch/microstrip antennas, and the two wire line:

Fig. 1.1 Types of Transmission lines

1.2 The Transmission line

A finite line is a line having a finite length on the line. It is a line, which is
terminated, in its characteristic impedance (ZR=Z0), so the input impedance of the
finite line is equal to the characteristic impedance (Zs=Z0).

An infinite line is a line in which the length of the transmission line is infinite. A
finite line, which is terminated in its characteristic impedance, is termed as infinite
line. So for an infinite line, the input impedance is equivalent to the characteristic
impedance.

The Symmetrical T Network:

Fig. 1.2 Symmetrical T Network

The value of ZO (image impedance) for a symmetrical network can be easily
determined. For the symmetrical T network of Fig. 1.1, terminated in its image
impedance ZO, and if Z1 = Z2 = ZT
Application of transmission lines:

1.They are used to transmit signal i.e. EM Waves from one point to another.
2.They can be used for impedance matching purpose.
3.They can be used as circuit elements like inductors, capacitors.
4.They can be used as stubs by properly adjusting their lengths.

1.3 General solution of the transmission line

It is used to find the voltage and current at any points on the transmission
line. Transmission lines behave very oddly at high frequencies. In traditional (low-
frequency) circuit theory, wires connect devices, but have zero resistance. There is
no phase delay across wires; and a short-circuited line always yields zero resistance.

For high-frequency transmission lines, things behave quite differently. For

instance, short-circuits can actually have an infinite impedance; open-circuits can
behave like short-circuited wires. The impedance of some load (ZL=XL+jYL) can be
transformed at the terminals of the transmission line to an impedance much different
than ZL. The goal of this tutorial is to understand transmission lines and the reasons
for their odd effects.

Let's start by examining a diagram. A sinusoidal voltage source with associated

impedance ZS is attached to a load ZL (which could be an antenna or some other
device in the circuit diagram we simply view it as an impedance called a load). The
load and the source are connected via a transmission line of length L.

Since antennas are often high-frequency devices, transmission line effects are
often very important. That is, if the length L of the transmission line significantly
alters Zin, then the current into the antenna from the source will be very small.
Consequently, we will not be delivering power properly to the antenna.

The same problems hold true in the receiving mode: a transmission line can
skew impedance of the receiver sufficiently that almost no power is transferred from
the antenna. Hence, a thorough understanding of antenna theory requires an
understanding of transmission lines. A great antenna can be hooked up to a great
receiver, but if it is done with a length of transmission line at high frequencies, the
system will not work properly.
 To understand transmission lines, we'll set up an equivalent circuit to model and
analyze them. To start, we'll take the basic symbol for a transmission line of length L
and divide it into small segments:

Fig. 1.3 Symbol of transmission line

Then we'll model each small segment with a small series resistance, series
inductance, shunt conductance, and shunt capacitance.

General solution:

A circuit with distributed parameter requires a method of analysis somewhat

different from that employed in circuits of lumped constants. Since a voltage drop
occurs across each series increment of a line, the voltage applied to each increment
of shunt admittance is a variable and thus the shunted current is a variable along
the line.

Fig. 1.4 Equivalent circuit of transmission line

Hence the line current around the loop is not a constant, as is assumed in
lumped constant circuits, but varies from point to point along the line. Differential
circuit equations that describes that action will be written for the steady state,
from which general circuit equation will be defined as follows.
R= series resistance, ohms per unit length of line( includes both wires)
L= series inductance, henrys per unit length of line
C= capacitance between conductors, faradays per unit length of line
G= shunt leakage conductance between conductors, mhos per unit length of line
ωL = series reactance, ohms per unit length of line
Z = R+jωL
ωL = series susceptance, mhos per unit length of line
Y = G+jωC
x = distance to the point of observation, measured from the receiving end of the
line
I = Current in the line at any point
V= voltage between conductors at any point
l = length of line

The figure 1.4 illustrates a line that in the limit may be considered as made up of
cascaded infinitesimal T sections, one of which is shown. This incremental section is
of length of ds and carries a current I. The series line impedance being Z ohms and
the voltage drop in the length ds is
dV = IZdx (1)

dV = IZ (2)
dx
The shunt admittance per unit length of line is Y mhos, so that
The admittance of the line is Yds mhos. The current dI that follows across the
line or from one conductor to the other is

dI = VYdx (3)

The equation 2 and 4 may be differentiated with respect to x

dV = IZ
Substituting
dx
These are the differential equations of the transmission line, fundamental to
circuits of distributed constants.
This results indicates two solutions, one for the plus sign and the other for the
minus sign before the radical. The solution of the differential equations are

(5)

Where A,B,C,D are arbitrary constants of integration.

Since the distance is measured from the receiving end of the line, it is possible to
assign conditions such that at
x = 0, I = IR V = VR
The above equations becomes

ER = A + B
IR = C + D (6)

Differentiating equation (5) and using (3) and (4)

(7)

(8)

Using (6) in (7) and (8)

Simultaneous solution of equation 9 ,12 and 13, along
with the fact that ER = IR ZR and that has been identified as the Z0 of
the line, leads to solution for the constants of the above equations as

Substituting the values of A,B,C and Din the equations of V and I

After simplification
The above equations can be written as hyperbolic functions as

1.4 Wavelength and Velocity of Propagation

Wave propagation is any of the ways in which waves travel. With respect to
the direction of the oscillation relative to the propagation direction, we can
distinguish between longitudinal wave and transverse waves. For electromagnetic
waves, propagation may occur in a vacuum as well as in a material medium.
Other wave types cannot propagate through a vacuum and need a transmission
medium to exist.

Wavelength

The distance the wave travels along the line while the phase angle is
changed through 2Π radians is called wavelength. λ =2п/ ß

The change of 2п in phase angle represents one cycle in time and occurs in
a distance of one wavelength, λ= v/f

Velocity

v= f λ
v=ω/ ß

This is the velocity of propagation along the line based on the observation
of the change in the phase angle along the line. It is measured in
miles/second if ß is in radians per meter.

We know that

Z = R + j ωL

Y= G+j ωC

Then
 Squaring on both sides

Equating real parts

Equating imaginary parts

Squaring on both sides

Substituting the value of α2

Solution of the quadratic equation is

 By neglecting negative values

Substituting the value of β

For a perfect transmission line R=0 and G=0

α=0

Therefore velocity v=ω/ ß

This is the velocity of propagation of ideal line

β2
The wavelength
λ= v/f = 2п/ ß

λ= 2п/ ß

= v/f

1.5 Waveform Distortion

Signal transmitted over lines is normally complex and consists of many

frequency components. For ideal transmission, the waveform at the line-
receiving end must be the same as the waveform of the original input signal.
The condition requires that all frequencies have the same attenuation and the
same delay caused by a finite phase velocity or velocity of propagation. When
these conditions are not satisfied, distortion exists. The distortions occurring in
the transmission line are called waveform distortion or line distortion.

Waveform distortion is of two types:

a) Frequency distortion
b) Phase or Delay Distortion.

a) Frequency distortion:

In general, the attenuation function is a function of frequency.

Attenuation function specifies the attenuation or loss incurred in the line while
the signal is propagating. When a signal having many frequency components
are transmitted along the line, all the frequencies will not have equal
attenuation and hence the received end waveform will not be identical with
the input waveform at the sending end because each frequency is having
different attenuation. This type of distortion is called frequency distortion.
 That is, when the attenuation constant is not a function of frequency,
frequency distortion does not exist on transmission lines.

In order to reduce frequency distortion occurring in the line,

a) The attenuation constant should be made independent of

frequency.

b) By using equalizers at the line terminals which minimize the

frequency distortion.

Equalizers are networks whose frequency and phase characteristics

are adjusted to be inverse to those of the lines, which result in a uniform
frequency response over the desired frequency band, and hence the
attenuation is equal for all the frequencies.

b) Delay distortion:

When a signal having many frequency components are transmitted along

the line, all the frequencies will not have same time of transmission, some
frequencies being delayed more than others. So the received end waveform will
not be identical with the input waveform at the sending end because some
frequency components will be delayed more than those of other frequencies.
This type of distortion is called phase or delay distortion.

It is that type of distortion in which the time required to transmit the

various frequency components over the line and the consequent delay is not a
constant.

This is, when velocity is independent of frequency, delay distortion does

not exist on the lines. In general, the phase function is a function of frequency.
Since v= ω / β, it will be independent of frequency only when β is equal to a
constant multiplied by ω .

Delay distortion is relatively minor importance to voice and music

transmission because of the characteristics of ear. It can be very series in
circuits intended for picture transmission, and applications of the co axial cable
have been made to over come the difficulty.
1.6 The distortion less line

If a line is to have neither frequency nor delay distortion, then attenuation

constant and velocity of propagation cannot be function of frequency.
Then the phase constant be a direct function of frequency

The above equation shows that for β to be a direct function of frequency the
term under the second radical be equal to (RG + ω2LC)2
Then the required condition for ß is obtained. Expanding the term under the
internal radical and forcing the equality gives

R2G2- 2 ω2LCRG+ ω4L2C2+ ω2L2G2+ 2 ω2LCRG+ ω2CR2 = (RG+ ω2LC)2

This reduces to
2 ω2LCRG+ ω2L2G2+ ω2CR2=0
(LG-CR)2=0
LG=CR
R/L = G/C
This is the condition of a distortion less line

(a) Propagation constant

 Therefore attenuation constant is independent of frequency

b)Characteristic Impedance

LG=CR
R/L = G/C
This is the condition of a distortion less line

Z0  L/C

Characteristic impedance is real and independent of frequency

 1.7 Loading of Lines
To achieve distortion less condition we have to increase L/C ratio .
Increasing inductance by inserting inductances in series with the line is termed
as loading and such lines are called as loaded lines .
Types of loading
(a) Lumped loading
(b) Continuous loading
(c) Patch loading

Fig. 1.5 Comparison of loaded and unloaded transmission line

characteristics

(a) Lumped loading :The inductance of transmission line can be increased by

introduction of loading coil at uniform intervals. This is called as lumped
loading. It acts as a low pass filter. Loading coils increases the total effective
resistance R. Therefore there is a practical limitation of increasing the
inductance

(b) Continuous loading: A type of iron or some other magnetic material is wound
on the transmission line. To increase permeability of the surrounding medium
and thereby increase the inductance. It is a expensive method. Further eddy
current and hysteresis losses increases the primary constant R, Therefore
Continuous loading is used only on ocean cables where lumped loading is
difficult. The advantage of continuous loading over lumped loading is that
attenuation factor increases uniformly with increase of frequency.

(c) Patch loading: It employs sections of continuously loaded cable separated

by sections of unloaded cable. The typical length for the section is normally
quarter kilometer. In this method the advantage of continuous loading is
obtained and the cost is reduced considerably.
1.8 Line not terminated in Z0
When the load impedance is not equal to the characteristic impedance of
transmission line, reflection takes place.
The expressions for voltage and current on the transmission line are

If the transmission line is not terminated with the characteristic impedance, i.e ZR
# Zo (mismatch) the above expressions for voltage and current exist. It consists
of two waves, one is moving in the forward (positive x) direction which is called
incident wave and the other is moving in the opposite (negative x) direction
which is called reflected ray. The term varying with eℽx represents a wave
progressing from the sending end towards the receiving end and the amplitude
decreasing with increased distance. The term varying with e-ℽx represents a
wave progressing from the receiving end towards the sending end, decreasing in
amplitude with increased distance.

If the transmission line is terminated with characteristic impedance i.e., Z1(

= Zo (properly matched) then the voltage and current expressions are

The incident wave moves only in forward (positive x)

direction. There is no reflected wave in the opposite direction.
1.9 Reflection Coefficient
Reflection coefficient is defined as the ratio of the reflected voltage to the
incident voltage at the receiving end of the line.

K=Reflected voltage at load/Incident voltage at load

=VR/VS

The equation for the voltage of a transmission line is

The first term eℽx represents incident wave, whereas the second term e-ℽx
represents the reflected wave. The ratio of amplitude of the reflected wave
voltage to the amplitude of the incident wave voltage is nothing but reflection
coefficient.

If the transmission line is terminated by its characteristic impedance (ZR =

Z0), the reflection coefficient becomes zero.
 1.10 Input and transfer impedance
Input impedance
The equations for voltage and current at the sending end of a transmission line
of length l are given by

The input impedance of the transmission line is,

In a different form, the equations for voltage and current at transmitting
end of a line is given by

Or

Or

The input impedance of the line is

 If the line is terminated with its characteristic impedance i.e., ZR = Zo, then the
input impedance becomes equal to its characteristic impedance.
Zs = Zo
The input impedance of an infinite line is determined by letting l—> co.
Zs = Zo
It is found that a line of finite length, terminated with its characteristic
impedance, appears to the transmitting end generator as an infinite line. A finite
line terminated with Zo and an infinite line are same by measurements at the
source.

If then

Transfer impedance:
Transfer impedance is used to determine the current at the receiving end if
voltage at transmitting, end is known. Transfer impedance of a transmission line is
defined as the ratio of voltage at the sending end (transmitted voltage) to the
current at the receiving end (received current).
ZT = Vs/IR
 1.11 Open circuited and short circuited lines

The expressions for voltage and current at the sending end of a transmission line of
length `l' are given by

The input impedance of a transmission line is given by

ZS = Vs/IS

If short circuited, the receiving end impedance is zero.

ZR = 0

Short circuited impedance

If open circuited, the receiving end impedance is infinite

Input impedance of transmission line can be written as

Applying

The open circuited impedance

By multiplying open circuited impedance and short circuited impedances

The characteristic impedance is given by

By dividing short circuited impedance by open circuited impedance

1.12 Reflection Factor and Reflection Loss

Consider a transmission line with a voltage source Vs and its impedance Z1

and load impedance Z2 as shown in Fig.1.6. If Z2 is not equal to Z1, reflection
takes place. The power delivered to the load is less than that with impedance
matching. Reflection results in power loss. This loss is known as reflection loss.

Fig. 1.6 Transmission line with voltage source Vs and impedance Z1

Image matching between the impedances Z1 and Z2 can be obtained by

inserting an ideal transformer and a phase shifting network between Z1 and Z2.
If II and 12 be the currents in the primary and secondary of the transformer
respectively, the current ratio of the transformer is given by

Z2, may be adjusted to that of Z1 by choosing the proper transformation

ratio and phase angle. Z2 is the image impedance of Z1. The current through
the source is

The current flow in the secondary of the transformer under image impedance
matching is

The current in the load impedance Z2 without image matching

The ratio of the current actually flowing in the load to that which might flow
under matched condition is known as reflection factor.
 The reflection factor indicates the change in current in the load due to
reflection at the mismatched junction.
The reflection loss is the reciprocal of the reflection factor in nepers or dB.

Reflection loss =ln(1/k)

10.ASSIGNMENTS

UNIT-1

The constants of a transmission line are: R=6ohms/km, L=202mH/km,

C=0.005x 10-6 F/km and G=0.25x10-6 mho/km. Determine the characteristic
impedance and A transmission line operating at 500MHz has the Zo = 80Ω,
α= 0.04Np/m, β=1.5 rad/m.
A generator of 1 volt, 1000 cycles, supplies power to a 100 mile open wire
line terminated in 200 ohms resistance. The line parameters are R=10.4
ohms/mile,L=0.00367henry/mile, G=0.8×10-6mho/mile, C=0.00835 uf/mile.
Calculate Characteristic Impedance, Propagation constant, Reflection
coefficient, Input Impedance ,Wave length,Velocity of propagation.
A two meter long transmission line with Characteristic impedance of 60+j40
ohms operating at ω=106 radians / sec has attenuation constant of 0.921
nepers/m and phase shift constant of 0 rad/m.If the line is terminated in
aload of 20 +j50 ohms, determine the input impedance of a line
A telephone cable of 64km long has a resistance of 13Ω/km and a
capacitance of 0.08µF/km. Calculate the attenuation constant, velocity and
wavelength of the line at 1000Hz
A coaxial line is made of copper. The inner conductor has a of radius 2mm
,the outer conductor has inner radius of 8mm and has a thickness of
1mm.The space between the conductors is filled with a dielectric material of
relative permittivity of 4.If the frequency of the signal is 150KHz, Calculate
the following per unit length of the line Inductance, Capacitance, DC
resistance given that conductivity of copper is 5.75×107mho/m and ac
resistance
A cable has the following parameters. R=48.75 Ω/km, L=1.09mH/km,
C=0.059µF/km and G= 38.75x10-6 mhos/km. Determine the characteristic
impedance, propagation constant and wavelength for a source of 1600Hz
and Es=1 V.
A transmission line operating at 500MHz has the Zo = 80Ω, α= 0.04Np/m,
β=1.5 rad/m. Find the line parameters series resistance( R Ω/m), Series
inductance (L H/m), Shunt conductance
(G mho/m) and capacitance between conductors ( C F/m).
The following measurements are made on a 25 km line at a frequency of 796
Hz. Zsc =3220 L-79.290 ohm, Zoc=1301 L76.670 ohm. Determine the primary
constants of the line

39
40
 11. Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)

1. Define the line parameters? (CO1,K2)

Resistance (R) is defined as the loop resistance per unit length of the wire.
Its unit is ohm/Km
Inductance (L) is defined as the loop inductance per unit length of the wire.
Its unit is Henry/Km
Capacitance (C) is defined as the loop capacitance per unit length of the wire.
Its unit is Farad/Km
Conductance (G) is defined as the loop conductance per unit length of the
wire. Its unit is mho/Km

2.What are the secondary constants of a line? Why the line

parameters are called distributed elements? (CO1,K2)
The secondary constants of a line are:
Characteristic Impedance
Propagation Constant
Since the line constants R, L, C, G are distributed through the entire length of
the line, they are called as distributed elements. They are also called as
primary constants.

3. Define Characteristic impedance(CO1,K2)

Characteristic impedance is the impedance measured at the sending end of
the line. It is given by Z0 = ГZ/Y, where
Z = R + jωL is the series impedance
Y = G + jωC is the shunt admittance

4. Define Propagation constant(CO1,K2)

Propagation constant is defined as the natural logarithm of the ratio of the
sending end current or voltage to the receiving end current or voltage of the
line. It gives the manner in the wave is propagated along a line and specifies
the variation of voltage and current in the line as a function of distance.
Propagation constant is a complex quantity and is expressed as γ = α + j β
The real part is called the attenuation constant whereas the imaginary part of
propagation constant is called the phase constant

5. What is a finite line? Write down the significance of this

line?(CO1,K2)
A finite line is a line having a finite length on the line. It is a line, which is
terminated, in its characteristic impedance (ZR=Z0), so the input impedance
of the finite line is equal to the characteristic impedance (Zs=Z0).
 6. What is an infinite line? (CO1,K2)
An infinite line is a line in which the length of the transmission line is infinite.
A finite line, which is terminated in its characteristic impedance, is termed as
infinite line. So for an infinite line, the input impedance is equivalent to the
characteristic impedance.

7. What is wavelength of a line? (CO1,K2)

The distance the wave travels along the line while the phase angle is
changing through 2π radians is called a wavelength.

8. What are the types of line distortions? (CO1,K2)

The distortions occurring in the transmission line are called waveform
distortion or line distortion. Waveform distortion is of two types:
a) Frequency distortion
b) Phase or Delay Distortion.

9. How frequency distortion occurs in a line? (CO1,K2)

When a signal having many frequency components are transmitted along the
line, all the frequencies will not have equal attenuation and hence the
received end waveform will not be identical with the input waveform at the
sending end because each frequency is havingdifferent attenuation. This type
of distortion is called frequency distortion.

10. How to avoid the frequency distortion that occurs in the line?
(CO1,K2)
In order to reduce frequency distortion occurring in the line, a) The
attenuation constant α should be made independent of frequency. b) By
using equalizers at the line terminals which minimize the frequency
distortion. Equalisers are networks whose frequency and phase
characteristics are adjusted to be inverse to those of the lines, which result in
a uniform frequency response over the desired frequency band, and hence
the attenuation is equal for all the frequencies.

11. What is delay distortion? (CO1,K2)

When a signal having many frequency components are transmitted along the
line, all the frequencies will not have same time of transmission, some
frequencies being delayed more than others. So the received end waveform
will not be identical with the input waveform at the sending end because
some frequency components will be delayed more than those of other
frequencies. This tpe of distortion is called phase or delay distortion.

12.How to avoid the frequency distortion that occurs in the line?

(CO1,K2)
In order to reduce frequency distortion occurring in the line,
a) The phase constant β should be made dependent of frequency.
b) The velocity of propagation is independent of frequency.
c)By using equalizers at the line terminals which minimize the frequency
distortion.
13.What is a distortion less line? What is the condition for a
distortion less line? (CO1,K2)
A line, which has neither frequency distortion nor phase distortion is called a
distortion less line. The condition for a distortion less line is RC=LG. Also,
a) The attenuation constant should be made independent of frequency.
b) The phase constant should be made dependent of frequency.
d) The velocity of propagation is independent of frequency.

14.What is the drawback of using ordinary telephone cables?

(CO1,K2)
In ordinary telephone cables, the wires are insulated with paper and twisted
in pairs, therefore there will not be flux linkage between the wires, which
results in negligible inductance, and conductance. If this is the case, the there
occurs frequency and phase distortion in the line.

15. How the telephone line can be made a distortion less line?
(CO1,K2)
For the telephone cable to be distortion less line, the inductance value should
be increased by placing lumped inductors along the line.

16. What is Loading? (CO1,K2)

Loading is the process of increasing the inductance value by placing lumped
inductors at specific intervals along the line, which avoids the distortion

17. What are the types of loading? (CO1,K2)

a) Continuous loading
b) Patch loading
c) Lumped loading

18. What is continuous loading? (CO1,K2)

Continuous loading is the process of increasing the inductance value by
placing a iron core or a magnetic tape over the conductor of the line.

19. What is patch loading? (CO1,K2)

It is the process of using sections of continuously loaded cables separated by
sections of unloaded cables which increases the inductance value

20. What is lumped loading? (CO1,K2)

Lumped loading is the process of increasing the inductance value by placing
lumped inductors at specific intervals along the line, which avoids the
distortion

21. Define reflection coefficient. (CO1,K2)

Reflection Coefficient can be defined as the ratio of the reflected voltage to
the incident voltage at the receiving end of the line Reflection Coefficient
K=Reflected Voltage at load /Incident voltage at the load
K=Vr/Vi
22. Define reflection loss (CO1,K2)
Reflection loss is defined as the number of nepers or decibels by which the
current in the load under image matched conditions would exceed the current
actually flowing in the load

23.What is Impedance matching? (CO1,K2)

If the load impedance is not equal to the source impedance, then all the power
that are transmitted from the source will not reach the load end and hence
some power is wasted. This is called impedance mismatch condition. So for
proper maximum power transfer, the impedances in the sending and receiving
end are matched. This is called impedance matching.

24. Define the term insertion loss (CO1,K2)

The insertion loss of a line or network is defined as the number of nepers or
decibels by which the current in the load is changed by the insertion .
Insertion loss=Current flowing in the load without insertion of the
network / Current flowing in the load with insertion of the
network

25.When reflection occurs in a line? (CO1,K2)

Reflection occurs because of the following cases:
1) when the load end is open circuited
2) when the load end is short-circuited
3) when the line is not terminated in its characteristic impedance
When the line is either open or short circuited, then there is not resistance at
the receiving end to absorb all the power transmitted from the source end.
Hence all the power incident on the load gets completely reflected back to the
source causing reflections in the line.
When the line is terminated in its characteristic impedance, the load will absorb
some power and some will be reflected back thus producing reflections.

26.What are the conditions for a perfect line? What is a smooth line?
(CO1,K2)
For a perfect line, the resistance and the leakage conductance value were
neglected. The conditions for a perfect line are R=G=0. A smooth line is one in
which the load is terminated by its characteristic impedance and no reflections
occur in such a line. It is also called as flat line.
12.PART B QUESTIONS (WITH K LEVEL
AND CO)

1.Derive the expression for voltage and current along a parallel wire
transmission line and obtain its solution. (CO1,K2)
2.A cable has the following parameters.
R=48.75Ω/km,L=1.09mh/km,C=0.059μF/km,G=38.75μmho/km. Determine
the characteristic impedance, propagation constant and wavelength for a
source of f=1600 Hz and Es=1V. (CO1,K3)
3.Explain in detail the waveform distortion and also derive the condition for
distortion less line. (CO1,K2)
4.Explain the concept of reflection on a line which is not terminated in its
characteristic impedance (Zo). (CO1,K2)
5. Derive the general solution of a transmission line. (CO1,K2)
6.A cable has the following parameters.
R=10.4Ω/km,L=3.66mh/km,C=0.00835μF/km,G=0.08μmho/km. Determine
the characteristic impedance, attenuation and phase constant and phase
velocity. (CO1,K3)
7.A low loss transmission of 100 Ω characteristic impedance is connected to a
load of 200Ω. Calculate the voltage reflection coefficient and the SWR.
(CO1,K2)
8.Discuss the theory of open and short circuited lines with voltage and
current distribution diagram and also get the input impedance expression.
(CO1,K2)
9. If Z=R+jωL and Y=G+jωC show that the line parameter values fix the
velocity of propagation for an ideal line. (CO1,K2)
11.Derive the two useful forms of equation for voltage and current on a
transmission line. (CO1,K2)
12. Derive the expression for the input impedance and transfer impedance of
a transmission line. (CO1,K2)
13.What is the need for loading? Derive the propagation constant of a
continuously loaded line and also derive Campbell’s equation. (CO1,K2)
13.SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION
COURSES

Transmission lines and electromagnetic waves - NPTEL

Microwave engineering and antennas - COURSERA

14.REAL TIME APPLICATIONS IN DAY TO DAY
LIFE AND TO INDUSTRY

• Power transmission line

• Telephone lines
• Traces on Printed Circuit Boards
• Traces on Multi-Chip Modules
• Traces on Integrated Circuit Packages
15.CONTENTS BEYOND THE SYLLABUS

• Symmetrical T network
• Characteristics of telephone cable
• Inductance loading of Telephone cable
16.ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE ( PROPOSED DATE &
ACTUAL DATE)
17. PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE
BOOKS

TEXT BOOKS:
1.John D Ryder, ―Networks, lines and fields‖, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall India,
2015. (UNIT IIV)
2.Mathew M. Radmanesh, ―Radio Frequency &Microwave Electronics‖,
Pearson Education Asia, Second Edition,2002. (UNIT V)

REFERENCES:
1. Reinhold Ludwig and Powel Bretchko,‖ RF Circuit Design – Theory and
Applications‖, Pearson Education Asia, First Edition,2001.
2.D. K. Misra, ―Radio Frequency and Microwave Communication Circuits-
Analysis and Design‖, John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
3.E.C.Jordan and K.G. Balmain, ―Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating
Systems Prentice Hall of India, 2006.
4.G.S.N Raju, "Electromagnetic Field Theory and Transmission Lines Pearson
Education, First edition 2005.
 18. MINI PROJECT SUGGESTIONS

Transmission Line Characteristics: Students must

calculate characteristic impedance and propagation
speed of a coaxial cable based on measured
dimensions.
 Thank you

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