3. Steps in the portfolio management process.

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Step One: The Planning Step

The first step in the portfolio management process is to understand the client's needs and develop
an investment policy statement (IPS).

The IPS covers the types of risks the investor is willing to assume along with the investment
goals and constraints. It should focus on the investor's short-term and long-term needs,
familiarity with capital market history, and investor expectations and constraints. Periodically the
investor will need to review, update and change the policy statement.

A policy statement is like a road map: It forces investors to understand their own needs and
constraints and to articulate them within the construct of realistic goals. It not only helps
investors understand the risks and costs of investing, but also guides the actions of portfolio
managers.

Step Two: The Execution Step

The second step is to construct the portfolio. The portfolio manager and the investor determine
how to allocate available funds across different countries, asset classes, and securities. This
involves constructing a portfolio that will minimize the investor?s risk while meeting the needs
specified in the policy statement.

Step Three: The Feedback Step

The process of managing an investment portfolio never stops. Once the funds are initially
invested according to the plan, the real work begins in monitoring and updating the status of the
portfolio and the investor's needs.

The last step is the continual monitoring of the investor?s needs, capital market conditions, and,
when necessary, updating the policy statement. One component of the monitoring process is to
evaluate a portfolio?s performance and compare the relative results to the expectations and the
requirements listed in the policy statement. Some rebalancing may be required.
4. Pooled investments.

"Pooled investments" is a tem given to a wide range of investment types, such as mutual funds,
exchange traded funds, separately managed accounts. When you invest in a pooled investment,
your money goes into an investment fund. Here, you pool your money with others so you can
help spread the risk. Professional fund managers then invest the money on your behalf in a
highly competitive environment.

Mutual Funds

An investment company invests a pool of funds belonging to many individuals in a single

portfolio of securities. In exchange for this commitment of capital, the investment company
issues to each investor new shares representing his or her proportional ownership of the mutually
held securities portfolio, which is commonly known as a mutual fund.

Mutual funds are classified according to whether or not they stand ready to redeem investor
shares.

 An open-end mutual fund continues to sell and repurchase shares after its initial public
offering. It stands ready to redeem investor shares at market value.>/li>
 A closed-end mutual fund operates like any other public firm. It is initiated through a
stock offering to raise capital. Its stock trades on the regular secondary market and the
market price is determined by supply and demand. A typical closed-end fund offers no
further shares and does not repurchases the shares on demand (no funds can be
withdrawn). Therefore, investors must trade in public secondary markets (e.g. NASDAQ)
to buy or sell shares.

Various fees charged by mutual funds:

 They charge fees for their efforts of setting up funds. Sales commissions are charged at
purchase (front-end load) as a percentage of the investment.
o A load fund has sales commission charges. A load fund's offering price = NAV
of the share + a sales charge (7.5 - 8% of the NAV). The NAV price is the
redemption (bid) price, and the offering (ask) price equals the NAV divided by 1
minus the percent load.
o A no-load fund imposes no initial sales charge.
 Redemption fee (back-end load). A charge to exit the fund. This discourages quick
trading turnover and are set up so that the fees decline the longer the shares are held (in
this case, the fees are sometimes called contingent deferred sales charges). Load funds
generally charge no redemption fees.
 All mutual funds charge annual fees.

There are four types of mutual funds based on portfolio makeup.

1. Money Market Funds. These funds attempt to provide current income, safety of principal,
and liquidity by investing in diversified portfolios of short-term securities, such as T-
 bills, banker certificates of deposit, bank acceptances, and commercial paper. They
generally allow holders to write checks again their account so they are essentially cash
holdings for holders. However, they are not insured in the same way as bank deposits.
2. Bond Mutual Funds. Bond funds concentrate on various types of bonds to generate high
current income with minimal risk. Bonds held include government bonds, high-grade
corporate bonds, and junk bonds.
3. Stock Mutual Funds. These funds invest almost solely in common stocks. Some funds
focus on growth companies while others specialize in specific industries. Different stock
mutual funds can suit almost any taste or investment objective.

There are two investment styles.

1. Passive mutual fund management is a long-term buy-and-hold strategy. Usually

stocks are purchased so the portfolio's returns will track those of an index over
time. The purpose is not to beat the index but to match its performance.
2. An active mutual fund management is an attempt by the fund manager to
outperform a passive benchmark portfolio on a risk-adjusted basis. The
management fees are usually higher and there are usually more trading activities
which can cause tax consequences for investors.
4. Hybrid/Balanced Funds. They diversify outside the stock market by combining common
stock with fixed-income securities.

Other Investment Products

1. Exchange Traded Funds

Refer to subject 5 of Reading 74 (Alternative Investments) in Study Session 18 (Alternative

Investments).

2. Separately Managed Accounts

The key difference between mutual funds and separate accounts is that, in a separate account, the
money manager is purchasing the securities in the portfolio on behalf on the investor, not on
behalf of the fund. Therefore, the investor can determine which assets are bought or sold, and
when.

A mutual fund investor owns shares of a company (mutual fund) that in turn owns other
investments, whereas an SMA investor owns the invested assets directly in his own name.

An investor in an SMA typically has the ability to direct the investment manager to sell
individual securities with the objective of raising capital gains or losses for tax planning
purposes. This practice is known as "tax harvesting", and its objective is to attempt to equalize
capital gains and losses across all of the investor's accounts for a given year in order to reduce
capital gains taxes owed.

Another major advantage of individual cost basis is the ability to customize the portfolio by
choosing to avoid investing in certain stocks or certain economic sectors (technology, sin stocks,
etc).

3. Hedge Funds

A hedge fund is an investment fund open to a limited range of investors that undertakes a wider
range of investment and trading activities than traditional long-only investment funds, and that,
in general, pays a performance fee to its investment manager. Every hedge fund has its own
investment strategy that determines the type of investments and the methods of investment it
undertakes.

Unlike mutual funds, most hedge funds are not regulated. The net effect is that hedge fund
investor base is generally very different from that of the typical mutual fund.

Hedge funds employ many different trading strategies, which are classified in many different
ways, with no standard system used. A hedge fund will typically commit itself to a particular
strategy, particular investment types and leverage limits via statements in its offering
documentation, thereby giving investors some indication of the nature of the particular fund.

4. Buyout and Venture Capital Funds

Both funds take equity positions and plan a very active role in the management of the company.
The equity they hold is private, and they don't have long investment horizon.

 Buyout funds make only a few large investments in public companies with the intent of
selling the restructured companies in three to five years.
 Venture capital funds buys start-up companies and grow them. They play a very active
role in managing these companies.
1. The investment policy statement and its major components.

The first step of portfolio management process is to develop a policy statement. The statement
covers the types of risks the investor is willing to assume along with the investment goals and
constraints. It should focus on the investor's short-term and long-term needs, familiarity with
capital market history, and investor expectations and constraints. Periodically the investor will
need to review, update and change the policy statement.

A policy statement should incorporate an investor's objectives (risk and return) and constraints. It
should address the following issues:

 What are the risks of an adverse financial outcome?

 What are the emotional reactions to an adverse financial outcome?
 How knowledgeable is the investor to investments and markets?
 What other capital or income sources does the investor have? How important is the
portfolio to the overall financial position?
 What legal restrictions may affect the investment needs?
 What unanticipated consequences of interim fluctuations in portfolio value may affect
investment policy?

Moreover the policy statement should attempt to answer the following questions:

 Does the policy statement meet the specific needs and objectives of this investor?
 Does the policy statement enable a competent stranger to manage the portfolio in
compliance with the client's needs?
 Does the client understand the investment risks and the need for a disciplined approach to
the investment process?
 Does the portfolio manager have the discipline and flexibility to maintain the policy
during an adverse market?
 Does the policy statement, if implemented, meet the client's needs and objectives?

A policy statement is like a road map: It forces investors to understand their own needs and
constraints and to articulate them within the construct of realistic goals. It not only helps
investors understand the risks and costs of investing, but also guides the actions of portfolio
managers.

Performance cannot be judged without an objective standard. The policy statement should state
the performance standards by which the portfolio's performance will be judged and specify the
specific benchmark which represents the investor's risk preferences. The portfolio should be
measured against the stated benchmark and not the portfolio's raw overall performance.

Major components of an IPS include introduction, statement of purpose, duties and

responsibilities, procedures, investment objectives, constraints and guidelines, evaluation and
review, and appendices.
2. Investment risk and return objectives, and risk tolerance.

The investor's objectives are his or her investment goals expressed in terms of both risk and
returns. Why?

 The investment decision is a trade-off between risk and return, and that trade-off varies
depending on the preferences and situation of each investor.
 Investment objectives expressed solely in terms of returns can lead to inappropriate
investment practices, such as the use of high-risk investment strategies or account
"churning", which involves moving quickly in and out of investments in an attempt to
buy low and sell high. Here is another example: if achieving high investment returns is
the only goal, the portfolio manager may invest funds in high-risk assets, which have a
high possibility of loss. For a risk-averse investor (e.g. a retiree), such an investment
strategy makes little sense.
 A careful analysis of the client's risk tolerance should precede any discussion of return
objectives: it makes little sense for a person who is risk averse to invest funds in high-risk
assets.

Investment firms survey clients to gauge their risk tolerance. Risk tolerance is an investor's
attitude toward risk. It is segmented into ability and willingness to assume risk.

 The ability to assume risk is based on financial and circumstantial restrictions. Most
often, a client?s ability to take risk is determined by the factors such as time horizon,
current insurance coverage, cash reserves, fFamily situation (i.e. number of children) and
age, current net worth, income expectations, etc.
 While the ability to accept risk is usually measured on a quantitative basis, an investor's
willingness to assume risk is based on more psychological factors. It takes into account
the investor's overall perception of investment fluctuation and losses.

The investment adviser should work with the investor and reach a conclusion about the investor's
risk tolerance consistent with the lower of the two factors (ability and willingness).

Risk objectives are specifications for portfolio risk that reflect the risk tolerance of the client.
Quantitative risk objectives can be stated on an absolute or a relative basis.

 Absolute risk objectives: not to lose more than 5% of the capital within a 12-month
period; portfolio standard deviation not to exceed 25% at any time, etc.
 Relative risk objectives: match the performance of S&P 500, achieve returns within 3%
of the DJIA, etc.

Return objectives can be stated in terms of absolute or a relative percentage return, or other
terms. For example:

 20% capital growth.

 beat the S&P 500 by 2%.
The return measure can be stated:

 before or after fees.

 on either a pre- or post-tax basis.
 as nominal or real returns.

3. Investment constraints.
The following constraints affect the investment plan:

 Liquidity needs. Liquidity in the investment sense is the ability to quickly convert
investments into cash at a price close to their market value. Investors may need some
cash to meet unexpected needs (e.g. emergencies, good investment opportunities) but
don't want to sell assets at unfavorable terms. Investment plan must take this need into
consideration.
 Time horizon. This is the time between making an investment and needing the funds.
There is a relationship between an investor's time horizon, liquidity needs and the ability
to handle risk. Investors with long investment horizons generally require less liquidity
and can tolerate greater portfolio risk, and losses are harder to overcome during a short
time frame for investors with short investment horizons.
 Tax concerns. Investment planning is complicated by the tax code. For example, income
from dividends, interests and rents is taxable at the investor's marginal tax rate. Capital
gains are only taxable after the asset has been sold for a price higher than its cost or basis,
but unrealized capital gains are not taxable at all (the tax liability can deferred
indefinitely). Sometimes analysts have to make a trade-off between taxes and
diversification needs. Other factors, such as tax deductible IRA contributions and 401(k)
plans (both U.S.) also complicate this issue.
 Legal and regulatory factors. Individual investors are generally not affected by
regulations, but professional and institutional investors need to be aware of regulations.
 Unique needs and preferences. There may be a number of unusual considerations that
affects the investor's risk-return profile. For example, investment requirements may
depend on goal spending. Thus, individuals will require adequate funds to be set aside to
meet known spending demands. Moreover, many investors may want to exclude certain
investments from the portfolio based on personal preferences. For example, investors
may specify that no investments in their portfolio be affiliated with the manufacture or
distribution of alcohol, pornography, tobacco or environmental harmful products.
4. Portfolio construction.

An asset class is a group of securities that exhibit similar characteristics and behave similarly in
the marketplace (risk-return relationship). Examples of asset classes are money market funds,
fixed-income (bonds), equities (stocks), real estate, natural resources, precious metals,
collectibles and insurance products. We can even further break down equity investments into
additional sub-classes, such as large-cap, mid-cap and small-cap equities.

Asset classes are the building blocks of an asset allocation, which is the process of choosing
among various kinds of possible asset classes. Empirical studies have shown that 85-95% of a
portfolio's total returns come from the asset allocation policy decision, not the selection of
specific stocks and bonds. Simply put, asset allocation determines what percentage of your total
portfolio you devote to the numerous asset classes available.

A strategic asset allocation (SAA) involves an examination of capital markets to gauge future
investment returns, combined with an understanding of portfolio objectives, risk tolerance and
constraints to distribute a portfolio's assets effectively and efficiently among several asset classes
in order to achieve the best return possible within acceptable risk levels.

SAA involves:

 Capital market expectations. The key to any sound asset allocation decision is
determining which asset class is expected to outperform others in the short, medium and
long terms and then positioning your portfolio appropriately by shifting more of your
assets into the soon-to-be-outperforming asset class at the right time. For example, if the
stock market is expected to outperform the bond market, you should have more of your
portfolio dedicated to stocks. If the stock market is expected to be weak, add more bonds
to your portfolio.
 Choosing eligible asset classes based on objective, risk tolerance, constraints and capital
market assumptions.
 Finding percentage allocation to each asset class (using optimization/simulation
techniques). The best way to match expected returns and client objective is to determine
the efficient frontier for the client.
 Selecting benchmarks that reflect expected performance of each asset class.

Steps Toward an Actual Portfolio

Risk budgeting is a process by which investment managers determine how much risks should be
taken and how the risks can be most effectively allocated across different asset classes.

In addition to taking systematic risk, an investment committee may choose to take tactical asset
allocation risk or security selection risk. The amount of return attributable to these decisions can
be measured.

 Although all asset allocation strategies, by definition, involve regularly readjusting the
asset mix of a portfolio, tactical asset allocation is an active portfolio management
 strategy that seeks to improve portfolio value by utilizing short-term asset class
weightings that differ from the long-run asset mix. Since it is tactical in nature, it requires
short-term deviations from the policy asset allocation and focuses on improving return at
some expense to risk management.
 Security selection is an attempt to generate higher returns than the asset class benchmark
by selecting securities with a higher expected return.

As time goes on, a client's asset allocation will drift from the target allocation, and the amount of
allowable drift as well as a rebalancing policy should be formalized.

1. Major return measures.

There are various types of return measures.

Holding Period Return

Refer to Reading 6 of Study Session 2 for a detailed discussion of this return measure.

Arithmetic or Mean Return

Refer to Reading 7 of Study Session 2 for a detailed discussion of this return measure.

Geometric Mean Return

Refer to Reading 7 of Study Session 2 for a detailed discussion of this return measure.

Money-Weighted Return or Internal Rate of Return

The dollar-weighted rate of return is essentially the internal rate of return (IRR) on the portfolio.
Refer to Reading 6 of Study Session 2 for a detailed discussion of this return measure.
Annualized Return

Annualizing returns allows for comparison among different assets and over different time
periods.

rannual = (1 + rperiod)c - 1

where c is the number of periods in a year, and rperiod is the rate of return per period.

Example

Monthly return: 0.6%. The annualized return is (1 + 0.6%)12 ? 1 = 7.44%.

Portfolio Return

The expected return on a portfolio of assets is the market-weighted average of the expected
returns on the individual assets in the portfolio.

where Rp is the return on the portfolio, Ri is the return on asset i and wi is the weighting of
component asset i (that is, the share of asset i in the portfolio).

Other Major Return Measures

1. A gross return is the return before any fees, expense, taxes etc. A net return is the return
measure after deducting all fees and expenses from the gross return.

2. Different types of investments generate different types of income and have different tax
implications. For example, in the U.S. the interest income is fully taxable at an investor?s
marginal tax rate while capital gains are taxed at a much lower rate. Many investors therefore use
the after-tax return to evaluate mutual fund performance.

3. The nominal return and the real return are two ways to measure how well an investment is
performing. The real return takes into consideration the effects of inflation when calculating how
much your buying power has changed.

4. An investor can also use leverage to amplify his expected return (and risk).

2. Variance and covariance of returns.

Investment is all about reward versus variability (risk). The return measures the reward of an
investment and dispersion is a measure of investment risk.
The variance is a measure of how spread out a distribution is. It is computed as the average
squared deviation of each number from its mean. The formula for the variance in a population is

where μ is the mean and N is the number of scores.

To compute variance in a sample:

where m is the sample mean.

The formula for the standard deviation is very simple: It is the square root of the variance. It is
the most commonly used measure of spread.

Standard deviation of a portfolio is a function of

1. The weighted average of the individual variances, plus

2. The weighted covariances between all the assets in the portfolio.

In a two asset portfolio:

Standard Deviation of Portfolio = (wj2σj2 + wk2 σk2 + 2wj wk Covjk)1/2

The maximum amount of risk reduction is predetermined by the correlation coefficient. Thus, the
correlation coefficient is the engine that drives the whole theory of portfolio diversification.

Example with perfect positive correlation (assume equal weights)

What is the standard deviation of a portfolio (E) assuming the following data?
σ1 = 0.1, w1 = 0.5, σ2 = 0.1, w2 = 0.5, ρ12 = 1.

Solution:

Cov12 = σ1 x σ2 x ρ12 = 0.1 x 0.1 x 1 = 0.01.

Standard Deviation of Portfolio [0.52 x 0.12 + 0.52 x 0.12 + 2 x 0.5 x 0.5 x 0.01]1/2 = 0.10 (perfect
correlation).

If there are three securities in the portfolio:

Standard Deviation of Portfolio = (wj2σj2 + wk2 σk2 + wl2σl2 + 2wj wk Covjk + 2wl wk Covlk + 2wj wl
Covjl)1/2
3. Historical return and risk.

The textbook examines the historical risk and return for the three main asset categories (1926 ?
2008).

T-bills ? the safest investment on earth. The price paid for this safety is steep; the return is only
3.7%, which is barely above the inflation rate of 3.0% for the period. Further, although many
academicians consider T bills to be "riskless", a quick perusal of the T-bill graph shows
considerable variation of return, meaning that you cannot depend on a constant income stream.
This risk is properly reflected in the standard deviation of 3.1%. The best that can be said for the
performance of T bills is that they keep pace with inflation in the long run.

Long-term bonds carry one big risk ? interest rates risk: the longer the maturity of the bond the
worse the damage. For bearing this risk investors are rewarded with another 1.5% of long-term
return. In the long run, investors can expect a real return (inflation-adjusted) of about 2% with a
standard deviation of 10%.

The rewards of stocks are considerable; a real return of greater than 6%. This return does not
come for free, of course. The standard deviation is 20%. You can lose more than 40% in a bad
year, and during the 4 calendar years 1929-32 the inflation-adjusted ("real") value of this
investment class decreased by almost two thirds.

$1 in 1900 would have grown to $582 in 2008 if invested in stocks, to only $9.9 if invested in
bonds, and to $2.90 if invested in T-bills. The message is clear; stocks are to be held for the long
term. Don?t worry too much about the short term volatility of the markets; in the long run stocks
will almost always have higher returns than bonds.

Stocks have outperformed bonds consistently over long periods of time. However, stocks are
much riskier and investors demand compensation for holding the risk. The question is: is the
premium too big?

Other Investment Characteristics

Two assumptions are usually made when investors perform investment analysis using mean and
variance.

1. Returns are normally distributed.

2. Markets are operationally efficient.

Is normality a good approximation of returns? In fact, returns are not quite normally distributed.
The biggest departure from normality is that extreme bad returns are more likely than predicted
by the normal distribution (fat tails).

There are operational limitations of the market that affect the choice of investments. One such
limitation is liquidity, which affects the cost of trading.
4. Risk aversion and portfolio selection.

Risk Aversion

Every investor wants to maximize the investment returns for a given level of risk. Risk refers to
the uncertainty of future outcomes. Risk aversion relates to the notion that investors as a rule
would rather avoid risk. Given a choice of two investments with equal returns, risk-averse
investors will select the investment with lower risk. That is, investors are risk-averse.
Consequently, investors will demand a risk premium for taking on additional levels of risk. The
more risk averse the investor, the more of a premium he or she will demand prior to taking on the
level of risk.

Investors that do not demand a premium for risk are said to be risk neutral (e.g. those that will
be willing to place both a large and small bet on the flip of a coin and be indifferent) and those
investors that enjoy risk are said to be risk seekers (e.g. people that buy lottery tickets despite
the knowledge that for every $1 spent, on average they will get less than $0.1 back.

Example

Three investors Sam, Mike and Mary are considering two investments "A" and "B". Investment
"A" is the less risky of the two requiring an investment of $1,000 with an expected rate of return
at 10%. Investment "B" also requires an investment of $1,000 and has an expected return of 10%
but appears to have considerably more variability in potential returns compared to "A". Sam
requires a return of 14%, Mike requires 10% and Mary seeks only 8% expected return.

Question: Given the information above, which of the three investors is considered risk-averse?

Solution: Only Sam would be considered risk-averse. He is the only investor that demands a
premium of return given the higher risk level. Mike would be considered risk-neutral since he
demands no premium in return (despite the higher risk) and Mary would be considered a risk-
seeker since she, in fact, will accept less return for a riskier situation.

Risk aversion implies that there is a positive relationship between expected returns (ER) and
expected risk (Es), and the risk return line (CML and SML) is upward sweeping.

Evidence that suggests that individuals are generally risk-averse:

 Purchase of insurance. Most investors purchase various types of insurance (e.g. life
insurance, car insurance, etc.). By buying insurance, an investor avoids the uncertainty of
a potential large future cost by paying the current known cost of the insurance policy.
 Difference in the promised yield for different grades of bonds. The promised yield of
a bond is its required rate of return. Different grades of bonds have different degrees of
credit risk. The promised yield increases as you go from the lowest-risk grade (e.g. AAA)
to a grade with higher risk (e.g. AA). That is, as the credit risk of a bond increases,
investors will require a higher rate of return.
Utility Theory

Although investors differ in their risk tolerance, they should be consistent in their selection of
any portfolio in terms of the risk-return trade-off. Because risk can be quantified as the sum of
the variance of the returns over time, it is possible to assign a utility score (aka utility value,
utility function) to any portfolio by subtracting its variance from its expected return to yield a
number that would be commensurate with an investor's tolerance for risk, or a measure of their
satisfaction with the investment. Because risk aversion is not an objectively measurably quantity,
there is no unique equation that would yield such a quantity, but an equation can be selected, not
for its absolute measure, but for its comparative measure of risk tolerance. One such equation is
the following utility formula:

Utility Score = Expected Return ? 0.52 x σ2 A

where A is the risk aversion coefficient (a number proportionate to the amount of risk aversion of
the investor). It is positive for a risk-averse investor, zero for a risk-neutral investor, and negative
for a risk seeker.

For example, if the T-bill pays 4%, and XYZ stock has a return of 12% and a variance of 25%,
and an investor's risk aversion coefficient is 2, his utility score of XYZ stock is equal to: 12% -
0.5 x 0.252 x 2 = 5.75%.

If someone were more risk averse, we might use 3 instead of 2 to indicate the investor?s greater
aversion to risk. In this case, the above equation yields: 12% ? 0.5 x 252 x 3 = 2.63%.

Since 2.63% is less than the 4% yield of risk-free T-bills, this risk-averse investor will reject
XYZ stock in favor of T-bills while the other investor will invest in XYZ stock since he assigns a
utility score of 5.75% to the investment, which is higher than the T-bill yield.

A few conclusions about the utility:

 It is unbounded on both sides.

 Higher return contributes to higher utility.
 Higher variance reduces the utility.
 Utility does not measure satisfaction. It can be used to rank different investments.
 Utility cannot be compared among individuals because it's a very personal concept.
Indifference Curves

The set of all portfolios with the same utility score plots as a indifference curve.

An investor's indifference curves specify his or her preferences when making risk-return trade-
offs. He or she will accept any portfolio with a utility score on her risk-indifference curve as
being equally acceptable.

 The investments along each curve are equally attractive to the investor.
 The slope of the these curves represents how risk-averse the investor is. Steep
indifference curves indicate a conservative investor while flat indifference curves indicate
a less risk averse investor.

For a risk-averse investor:

 Every indifference curve runs from the southwest to the northeast.

 Every indifference curve is convex.
 The slope coefficient of an indifference curve is closely related to the risk aversion
coefficient.

The Capital Allocation Line

Suppose we construct a portfolio P that combines a risky asset i, having an expected return of ri
and standard deviation of σi, and a riskless asset, having a return of rf. Let w1 represent the
fraction of the total portfolio value placed in the riskless asset.
  The portfolio return E(rp) is given by E(rp) = w1 rf + (1 - w1) E(ri).
 The portfolio standard deviation is given by σp = (1 - w1) σi

Example

Combine the S&P and a T-bill in a portfolio. E(rS&P) = 13%, σS&P = 20.3%, and rf = 3.8%. Some
of the possible portfolios are:

 w1 = 0, E(rp) = E(rS&P) = 13%, and σp = 20.3%.

 w1 = 0.5, E(rp) = 0.5 x 0.038 + 0.5 x 0.13 = 8.4%, and σp = 0.5 x 20.3% = 10.1%.
 w1 = 1, E(rp) = rf) = 3.8%, and σp = 0%.
 w1 = -0.5, E(rp) = -0.5 x 0.038 + 1.5 x 0.13 = 17.6%, and σp = 1.5 x 0.203 = 30.5%. This
means there is negative investment in the riskfree asset: the investor borrowed at the risk-
free rate. This is called leveraged position in the risky asset - some of the investment is
financed by borrowing.

The portfolio?s expected return and standard deviation obey a liner relation:
E(rp) = rf + [(E(ri - rf)/σi] σp

 The slope, [(E(ri - rf)/σi], is known as the portfolio?s Sharpe measure or reward-to-
variability ratio.
 The intercept is the risk-free rate.
 The line is called the capital allocation line (CAL). When i is a marker index portfolio,
the line is called the capital market line (CML).
 A leveraged position is to the right of P.

CAL shows one simple fact: increase the amount invested in the risky asset increases the
expected return by a certain risk premium.
Now the investor must find the point of highest utility on CAL.

The optimal choice for an investor is the point of tangency of the highest indifference curve to
the CAL ? slope of the indifference curve is equal to the slope of the CAL.

The optimal w1 will be higher for investors with lower A.

5. Portfolio risk.
This subject is for LOS 52.e.f.  
Consider two mutual funds, D (specialized in bonds and debt securities) and E (specialized in
equity). The weight of mutual fund D in the portfolio is wD, and the weight of mutual fund E is
wE, and their returns are rD and rE.

Expected return of the portfolio: E(rp) = wD E(rD) + wE E(rE)

Variance of the portfolio: σp2 = wD 2σD2 + wE2 σE2 + 2 wD wE Cov(rD, rE) = (wDσD)2 + (wEσE)2 + 2
(wDσD) (wEσE) ρDE = (wDσD + wEσE)2 + 2 (wDσD) (wEσE) (ρDE ? 1) = (wDσD ? wEσE)2 + 2 (wDσD)
(wEσE) (ρDE + 1)

If the two assets are not perfectly positively correlated, the standard deviation of the portfolio is
less than the weighted average of the standard deviations of the assets.

Covariance of returns measures the degree to which the rates of return on two securities move
together over time.

 A positive covariance indicates that the rates of return on the two securities tend to move
in the same direction.
  A negative covariance indicates that the rates of return on the two securities tend to move
in the opposite direction.
 A covariance of zero indicates that there is no relationship between the rates of return on
the two securities.

The magnitude of the covariance depends on the magnitude of the individual stock's standard
deviations and the relationship between their co-movements. The covariance is an absolute
measure of movement and is measured in return units squared. As the magnitude of the
covariance is affected by the variability of return of each individual security, covariance cannot
be used to compare across different pairs of securities.

The measure can be standardized by dividing the covariance by the standard deviations of the
two securities being tested.

p(1,2) = cov(1,2)/σ1σ2

rearranging the terms gives: cov(1,2) = p(1,2)σ1σ2

The term p(1,2) is called the correlation coefficient between the returns of securities 1 and 2. The
correlation coefficient has no units. It is a pure measure of the co-movement of the two stock's
returns. It varies in the range of -1 to 1.

How should you interpret the correlation coefficient?

 A correlation coefficient of +1 means that returns always move together in the same
direction. They are perfectly positively correlated.
 A correlation coefficient of -1 means that returns always move in the completely opposite
direction. They are perfectly negatively correlated.
 A correlation coefficient of zero means that there is no relationship between the two
stock's returns. They are uncorrelated.

Example

Two risky assets, A and B, have the following scenarios of returns:

What is the covariance between the returns of A and B?

The expected return is a probability weighted average of the returns. Using this definition, the
expected return of A equals 0.35 * 10% + 0.35*(-4%) + 0.3*(9%) = 4.8%. The expected return
of B equals 0.35 * 7% + 0.35*(4%) + 0.3*(-6%) = 2.05%.

The covariance between the returns equals the expected value of the product of the deviations of
the individual returns from their means. Remember this! Hence, to calculate this, we construct
the following table:

The expected value of the product of the deviations equals 0.35 * 5.2% * 4.95% + 0.35 * (-8.8%)
* 1.95% + 0.3*4.2%*(-8.05%) = -0.0714%.

Portfolio Risk and Return

Standard deviation of a portfolio is a function of

1. The weighted average of the individual variances, plus

2. The weighted covariances between all the assets in the portfolio.

When an asset is added to a large portfolio with many assets, the new asset affects the portfolio's
standard deviation in two ways:

1. The asset's own variance, and

2. Covariance between this asset and every other asset in the portfolio. The effect of these
numerous covariances will outweight the effect of the asset's own variance. The more
assets in the portfolio, the more this is true.

Therefore, the important factor to consider when adding an investment to a portfolio is not the
investment's own variance, but its average covariance with all the other investments in the
portfolio.

Adding securities to a portfolio that are not perfectly, positively correlated with each other will
reduce the standard deviation of the portfolio. The lower (higher) the correlations between
returns of assets in the portfolio, the lower (higher) the portfolio risk, and thus the higher (lower)
the diversification benefits. The ultimate benefit of diversification occurs when the correlation
between two assets is -1.00.

For example, imagine a portfolio of investments, one of which moves with sun-related activities
(e.g. sunglasses) and the other moving in the direction of rain-related activities (e.g. umbrellas).
The combined portfolio of sunglasses and umbrellas ought to negate weather-related issues
(theoretically speaking) as the two assets move in opposite directions.

The graph below shows an overall standard deviation of a portfolio of zero, thus creating a risk-
free portfolio. This occurs when two assets are combined, each moving in an opposite direction.
For example, imagine a portfolio of investments, one of which moves with sun-related activities
(e.g. sunglasses) and the other moving in the direction of rain-related activities (e.g. umbrellas).
The combined portfolio of sunglasses and umbrellas ought to negate weather-related issues
(theoretically speaking) as the two assets move in opposite directions.

 Returns from "A" move in the opposite direction from returns on "B".
 The mid point between "A" and "B" represents the mean return with no variability in
returns.
 The overall standard deviation of this portfolio is "zero".
 This is considered a "risk-free" portfolio.

In a two asset portfolio, the ideal scenario provides a contrast in asset returns similar to the "saw
tooth" diagram shown above. Thus, one asset would completely offset the other asset (in terms of
risk) providing a smooth rate of return with no variability. This, of course, could only occur if the
two assets had a perfect, negative correlation.
Standard Deviation of Portfolio = (wj2σj2 + wk2 σk2 + 2wj wk Covjk)1/2

The maximum amount of risk reduction is predetermined by the correlation coefficient. Thus, the
correlation coefficient is the engine that drives the whole theory of portfolio diversification.
Let's re-visit our very first example. The portfolio opportunity set shows the portfolio return and
risk for different ρs.

Example with perfect positive correlation (assume equal weights)

What is the standard deviation of a portfolio (E) assuming the following data?
σ1 = 0.1, w1 = 0.5, σ2 = 0.1, w2 = 0.5, ρ12 = 1.

Solution:

Cov12 = σ1 x σ2 x ρ12 = 0.1 x 0.1 x 1 = 0.01.

Standard Deviation of Portfolio [0.52 x 0.12 + 0.52 x 0.12 + 2 x 0.5 x 0.5 x 0.01]1/2 = 0.10 (perfect
correlation).

If there are three securities in the portfolio:

Standard Deviation of Portfolio = (wj2σj2 + wk2 σk2 + wl2σl2 + 2wj wk Covjk + 2wl wk Covlk + 2wj wl
Covjl)1/2

A diversification benefit is a reduction in portfolio standard deviation of return through

diversification without an accompanying decrease in expected return. Portfolio diversification is
affected by the number of assets in the portfolio and the correlation between these assets.

There are many ways to diversify investment risk.

 Diversify with asset classes.

  Diversify with index funds.
 Diversification among countries.
 Diversify by not owning your employer’s stock.
 Evaluate each asset before adding to a portfolio.
 Buy insurance for risky portfolios.

6. Efficient frontier.
The mean-variance portfolio theory says that any investor will choose the optimal portfolio from
the set of portfolios that

1. Maximize expected return for a given level of risk; and

2. Minimize risks for a given level of expected returns.

Again, consider a situation where you have two stocks to choose from: A and B. You can invest
your entire wealth in one of these two securities. Or you can invest 10% in A and 90% in B, or
20% in A and 80%in B, or 70% in A and 30% in B, or ... There is a huge number of possible
combinations and this is a simple case when considering two securities. Imagine the different
combinations you have to consider when you have thousands of stocks.

The minimum variance frontier shows the minimum variance that can be achieved for a given
level of expected return. To construct a minimum-variance frontier of a portfolio:

1. Use historical data to estimate the mean, variance of each individual stock in the
portfolio, and the correlation of each pair of stocks.
2. Use a computer program to find out the weights of all stocks that minimize the portfolio
variance for each pre-specified expected return.
3. Calculate the expected returns and variances for all the minimum variance portfolios
determined in step 2 and then graph the two variables.

The outcome of risk-return combinations generated by portfolios of risky assets gives you the
minimum variance for a given rate of return. Intuitively, any set of combinations formed by two
risky assets with less than perfect correlation will lie inside the triangle XYZ and will be convex.

Investors will never want to hold a portfolio below the minimum variance point. They will
always get higher returns along the positively sloped part of the minimum-variance frontier.

The efficient frontier is the set of mean-variance combinations from the minimum-variance
frontier where for a given risk no other portfolio offers a higher expected return.

Any point beneath the efficient frontier is inferior to points above. Moreover, any points along
the efficient frontier, by definition, are superior to all other points for that combined risk-return
tradeoff.

The portfolios on the efficient frontier have different return and risk measures. As you move
upward along the efficient frontier, both risk and the expected rate of return of the portfolio
increase, and no one can dominate any other on the efficient frontier. An investor will target a
portfolio on the efficient frontier on the basis of his attitude toward risk and his utility curves.

The concept of efficient frontier narrows down the different portfolios from which the investor
may choose. For example, portfolios at points A and B offer the same risk, but the one at point A
offers a higher return for the same risk. No rational investor will hold portfolio at point B and
therefore we can ignore it. In this case, A dominates B. In the same way, C dominates D.
7. Optimal portfolio.

The efficient frontier only considers the investments in risky assets. However, investors may
choose to invest in a risk free asset, which is assumed to have an expected return commensurate
with an asset that has no standard deviation (i.e. zero variance) around the expected return. That
is, a risk-free asset's expected return is entirely certain, and is known as the risk-free rate of
return (RFR). Therefore, a risk-free asset lies on the vertical axis of a portfolio graph.

When a risk-free asset is combined with a risky portfolio, a graph of possible portfolio risks-
return combinations becomes a straight line between the two assets.

Assume the proportion of the portfolio the investor places in the tangency portfolio P is wP:

 The expected rate of return for the new portfolio is the weighted average of the two
returns: E(R) = (1 - wP) Rf + wP E(RT)
 The standard deviation of the new portfolio is the linear proportion of the standard
deviation of the risky asset portfolio P: σportfolio = wP σP

The introduction of a risk-free asset changes the efficient frontier into a straight line. This
straight efficient frontier line is called the Capital Market Line (CML) for all investors, and
Capital Allocation Line (CAL) for one investor.

 Investors at point rf have 100% of their funds invested in the risk-free asset.
 Investors at point P have 100% of their funds invested in portfolio P.
 Between rf and P investors hold both the risk-free asset and portfolio P. This means
investors are lending some of their funds (buying the risk-free asset).
 To the right of P, investors hold more than 100% of portfolio P. This means they are
borrowing funds to buy more of portfolio P. This represents a levered position.

Investors will choose the highest CAL, i.e. the CAL tangent to the efficient frontier. This
portfolio is the solution to the optimization problem of maximizing the slope of the CAL.

Now, the line rf-P dominates all portfolios on the original efficient frontier. Thus, this straight
line becomes the new efficient frontier.

Separation Theorem

Investors make different financing decisions based on their risk preferences. The separation of
the investment decision from the financing decision is called the separation theorem. Now the
portfolio choice problem can be broken down into two tasks:

 Choosing P, a technical matter (can be done by the broker)

 Deciding on the proportion to be invested in P and in the riskless asset.

Optimal Investor Portfolio

We can combine the efficient frontier and/or capital allocation line with indifference curves. The
optimal portfolio is the portfolio that gives the investor the greatest possible utility.

 Two investors will select the same portfolio from the efficient set only if their utility
curves are identical.
 Utility curves to the right represent less risk-averse investors; utility curves to the left
represent more risk-averse investors.

The optimal portfolio for each investor is the highest indifference curve that is tangent to the
efficient frontier.

The optimal portfolio for each investor is the highest indifference curve that is tangent to the
capital allocation line.
1. Capital market theory.

Introduction of a Risk-Free Asset

Adding a risk-free asset to the investment opportunities present on the efficient frontier
effectively adds the opportunity to both borrow and lend. A U.S. Treasury bill (T-bill) is a
common risk-free security proxy. Buying a T-bill loans the U.S. government money. Selling
short a T-bill effectively borrows money. The concept of a risk-free asset is a major element in
developing Capital Market Theory (CMT). Adding risk-free assets integrates investment and
financing decisions. A risk-free asset has:

 Expected return is entirely certain.

 Standard deviation of return is zero.
 Covariance with any risky asset or portfolio is always zero, as is the correlation.

The Capital Market Line

Introducing risk-free assets creates a set of expected return-risk possibilities that did not exist
previously. The new risk/return trade-off is a straight line tangent to the efficient frontier at the
market portfolio (point M) with a vertical intercept at the risk-free rate of return, Rf. This line is
called the Capital Market Line (CML).

 The capital allocation line (CAL) is the graph of all possible combinations of the risk-free
asset and the risky asset for one investor.
 The capital market line is the line formed when the risky asset is a market portfolio rather
than a single risky asset or portfolio. The market portfolio is a mutual fund or exchange-
traded fund based on a market index, for instance.

The introduction of the risk-free asset significantly changes the Markowitz efficient set of
portfolios. Investors are better off because they have improved investment opportunities. This
new line leads all investors to invest in the same risky portfolio, the market portfolio. That is, all
investors make the same investment decision. They can, however, attain their desirable risk
preferences by adjusting the weight of the market portfolio in their portfolios.
  A strongly risk-averse investor will lend some fund at the risk-free rate and invest the
remainder in the market portfolio.
 A less risk-averse investor will borrow some fund at the risk-free rate and invest all the
fund in the market portfolio.

The Market Portfolio

The market portfolio of risky securities, M, is the highest point of tangency between the line
emanating from Rf, and the efficient frontier and is the singular optimal risky portfolio. In
equilibrium, all risky assets must be in portfolio M because all investors are assumed to arrive at,
and hold, the same risky portfolio.

All assets are included in portfolio M in proportion to their market value. For example, if the
market of Google was 2 percent of the market value of all risky assets, Google would constitute
2 percent of the market value of portfolio M. Therefore, 2 percent of the market value of each
investor?s portfolio of risky assets would be Google. Think of portfolio M as a broad market
index such as the S&P 500 Index. The market portfolio is, of course, a risky portfolio, and its
risk is designated σM.

Portfolio M in a Global Context. In theory, the market portfolio (M) should include all risky
assets worldwide, both financial and real, in their proper proportions. It has been estimated that
the value of non-U.S. assets exceeds 60 percent of the world total. Further, U.S. equities make up
only about 10 percent of total world assets. Therefore, international diversification is important.

Portfolio M and Diversification. Because the market portfolio includes all risky assets,
portfolio M is by definition completely diversified. The market portfolio is the optimal portfolio
of risky assets for investors to own, and therefore will form part of the CML. A portfolio that is
completely diversified has a correlation with the market of 1.0.

Differential Borrowing and Lending Rates. Most investors can lend unlimited amounts at the
risk-free rate by buying government securities, but they must pay a premium relative to the prime
rate when borrowing money. The effect of this differential is that there will be two different lines
going to the Markowitz efficient frontier.
  The segment RFR-F indicates the investment opportunities available when an investor
combines risk-free assets (lending at RFR) and portfolio F on the Markowitz efficient
frontier. However, it is NOT possible to extend this line any further if it is assumed that
you cannot borrow at this risk-free rate to acquire further units of Portfolio F.
 If you can borrow at Rb, you can use the proceeds to invest in portfolio K to extend the
CML along the line segment K-G.
 Therefore, the CML is made up of RFR-F-K-G. This implies that you can either lend or
borrow, but the borrowing portfolio is not as profitable as when it was assumed that you
could borrow at RFR. Your net return is less as the slope of the borrowing line (K-G) is
below that for RFR-F.

2. Pricing of risk and computation of expected return.

Systematic Risk and Unsystematic Risk

Total risk is measured as the standard deviation of security returns. It has two components:

1. The systematic risk is the risk that is inherent in the market that cannot be diversified
away. The systematic risk of an asset is the relevant risk for constructing portfolios.
Examples of systematic risk or market risk include macroeconomic factors that affect
everything (such as the growth in U.S. GNP, inflation, etc.).Note that different securities
may respond differently to market changes, and thus may have different systematic risks.
For example, automobile manufacturers are much more sensitive to market changes that
discount retailers (e.g. Wal-Mart). As a result, automobile manufacturers have higher
systematic risk.
2. Unique, diversifiable or unsystematic risk (or nonsystematic risk) is the risk that can be
diversified away. This risk is offset by the unique variability of the other assets in the
portfolio. An investor should not expect to receive additional return for assuming
unsystematic risk.

Systematic risk is priced, and investors are compensated for holding assets or portfolios based
only on that investment's systematic risk. Investors do not receive any return for accepting
unsystematic risk.

Return-Generating Models

A return-generating model tries to estimate the expected return of a security based on certain
parameters. Both the market model and CAPM are single factor models. The common, single
factor is the return on the market portfolio. Multifactor models describe the return on an asset in
terms of the risk of the asset with respect to a set of factors. Such models generally include
systematic factors, which explain the average returns of a large number of risky assets. Such
factors represent priced risk, risk which investors require an additional return for bearing.

According to the type of factors used there are three categories of multifactor models:

1. In macroeconomic factor models, the factors are surprises in macroeconomic variables

that significantly explain equity returns. Surprise is defined as actual minus forecast value
and has an expected value of zero. The factors, such as GDP, interest rates, inflation, can
be understood as affecting either the expected future cash flows of companies or the
interest rate used to discount these cash flows back to the present.
2. In fundamental factor models, the factors are attributes of stocks or companies that are
important in explaining cross-sectional differences in stock prices. Among the
fundamental factors are book-value-to-price ratio, market cap, P/E ratio, financial
leverage, and earnings growth rate.
3. In statistical factor models, statistical methods are applied to a set of historical returns to
determine portfolios that explain historical returns in one of two senses. In factor analysis
models, the factors are the portfolios that best explain (reproduce) historical return
covariances. In principal-components models, the factors are portfolios that best explain
(reproduce) the historical return variances. Here is a two-factor macroeconomic model.

Ri = ai + bi1 FGDP + bi2 FINT + εi

where

 Ri = the return for asset i.

 ai = expected return for asset i in absence of any surprises.
 bi1 = GDP surprise sensitivity of asset i. This is a slope coefficient which is interpreted as
the GDP factor sensitivity of the asset i.
 FGDP = surprise in the GDP growth. This is the GDP factor surprise, the difference
between the expected value and the actual value of the GDP.
 bi2 = Interest rates surprise sensitivity of asset i. This is the interest rates factor sensitivity
of the asset i.
 FINT = surprise in interest rates. This is the interest rates factor surprise.
 εi = firm-specific surprises (the portion of the return to asset i not explained by the factor
model).

The model says stock returns are explained by surprises in GDP growth and interest rates. The
regression analysis is usually used to estimate assets' sensitivities to the factors.

Calculation and Interpretation of Beta

Beta (β) is the standardized measure of systematic risk.

Since all investors want to hold the market portfolio, a security's covariance with the market
portfolio (Covi,M) is the appropriate risk measure. Covi,M is an absolute measure of the security's
systematic risk. Its magnitude is affected by the variability of both the security and the market
portfolio (Recall that Covi,j = pi,j x σi,j x σi,j). To standardize the measure of systematic risk, divide
Covi,M by the covariance of the market portfolio with itself (CovM,M). Therefore, the standardized
measure of systematic risk (beta) is defined as β = Covi,M / CovM,M = Covi,M / σM2 = ρi,M σi/σM.

 The market portfolio has a β of 1.

 If β > 1, the security is more volatile than the market.
 If β < 1, the security is less volatile than the market.

3. The capital asset pricing model.

Assumptions of the CAPM

The assumptions of the CAPM include:

 All investors are Markowitz efficient investors who want to target points on the efficient
frontier where their utility maps are tangent to the line. The exact location on the efficient
frontier and, therefore, the specific portfolio selected, will depend on the individual
investor's risk-return utility function.
 There are no taxes or transaction costs involved in buying or selling assets.
 All investors have the same one-period time horizon (e.g., one year).
 All investors have homogeneous expectations: that is, they estimate identical probability
distributions for future rates of return.
 Investors can borrow and lend any amount of money at the risk-free rate of return.
 All investments are infinitely divisible, which means that it is possible to buy or sell
fractional shares of any asset or portfolio.
 All investors are price takers. Their trades cannot affect security prices.

The CAPM

Capital market theory builds on portfolio theory. CAPM refers to the capital asset pricing
model. It is used to determine the required rate of return for any risky asset.

In the discussion about the Markowitz efficient frontier, the assumptions are:

 Investors have examined the set of risky assets and identified the efficient frontier.
  Every investor will choose the optimal portfolio of risky assets on the efficient frontier.
The optimal portfolio lies at the point where the highest indifference curve is tangent to
the efficient frontier.

The CAPM uses the SML or security market line to compare the relationship between risk and
return. Unlike the CML, which uses standard deviation as a risk measure on the X axis, the SML
uses the market Beta, or the relationship between a security and the marketplace.

The use of beta enables an investor to compare the relationship between a single security and the
market return, rather than a single security with each and every security (as Markowitz did).
Consequently, the risk added to a market portfolio (or a fully diversified set of securities) should
be reflected in the security's beta. The expected return for a security in a fully diversified
portfolio should be:

E(Rstock) = Rf + (E(RM) - Rf) x Betastock

E(RM) - Rf is the market risk premium, while the risk premium of the security is calculated
by β(E(RM) - Rf).

Note that the "expected" and the "required" returns mean the same thing. The expected return
based on the CAPM is exactly the return an investor requires on the security.

 To compute the required rate of return: E(Rstock) = Rf + (E(RM) - Rf) x Betastock.

 To compute the expected rate of return of an individual security, you need to use
forecasted future security price and dividend: R = (Future price - current price +
dividend) / Current price.

The SML represents the required rate of return, given the systematic risk provided by the
security. However, if the expected rate of return exceeds this amount, then the security provides
an investment opportunity for the investor. The difference between the expected and required
return is called the alpha (α) or excess rate of return. The alpha can be positive when the stock
is undervalued (it lies above the SML), or negative when the stock is overvalued (it falls below
the SML). The alpha becomes zero when the stock falls directly on the SML (properly valued).
Security Market Line vs. Capital Market Line:

 The CML examines the expected returns on efficient portfolios and their total risk
(measured by standard deviation). The SML examines the expected returns on individual
assets and their systematic risk (measured by beta). If the expected return-beta
relationship is valid for any individual securities, it must also be valid for portfolios
constructed with any of these securities. So, the SML is valid for both efficient portfolios
and individual assets.
 The CML is the graph of the efficient frontier, and the SML is the graph of the CAPM.
 The slope of the CML is the market portfolio's Sharpe ratio, and the slope of the SML is
the market risk premium.
 All properly priced securities and efficient portfolios lie on the SML. However, only
efficient portfolios lie on the CML.

Portfolio Beta. The β of a portfolio is the weighted sum of the individual asset betas. For
example, if 40% of the money is in stock A with a β of 2.0, and 60% of the money is in stock B
with a β of 0.8, the portfolio β is 0.4 x 2.0 + 0.6 x 0.8 = 1.28.

4. Applications of the CAPM.

Estimate of Expected Return. Just apply the CAPM formula to calculate the expected return of
an asset or project.

Portfolio Performance Evaluation. Four ratios are commonly used for this purpose.

1. Sharpe Ratio.

It is a measure of the excess return per unit of risk. It defined as the portfolio's risk
premium divided by its risk: (Rp - Rf)/σp. The ratio is easy to use. The two limitations are:

o It uses standard deviation, not beta, as a measure of volatility.

o The ratio itself is not very informative.

2. Treynor Ratio.

It measures the excess return on an investment which has no diversifiable risk.

Systematic risk is used instead of total risk: (Rp - Rf)/βp. Again, the ratio itself is not very
informative, and it cannot be applied to assets with negative βs. It is a ranking criterion
which is easy to use.

3. M-Squared (M2).
 It is a performance measurement using return per unit of total risk as measured by the
standard deviation. The investment portfolio's standard deviation is adjusted to reflect the
standard deviation of the market benchmark portfolio. The return premiums of the
adjusted investment portfolio and the market index portfolio are then compared.

4. Jensen's Alpha.

It is the abnormal return over the theoretical expected return. The theoretical expected
return is calculated using CAPM (and beta). α p = Rp - [Rf + β(Rm - Rf)]. Since the CAPM
return is supposed to be risk adjusted, Jensen's α is also risk-adjusted. Investors are
constantly seeking investments that have positive α or "abnormal returns".

If an investor holds a portfolio that is not fully diversified, total risk matters. Sharpe ratio and M-
square are appropriate performance measures in such cases. On the other hand, if the portfolio is
well-diversified, Treynor ratio and Jensen?s alpha are relevant, as only the systematic risk of the
portfolio matters.

Security Characteristic Line. A security characteristic line (SCL) graphs the relationship
between the excess market return and excess security return. If we compare the SML and the
SCL:

While there is only one SML, there are many different SCLs for securities with different betas.

Security Selection.Overvalued and undervalued securities are those securities that do not lie on
the SML line. By definition, securities that are efficiently priced should fall directly on the
(calculated) SML line. If a security is above the line it is deemed undervalued since it is
providing more expected return than what is demanded for that risk level. Securities falling
below the SML line are, on the other hand, providing less return than the market demands.
Securities that fall below the SML are considered overvalued. In the former case, the security
price will be bid up, such that the expected return declines and the security falls back to the SML
line. In the situation where the security is overvalued, the security price declines until the
expected return rises.
All assets and all portfolios should plot on the SML.

 Stock C has an estimated rate of return equal to its systematic risk or required rate of
return.
 Stocks B is expected to provide rate of return above the required rate of return.
 Stocks A is expected to provide rate of return below the required rate of return.
 Investor should buy B (undervalued).
 Investor should sell A (overvalued).

Constructing a Portfolio.

As the number of securities increases, the portfolio manager can eliminate unsystematic risk (or
diversifiable risk) and focus on the systematic or undiversifiable risk. As you can see, much of
the unsystematic risk can be diversified away in as few as 30 securities.

To construct a market portfolio you can start with a portfolio of securities like the S&P 500. You
can then evaluate the α of any security, using the CAPM and the S&P 500 as the market
portfolio. If the α is positive, add it to the portfolio. If a security's α is negative and it is already
included in the portfolio, remove it. You can also use the information ratio of each individual
security to determine the relative weight of the security in the portfolio.